MATHEMATICS

Mathematics
Free distribution by Samagra Shiksha, Government of Andhra Pradesh

22
7

Semester ( ™d$TdŸ¼sY) - 1
Semester ( ™d$TdŸ¼sY) - 1

State Council of Educational Research and Training

Andhra Pradesh
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 MATHEMATICS
Class IX (Semester - 1)
Text Book Development Committee
Sri. Praveen Prakash I.A.S
Principal Secretary to Government
Department of School Education, AP, Amaravati.
Sri. S. Suresh Kumar IAS
Commissioner of School Education & State Project Director,
Samagra Shiksha AP, Amaravati.
Ms. Nidhi Meena IAS
Special Officer, English Medium Project, O/o CSE, AP, Amaravati.
Dr. B. Pratap Reddy MA., B.Ed., Ph.D.
Director, SCERT, AP, Amaravati.
Sri. K. Ravindranath Reddy MA., B.Ed.
Director, Government Textbook Press, AP, Amaravati.

Programme Co-ordinators
Dr. G. Kesava Reddy, MSc, MSc, MEd, MPhil, PhD
Prof. C&T, SCERT, AP

Subject Co-ordinators
Sri. K. Satish Babu Sri. S. Satish
Professor, SCERT, AP Leturer in Mathematics, SCERT, AP

Technical Co-ordinator

Dr. Ch.V.S. Ramesh Kumar

Faculty, SCERT, AP

State Council of Educational Research & Training

Andhra Pradesh
Published by Samagra Shiksha, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati.

i
 © Government of Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati

First Published - 2023

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means
without the prior permission in writing of the
publisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any
form of binding or cover other than that in
which it is published and without a similar
condition including this condition being
imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
The copy right holder of this book is the
Commissioner of School Education,
Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh.

This book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. SS Maplitho

Title Page 200 G.S.M. White Art Card

Free distribution by Samagra Shiksha, Government of Andhra Pradesh

Printed in India
at the A.P. Govt. Textbook Press
Amaravati
Andhra Pradesh

ii
 Translators

Sri G. Bhaskar Reddy, SA (Maths), Sri A. Appanna, Lecturer (D),

ZPHS, Venkatagiri, Tirupati Govt. DIET, Srikakulam

Sri P. Ravi Sankar, SA (Maths), Smt. Y. Jaya Bharati, SA (Maths),

ZPHS, Komaragiri, Kakinada ZPHS (G), Giddalur, Prakasam

Sri. Sd. Shahinsha, SA (Maths), MPLHS, Dr. Ch. Ramesh, SA (Maths),

Ch.R. Palem, Bhimavaram, West Godavari MPUPS, Vallabharaopalem, Guntur

Sri K. Madhusudhan, TGT (Maths), Sri. H. Aruna siva Prasad, SA (Maths),

APMS, Bandi Atmakur, Nandyal ZPHS, Mangalapalli, Chittoor

Smt. M. Sandhya Rani, SA (Maths), Smt. P. Vijaya Kumari, TGT (Maths),

KGBV, Gurla, Vizianagaram APMS, Dechavaram, Guntur

Sri. N. Prasad Babu, SA (Maths),

ZPHS, Agiripalli, Eluru

Editors for Translation

Dr. D.S.N. Sastry, Rtd. Principal, Sri. Kesiraju Srinivas

AJ College of Education, Machilipatnam Professor, SCERT, A.P

Dr. P. Satyanarayana Sarma, Rtd. Lecturer, Sri. M. Somasekhara Brahmanandam

Montessori College of Education,Vijayawada Faculty, SCERT, A.P

Sri. S. Mahesh, PGT, Sri. A.S.V. Prabhakar

JNV, Visakhapatnam (CBSE) Faculty, SCERT, A.P

Designing & Page Layout : Stock Assortment, Bapatla.

iii
 FOREWORD

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005, recommends that children’s life at school
must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the
legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the
school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify
an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the
maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures
will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education
outlined in the national Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will take
to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities and
questions. We must recognize that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new
knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed
textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and
sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and
treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
This aims imply considerable change is school routines and mode of functioning. Flexibility
in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the
required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching
and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s
life at school a happy experience, rather then a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers
have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge
at different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for
teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space
to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities
requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates the hard
work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this book. We wish to
thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in science and mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar
and the Chief Advisor for this book, Professor P. Sinclair of IGNOU, New Delhi for guiding the
work of this committee. Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we

iv
are grateful to their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and
organizations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee,
appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource
Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P.
Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed to systemic
reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments
and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training

v
 Foreword
The Government of Andhra Pradesh has unleashed a new era in school education by
introducing extensive curricular reforms from the academic year 2020-21. The Government has
taken up curricular reforms intending to enhance the learning outcomes of the children with focus
on building solid foundational learning and to build up an environment conducive for an effective
teaching-learning process. To achieve this objective, special care has been taken in designing the
textbooks to achieve global standards. As part of this the Government of Andhra Pradesh has
decided to introduce NCERT Textbooks from class VI onwards.
As a part of the curricularm reform, an effort was made to ensure quality transaction of
textbooks, bilingual method was used. The mathematical concepts in the text book are developed
based on themes like Number System, Arithmetic, Algebra, Mensuration, Geometry and Statistics.
In this text book, concepts are introduced through activities related to daily life situations and
conversations. To strengthen these concepts, individual activities, group activities and whole class
activities are designed. The textbook attempted to enhance this endeavor through incorporating QR
codes in each chapter to enable efficient learning outside the class room.
We are grateful to our Honourable Chief Minister, Sri Y.S. Jagan Mohan Reddy, Andhra
Pradesh for being our source of inspiration to carry out this extensive reform in the Education
Department. We extend our gratitude to our Honourable Minister of Education, Sri Botcha
Satyanarayana, Honourable Minister of Education for striving towards qualitative education. Our
special thanks to Sri. Praveen Prakash, IAS, Principal Secretary, School Education, Sri. S. Suresh
Kumar, IAS, Commissioner, School Education and State Project Director, Samagra Shiksha
Ms. Nidhi Meena, IAS, Special Officer, English Medium Project for their constant motivation and
guidance.
We convey our sincere thanks to the text book writers, who studied curriculum and best
practices across the globe to reach global standards. Our heartful thanks to Director NCERT in
designing the text book and for issuing copyrights to print the textbooks by the State Government.
We also thank our Coordinators, Editors, Subject Coordinators, Technical team members, Artists,
DTP and Layout designers for their contribution in the development of this text book. We invite
constructive feedback from the teachers, parents and Educationalists for the further refinement of
the text book.
Dr. B. Pratap Reddy
Director
SCERT – Andhra Pradesh

vi
 RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS

In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on students. The
National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the content load and providing
opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset. In this background, the NCERT
has undertaken the exercise to rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes
already developed by the NCERT across classes have been taken into consideration in this
exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much interventions from teachers
and can be learned by children through self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context

This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the changes given above.

vii
 TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Chairman, Advisory Committee, Inter University
Centre for Astronomy & Astrophysics (IUCAA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISOR
P. Sinclair, Director, NCERT and Professor of Mathematics , IGNOU,
New Delhi
CHIEF COORDINATOR
Hukum Singh, Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT
MEMBERS
A.K. Wazalwar, Professor and Head, DESM, NCERT
Anjali Lal, PGT, DAV Public School, Sector-14, Gurgaon
Anju Nirula, PGT, DAV Public School, Pushpanjali Enclave, Pitampura, Delhi
G.P. Dikshit, Professor (Retd.), Department of Mathematics & Astronomy, Lucknow
University, Lucknow
K.A.S.S.V. Kameswara Rao, Associate Professor, Regional Institute of Education,
Bhubaneswar
Mahendra R. Gajare, TGT, Atul Vidyalaya, Atul, Dist. Valsad
Mahendra Shanker, Lecturer (S.G.) (Retd.), NCERT
Rama Balaji, TGT, K.V., MEG & Centre, ST. John’s Road, Bangalore
Sanjay Mudgal, Lecturer, CIET, NCERT
Shashidhar Jagadeeshan, Teacher and Member, Governing Council, Centre for Learning,
Bangalore
S. Venkataraman, Lecturer, School of Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
Uaday Singh, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT
Ved Dudeja, Vice-Principal (Retd.), Govt. Girls Sec. School, Sainik Vihar, Delhi
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Ram Avtar, Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT (till December 2005)
R.P. Maurya, Professor, DESM, NCERT (Since January 2006)
viii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions of the following participants
of the Textbook Review Workshop: A.K. Saxena, Professor (Retd.), Lucknow University,
Lucknow; Sunil Bajaj, HOD, SCERT, Gurgaon; K.L. Arya, Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT;
Vandita Kalra, Lecturer, Sarvodaya Kanya Vidyalya, Vikas Puri, District Centre, New Delhi;
Jagdish Singh, PGT, Sainik School, Kapurthala; P.K. Bagga, TGT, S.B.V. Subhash Nagar, New
Delhi; R.C. Mahana, TGT, Kendriya Vidyalya, Sambalpur; D.R. Khandave, TGT, JNV, Dudhnoi,
Goalpara; S.S. Chattopadhyay, Assistant Master, Bidhan Nagar Government High School,
Kolkata; V.A. Sujatha, TGT, K.V. Vasco No. 1, Goa; Akila Sahadevan, TGT, K.V., Meenambakkam,
Chennai; S.C. Rauto, TGT, Central School for Tibetans, Mussoorie; Sunil P. Xavier, TGT, JNV,
Neriyamangalam, Ernakulam; Amit Bajaj, TGT, CRPF Public School, Rohini, Delhi; R.K. Pande,
TGT, D.M. School, RIE, Bhopal; V. Madhavi, TGT, Sanskriti School, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi;
G. Sri Hari Babu, TGT, JNV, Sirpur Kagaznagar, Adilabad; and R.K. Mishra, TGT, A.E.C. School,
Narora.
Special thanks are due to M. Chandra, Professor and Head (Retd.), DESM, NCERT for her
support during the development of this book.
The council acknowledges the valuable inputs for analysing syllabi, textbooks and the
content, proposed to be rationalised for this edition by Gupreet Bhatnagar, CBSE Resource
Person; Rahul Sofat, CBSE Resource Person; Ashutosh K. Wazalwar, Professor, DESM, NCERT
and T.P. Sarma, Professor, DESM, NCERT.
The Council acknowledges the efforts of Computer Incharge, Deepak Kapoor; D.T.P.
Operator, Naresh Kumar; Copy Editor, Pragati Bhardwaj; and Proof Reader, Yogita Sharma.
Contribution of APC–Office, administration of DESM, Publication Department and
Secretariat of NCERT is also duly acknowledged.

ix
 NATIONAL ANTHEM
Jana gana mana adhinayaka jaya he
Bharata bhagya vidhata
Panjaba Sindhu Gujarata Maratha
Dravida Utkala Banga
Vindhya Himachala Yamuna Ganga
uchchala jaladhi taranga
Tava Subha name jage, tave subha
asisa mage,
gahe tava jaya gatha.
Jana gana mangala dayaka jaya he
Bharata bhagya vidhata.
Jaya he, Jaya he, Jaya he,
jaya jaya jaya jaya he.
-Rabindranath
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ÈjáTV²! ÈjáTV²! ÈjáTV²!
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Tagore ` sÁM+ç<HŠ <¸Ž sĐ>·ÖsY

PLEDGE ç|ŸÜÈã
India is my country. All Indians are my brothers and sisters.
I love my country and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.
I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect,
and treat everyone with courtesy. I shall be kind to animals.
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion.
In their well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.
- Pydimarri Venkata Subba Rao
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dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 1

MATHEMATICS
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Class / Ôás>
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Semester (™d$TdŸs
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CONTENTS / $wŸjáT dŸÖº¿£

Chapter 1 Number System

n<ó‘«jáT+ 1 dŸ+U²«eÖq+ 2 - 49
Chapter 2 Polynomials
n<ó‘«jáT+ 2 ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \T 50 - 85
Chapter 3 Co-ordinate Geometry
n<ó‘«jáT+ 3 “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ C²«$TÜ 86 - 109
Chapter 4 Linear Equations in two variables
n<ó‘«jáT+ 4 Âs+&ƒT #ásÁsXø—\ýË ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sD
Á ²\T 110 - 119
Chapter 5 Introduction to Euclid’s Geometry
n<ó‘«jáT+ 5 jáTÖ¿ì¢&Ž C²«$TÜ |Ÿ]#ájáT+ 120 - 137
Chapter 6 Lines and Angles
n<ó‘«jáT+ 6 ¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 138 - 165
Appendix.1 Proofs in Mathematics
nqT‹+<óŠ+`1 >·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 166 - 205
Answers
Èy‹T\T 206 - 238

Teacher Corner Student Corner

2 NUMBER SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 1

NUMBER SYSTEMS

1.1 Introduction

In your earlier classes, you have learnt about the number line and how to represent various types
of numbers on it (see Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1 : The number line

Just imagine you start from zero and go on walking along this number line in the positive
direction. As far as your eyes can see, there are numbers, numbers and numbers!

Fig. 1.2

Now suppose you start walking along the number line, and collecting some of the numbers.
Get a bag ready to store them!
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 3

n<ó‘«jáT+ 1
dŸ+U²«eÖq+

1.1 |Ÿ]#ájáT+

MT ç¿ì+<Š ÔásÁ>·ÔTá \ýË, MTsÁT dŸ+U²«¹sK >·T]+º eT]jáTT <‘“™|Õ $$<óŠ sÁ¿±\ dŸ+K«\qT mý² dŸÖº+#ýË HûsÁTÌÅ£”H•sÁT
(|Ÿ³+ 1.1 #áÖ&ƒ+&).

|Ÿ³+.1.1 : dŸ+U²«¹sK
MTsÁT dŸTH• qT+& çbÍsÁ+_ó+º, kÍqTÅ£L\ ~XøýË ‡ dŸ+U²«¹sK yî+³q&ƒe&ƒ+ ¿=qkÍÐ+#á+&. MT ¿£qT#áÖ|ŸÚ
yûTsÁýË dŸ+K«\T (nq+ÔáyîT®q dŸ+K«\T) –H•sTT!

|Ÿ³+.1.2

‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT MTsÁT dŸ+U²«¹sK yî+‹& q&ƒe&ƒ+ eT]jáTT ¿=“• dŸ+K«\qT d¿£]+#á&ƒ+ çbÍsÁ+_ó+#sÁ“ nqTÅ£”+<‘+.
y{ì“ d¿£]+#á{²“¿ì ÿ¿£ dŸ+º“ d¾<+Ɗ #ûdTŸ ¿Ã+&!
4 NUMBER SYSTEMS

You might begin with picking up only natural numbers like 1, 2,

3, and so on. You know that this list goes on for ever. (Why is this
58 1 N
true?) So, now your bag contains infinitely many natural numbers! 16
0 5
71 31 652
10 9 4 2
Recall that we denote this collection by the symbol N. 601 7 40
4

Now turn and walk all the way back, pick up zero and put it into
the bag. You now have the collection of whole numbers which is
denoted by the symbol W.
0
16 3 W
57 40 2
4
9
601582

Now, stretching in front of you are many, many negative integers. Put all the negative integers
into your bag. What is your new collection? Recall that it is the collection of all integers, and
it is denoted by the symbol Z.
0
-4
-7

Z comes from the

-66-21
57

Why Z ?
-3 German word
16 71 58 “zahlen”, which means
0 53
31 2 Z 0 “to count”.
42 2 166 3
6017 40 -75 2 -40
4
22 1 9

1 3
Are there some numbers still left on the line? Of course! There are numbers like , , or
-2005 2 4
even . If you put all such numbers also into the bag, it will now be the collection of
2006
rational numbers.

17
–
981
20 06

–1
05
20

2
13
9
5 19 6 Q
3 7 14 –6 –6620 –
1 7 27 197 9
20 006

16 2
58

58

4
05

2
2

1 –1 -65 999 1
3 999 3
3 81 1 –67
89 0 5 21 60
4 662 16 1 –1 12
27 – –5 4 9
–860
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 5

MTsÁT 1,2,3 e+{ì dŸV²Ÿ È dŸ+K«\qT eÖçÔáyTû m+#áT¿Ãe&ƒ+Ôà çbÍsÁ+_ó+#áe#áTÌ.

‡ C²_Ԑ m|ŸÎ{ì¿¡ ¿=qkÍ>·TÔáT+<Š“ MTsÁT >·eT“+#á>\· sÁT. (‚~ m+<ŠTÅ£” “È+?)
58 1 N
¿±‹{ì¼, ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT MT dŸ+ºýË nq+ÔáyîT®q dŸVŸ²È dŸ+K«\T –H•sTT. eTq+ ‡ 16
0
71 31 652
5
10 9 4 2
d¿£sÁDqT N >·TsÁTïÔà dŸÖºkÍï+ n“ >·TsÁTïÅ£” Ôî#Tá Ì¿Ã+&. 601 7 40
4

‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT yîqT¿£Å”£ Ü]Ð q&ƒe+& eT]jáTT »0µ (dŸTH•) “ m+#áT¿=“ dŸ+ºýË

–+#á+&. MTsÁT ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT W >·TsÁTïÔà dŸÖº+#á‹&û |ŸPs’+¿±\ d¿£sÁDqT ¿£*Ð
–H•sÁT.
0
16 3 W
57440 2
9
601582

‚|ŸÚ&ƒT MT eTT+<ŠT #ý² #ý² ‹TTD |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+U«\T –+&ƒ³+ >·eT“kÍïsTÁ . n“• ‹TTD |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\qT MT dŸ+ºýË
–+#á+&. MT ‡ ¿=Ôáï d¿£sDÁ qT @eT+{²sà MTÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT ¿£<‘? MTsÁT >·TsÁTÅï ”£ Ôî#áTÌ¿=q•³¢sTTÔû ‚$ n“• ‹TTD |ŸPsÁ’
dŸ+K«\ d¿£sDÁ n“ eT]jáTT M{ì“ Z >·TsÁTÔï à dŸÖºkÍïeT“ MTÅ£” ne>·Ôeá TeÚÔáT+~.
0
-4
-7

-66-21
57

Z m+<ŠTÅ£”? Z nqTq~ ÈsÁˆHŽ

-3 |Ÿ<ŠeTsTTq zahlen qT+&
16 71 58
0 53 eºÌq~. zahlen nq>±
31 2 Z0
42 2 166 3 ýÉ¿ìØ+#áT³.
6017 40 -75 2 -40
4 22 1 9

1, 3 ,
dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ ‚+¿± ¿=“• dŸ+K«\T $TÐ* –H•jáÖ? nsTTÔû m³Te+{ì dŸ+K«\T $TÐ* –H•sTT? 2 4
ýñ¿£
-2005
2006
Å£L&†. MTsÁT ‡ dŸ+K«\qT Å£L&† dŸ+ºýË –+ºq³¢sTTÔû, ‡ ¿=Ôáï dŸ+K«\ d¿£sÁDqT n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T
n+{²sÁT.
17
–
981
20 006

–12
05
2

13
9 5 19 Q
3 7 14 –6 –6620 –6
7
1 7 7
2 19 9
20 006

16 2
58
58

12 -65 99 14
05
2

99 1 – 9
3 9 3
3 81 1 –672 60
89 0 1
4 6625 16 1 –1 12
7
2 – –5 9
4
–860
6 NUMBER SYSTEMS

The collection of rational numbers is denoted by Q. ‘Rational’ comes from the word ‘ratio’,
and Q comes from the word ‘quotient’.

You may recall the definition of rational numbers:

A number ‘r’ is called a rational number, if it can be written in the form p , where p and q
q
are integers and q ¹ 0. (Why do we insist that q ¹ 0?)

Notice that all the numbers now in the bag can be written in the form p , where p and q are
q
-25
integers and q ¹ 0. For example, –25 can be written as ; here p = –25 and q = 1. Therefore,
1
the rational numbers also include the natural numbers, whole numbers and integers.

You also know that the rational numbers do not have a unique representation in the form p ,
q
1 2 10 25 47
where p and q are integers and q ¹ 0. For example, = = = = , and so on. These
2 4 20 50 94
are equivalent rational numbers (or fractions). However, when we say that p is a rational
q
p
number, or when we represent on the number line, we assume that q ¹ 0 and that p and q have
q
no common factors other than 1 (that is, p and q are co-prime). So, on the number line, among
1 1
the infinitely many fractions equivalent to , we will choose to represent all of them.
2 2
Now, let us solve some examples about the different types of numbers, which you have
studied in earlier classes.

Example 1 : Are the following statements true or false? Give reasons for your answers.

(i) Every whole number is a natural number.

(ii) Every integer is a rational number.
(iii) Every rational number is an integer.
Solution : (i) False, because zero is a whole number but not a natural number.
m
(ii) True, because every integer m can be expressed in the form , and so it is a rational number..
1
3
(iii) False, because is not an integer.
5
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 7

M{ì“ Q nHû >·TsÁTÔï à dŸÖºkÍïsTÁ . »n¿£sD

Á j
¡ Tá µ nHû |Ÿ<+Š »“wŸÎÜïµ nHû |Ÿ<+Š qT+& eºÌ+~. eT]jáTT Q nHû~
»uó²>·|\Ÿ˜ +µ nHû |Ÿ<+Š qT+& eºÌ+~.
MTsÁT n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ “sÁÇ#áH“• >·TsÁTïÅ£” Ôî#áTÌ¿Ãe#áTÌ.
p
‘r’ nHû~ ÿ¿£ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« nqeýÉqq• ‘r’ qT q
, sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáT>·\eýÉqT. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ p eT]jáTT q \T |ŸPsÁ’
dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT q ¹ 0. (q ¹ 0 m+<ŠTe\q?)
p
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT >·eT“+ºq³¢sTTÔû, dŸ+ºýË –q• n“• dŸ+K«\qT q
, sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáT>·\+. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ p eT]jáTT q \T

-25
|ŸPsÁÀdŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT q ¹ 0. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” – 25 qT 1
; >± sjáTe#áTÌqT. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ p = - 25 eT]jáTT q= 1 ¿±‹{ì¼
dŸVŸ²È dŸ+K«\T, |ŸPs’+¿±\T eT]jáTT |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\T nú• Å£L&† n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ýË #ûsÁÌe#áTÌqT. n¿£sÁD¡jáT
p
dŸ+K«\qT sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË p, q |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT q¹0 njûT«$<ó+Š >± ÿ¿£{ì ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe $<ó‘\T>± eTq+
q

1 2 10 25 47
sjáT>·\eT“ MTÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, 2
= =
4 20
= =
50 94
, yîTT<Š\>·Tq$. ‚$ dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖq n¿£sD
Á j
¡ Tá
dŸ+K«\T (dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖq _óH•\T). qp qT n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá dŸ+K« n“ #î|γ|ŸÚð&ƒT ýñ<‘ qp qT dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ >·T]ï+ºq|ŸÚ&ƒT
eTq+ q ¹ 0 n“ p, q \Å£” 1 Ôá|Ο eT] @ ‚ÔásÁ –eTˆ& ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T ýñe“ nqT¿=qeýÉqT (nq>± p eT]jáTT q \T
1 1
|ŸsÁdŸÎsÁ ç|Ÿ<ó‘q dŸ+K«\T) ¿±‹{ì¼ dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ 2
Å£” dŸeÖqyîTq® nq+ÔáyTî ®q _óH•\qT >·T]ï+#áT³Å£” eTqeTT 2
qT
m+#áT¿=+{²+.
‚|ŸÚð&ƒT eTq+ ç¿ì+~ ÔásÁ>·ÔáT\ýË HûsÁTÌÅ£”q• $$<óŠ sÁ¿±\ dŸ+K«\Å£” dŸ+‹+~ó+ºq ¿=“• dŸeTdŸ«\qT ç¿ì+~
–<‘VŸ²sÁD\ <‘Çs kÍ~ó<‘Ý+.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 1 : ç¿ì+~ ç|Ÿe#áH\T dŸÔ«á eÖ ýñ¿£ ndŸÔ«á eÖ? MT dŸeÖ<ó‘H\Å£” ¿±sÁD²\qT Ôî*jáT#ûjTá +&.
(i) ç|ŸÜ |ŸPs’+¿£+ ÿ¿£ dŸVŸ²È dŸ+U« neÚÔáT+~.
(ii) ç|ŸÜ |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K« ÿ¿£ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« neÚÔáT+~.
(iii) ç|ŸÜ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« ÿ¿£ |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K« neÚÔáT+~.
kÍ<óŠq : (i) ndŸÔá«+, m+<ŠTe\q nq>± dŸTH• nHû~ |ŸPs’+¿£+ ¿±“ dŸVŸ²È dŸ+K« ¿±<ŠT.
m
(ii) dŸÔ«á +, m+<ŠTe\q nq>± m nqT ç|ŸÜ |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«qT >± sjáTe#áTÌ. ¿±‹{ì¼ ‚~ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«.
1
3
(iii) ndŸÔ«á +, m+<ŠTe\q nq>± nHû~ |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K« ¿±<ŠT.
5
8 NUMBER SYSTEMS

Example 2 : Find five rational numbers between 1 and 2.

We can approach this problem in at least two ways.
Solution 1 : Recall that to find a rational number between r and s, you can add r and s and divide
r+s 3
the sum by 2, that is lies between r and s. So, is a number between 1 and 2. You can
2 2
proceed in this manner to find four more rational numbers between 1 and 2. These four numbers
5 11 13 7
are , , and .
4 8 8 4
Solution 2 : The other option is to find all the five rational numbers in one step. Since we want
6
five numbers, we write 1 and 2 as rational numbers with denominator 5 + 1, i.e., 1 = and 2 =
12 7 8 9 10 11 6
. Then you can check that , , , and are all rational numbers between 1 and 2. So,
6 7 4 3 65 6 11
6 6 6
the five numbers are , , , and .
6 3 2 3 6
Remark : Notice that in Example 2, you were asked to find five rational numbers between 1
and 2. But, you must have realised that in fact there are infinitely many rational numbers between
1 and 2. In general, there are infinitely many rational numbers between any two given
rational numbers.

Let us take a look at the number line again. Have you picked up all the numbers? Not, yet.
The fact is that there are infinitely many more numbers left on the number line! There are gaps
in between the places of the numbers you picked up, and not just one or two but infinitely many.
The amazing thing is that there are infinitely many numbers lying between any two of these gaps
too!

So we are left with the following questions:

1. What are the numbers, that are left on the number line, called?

2. How do we recognise them? That is, how do we distinguish them

from the rationals (rational numbers)?

These questions will be answered in the next section.

dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 9

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 2 : 1 eT]jáTT 2 \ eT<óŠ« 5 n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\qT ¿£qT>=q+&.

eTq+ ‡ dŸeTdŸ«qT ¿£údŸ+ Âs+&ƒT $<ó‘\T>± kÍ~ó+#áe#áTÌ.
kÍ<óŠq 1: r eT]jáTT s \ eT<óŠ« –+&ƒT n¿£sÁDj
¡ áT dŸ+K«qT ¿£qT>=qT³Å£” eTq+ r eT]jáTT s \ yîTTԐ 2 ÔÃ
r+s 3
uó²Ð+#áeýÉqT, nq>± 2 nqTq~ r eT]jáTT s \ eT<ó«Š –+³T+~. ¿±‹{ì¼ 2 nHû dŸ+K« 1 eT]jáTT 2 \ eT<óŠ«
–+³T+~. MTsÁT ‡ |Ÿ<Æ܊ qqTdŸ]+º 1 eT]jáTT 2 \ eT<ó«Š eTsà H\T>·T n¿£sÁDj
¡ áT dŸ+K«\qT ¿£qT¿ÃØe#áTÌ. n$
5 , 11 , 13 7 7
4 8 8
eT]já4 TT 4 .
kÍ<óŠq 2 : ÿ¹¿ <ŠXøýË yîTTÔáï+ ×<ŠT n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\qT ¿£qT>=q³+ eTs=¿£ |Ÿ<ŠÆÜ. ‡ |Ÿ<ŠÆÜýË eTq+ 1 eT]jáTT
6 12
2 \qT n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË 5G1R6 VŸäsÁ+ >± >·\ dŸ+K«\T>± skÍï+. nq>± 1 R 6
eT]jáTT 2 R 6
7 8 9 10 11
‚|ŸÚð&ƒT MTsÁT >·eT“+ºq³¢sTTÔû , , ,
6 6 6 6
eT]jáTT 6
nHû$ 1 eT]jáTT 2 \ eT<óŠ« >·\ n“• n¿£sÁD¡jáT
7 4, 3 5 11 11
dŸ+K«\T. ¿±‹{ì¼ , , . eT]jáTT \T 1 eT]jáTT 2 \ eT<óŠ« >·\ ×<ŠT n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T.
6 3 2 3 6 6

>·eT“¿£: –<‘VŸ²sÁD 2 ýË, MTsÁT 1 eT]jáTT 2 eT<ó«Š ×<ŠT n¿£sD Á j

¡ Tá dŸ+K«\qT ¿£qT¿ÃØeT“ n&>±sÁ“ >·eT“+#á+&.
¿±ú, ydŸïy“¿ì 1 eT]jáTT 2 eT<óŠ« nq+ÔáyîT®q n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\TH•jáT“ MTsÁT ç>·V¾²+º –+&†*. kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>±
@yîÕH Âs+&ƒT dŸ+K«\ eT<óŠ« nq+ÔáyîT®q n¿£sDÁ ¡jTá dŸ+K«\T –+{²sTT.
dŸ+U²« ¹sKqT eTs=kÍ] |Ÿ]o*<‘Ý+. MTsÁT n“• dŸ+K«\qT rdŸTÅ£”H•s? ýñ<ŠT, ‚+¿± ydŸïe+ @$T³+fñ, dŸ+U²«
¹sK™|Õ ‚+¿± #ý² dŸ+K«\T $TÐ* –H•sTT! MTsÁT m+#áTÅ£”q• dŸ+K«\ k͜H\ eT<ó«Š U²°\T –H•sTT eT]jáTT ÿ¿£{ì
ýñ<‘ Âs+&ƒT eÖçÔáyTû ¿±<ŠT, nq+Ôá+>± #ý² –H•sTT. €XøÌsÁ«¿£sÁyîT®q $wŸjTá + @$T³+fñ, ‡ s +&ƒT U²°\ eT<ó«Š Å£L&†
nq+ÔáyîTq® nHû¿£ dŸ+K«\T –H•sTT.
eTq e<ŠÝ ‚+¿± ¿=“• ç¿ì+<Š ‚eNj&q ç|ŸXø•\T $TÐ* –H•sTT:
1. dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ $TÐ* –q• dŸ+K«\qT @eT“ |¾\TkÍïsÁT?

2. eTq+ y{ì“ mý² >·T]ïkÍï+? n+fñ, eTq+ y{ì“ n¿£sÁD¡jáÖ\ qT+&

(n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T) mý² yûsÁT #ûjáÖ*?
‡ ç|ŸXø•\Å£” Ôá<ŠT|Ÿ] $uó²>·+ýË dŸeÖ<ó‘H\T ‚eNj&ƒÔsTT.
10 NUMBER SYSTEMS

EXERCISE 1.1
1. Is zero a rational number? Can you write it in the form p , where p and q are integers and
q
q ¹ 0?
2. Find six rational numbers between 3 and 4.
3 4
3. Find five rational numbers between 5
and 5 .
4. State whether the following statements are true or false. Give reasons for your answers.
(i) Every natural number is a whole number.
(ii) Every integer is a whole number.
(iii) Every rational number is a whole number.

1.2 Irrational Numbers

We saw, in the previous section, that there may be numbers on the number line that are not
rationals. In this section, we are going to investigate these numbers. So far, all the numbers you
have come across, are of the form p , where p and q are integers and q ¹ 0. So, you may ask: are
q
there numbers which are not of this form? There are indeed such numbers.

The Pythagoreans in Greece, followers of the famous mathematician

and philosopher Pythagoras, were the first to discover the numbers
which were not rationals, around 400 BC. These numbers are called
irrational numbers (irrationals), because they cannot be written
in the form of a ratio of integers. There are many myths surrounding
the discovery of irrational numbers by the Pythagorean, Hippacus
of Croton. In all the myths, Hippacus has an unfortunate end, either Pythagoras
for discovering that 2 is irrational or for disclosing the secret (569 BCE – 479 BCE)
Fig. 1.3
about 2 to people outside the secret Pythagorean sect!

Let us formally define these numbers.

A number ‘s’ is called irrational, if it cannot be written in the form p , where p and q are
q
integers and q ¹ 0.
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 11

nuó²«dŸ+ 1.1
p
1. dŸTH• nqTq~ ÿ¿£ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« neÚÔáT+<‘? p eT]jáTT q \T |ŸPsÁ’d+Ÿ K«\T, q ¹ 0 nsTTq|Ÿð&ƒT q
sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáT>·\s?
2. 3 eT]jáTT 4 \ eT<ó«Š €sÁT n¿£sD
Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K«\qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
3
3. 5
eT]jáTT 45 \ eT<óŠ« ×<ŠT n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\qT Å£qT>=q+&..
4. ç¿ì+~ ç|Ÿe#áH\T dŸÔ«á eÖ ýñ¿£ ndŸÔ«á eÖ? MT dŸeÖ<ó‘H\Å£” ¿±sÁD²\qT
Ôî*jáT#ûjTá +&.
(i) ç|ŸÜ dŸVŸ²È dŸ+K« |ŸPs’+¿£+
(ii) ç|ŸÜ |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K« ÿ¿£ |ŸPs’+¿£+.
(iii) ç|ŸÜ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« ÿ¿£ |ŸPs’+¿£+.
1.2 ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T :
eTT+<ŠT $uó²>·+ýË dŸ+U²« ¹sK™|Õ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T ¿±“ dŸ+K«\T –+&ƒe#á̓ eTq+ #áÖXæ+. ‡ $uó²>·+ýË eTq+
‡ dŸ+K«\ >·T]+º |Ÿ]XË~ó+#áuËÔáTH•+. ‚|ŸÎ{ìesÁŔ£ nú• MTsÁT #áÖd¾q dŸ+K«\T qp sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË –H•sTT. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ p
eT]jáTT q\T |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT q ¹ 0. ¿±‹{ì¼ MTsÁT n&ƒ>e· #áTÌ, ‡ sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË ýñ“ dŸ+K«\TH•jáÖ? ydŸyï “¿ì
ný²+{ì dŸ+U«\T –H•sTT.
ç^dtý˓ ™|˜Õ<¸‘>·]jáTqT¢ ç|Ÿd¾<ŠÆ >·DìÔá XædŸïEã&ƒT eT]jáTT ÔáÔáÇyûÔáï. ™|Õ<¸‘>·sÁdt jîTT¿£Ø
nqT#ásTÁ \T. 400 _.d¾.ýË, n¿£sDÁ j ¡ Tá + ¿±“ dŸ+K«\qT yîTT<Š{kì Í] ¿£qT>=H•sÁT. ‡
dŸ+K«\qT ¿£sDÁ j ¡ Tá dŸ+K«\T (¿£sDÁ j
¡ Öá \T) n“ |¾\TkÍïsTÁ . m+<ŠT¿£+fñ n$ |ŸPsÁd’ +Ÿ K«\
“wŸÎÜï sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáT‹&ƒeÚ. ™|Õ<¸‘>·]jáTHŽ, ç¿Ã³HŽÅ£” #î+~q V¾²|ŸÎ¿£dt #ûÔá ¿£sÁD¡jáT
dŸ+K«\ €$wŸØsÁD #áT³Ö¼ nHû¿£ ¿£*ÎÔá >±<¸Š\T –H•sTT. m+<ŠT¿£+fñ 2 ¿£sÁD¡jáT
dŸ+K« n“ ¿£qT>=q&ƒ+ e\¢>±“, ýñ<‘ 2 >·T]+º sÁV²Ÿ kÍ«“• ™|<Õ ‘¸ >·]jáTHŽ XæK
™|<Õ ‘¸ >·sdÁ t
yî\T|Ÿ* e«Å£”ï\Å£” yî\¢&+#á&ƒ+ e\¢>±“, n“• ¿£*ÎÔá >±<¸Š\ýË, V¾²|ŸÎ¿£dt eTTÐ+|ŸÚ (ç¿¡.|ŸP 569 – ç¿¡.|ŸP 479)
ÿ¿£ <ŠTsÁ<Š wŸ¿¼ s£ Á >±<¸.Š |Ÿ³+.1.3

‡ dŸ+K«\qT n~ó¿±]¿£+>± “sÁǺ<‘Æ+.

‘s’ nqT dŸ+K«qT p sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË çyjáTýñ“#à <‘““ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« n“ |¾\TkÍï+. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ p eT]jáTT q \T |ŸPsÁ’
q
dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT q ¹ 0.
12 NUMBER SYSTEMS

You already know that there are infinitely many rationals. It turns out that there are infinitely
many irrational numbers too. Some examples are:

2, 3, 15,, p, 0.10110111011110...
Remark : Recall that when we use the symbol , we assume that it is the positive square
root of the number. So 4 = 2, though both 2 and –2 are square roots of 4.
Some of the irrational numbers listed above are familiar to you. For example, you have
already come across many of the square roots listed above and the number p.
The Pythagoreans proved that 2 is irrational. Later in approximately 425 BC, Theodorus
of Cyrene showed that 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 17 are also irrationals.
Proofs of irrationality of 2 , 3 , 5 , etc., shall be discussed in Class X. As to p, it was known
to various cultures for thousands of years, it was proved to be irrational by Lambert and Legendre
only in the late 1700s. In the next section, we will discuss why 0.10110111011110... and p are
irrational.
17 9 R
Let us return to the questions raised at the end of the previous 981
3 1471

20 006
05
2
12
section. Remember the bag of rational numbers. If we now put all 16 -65 – 13 362 0 999

58
–6 6 8 9 3 0
irrational numbers into the bag, will there be any number left on 19 26 27 4 –6625
-45 –6 8 60 –5
the number line? The answer is no! It turns out that the collection 7–

of all rational numbers and irrational numbers together make up

what we call the collection of real numbers,
which is denoted by R. Therefore, a real number is either rational or irrational. So, we can say
that every real number is represented by a unique point on the number line. Also, every
point on the number line represents a unique real number. This is why we call the number
line, the real number line.

In the 1870s two German mathematicians, Cantor and

Dedekind, showed that : Corresponding to every real
number, there is a point on the real number line, and
corresponding to every point on the number line, there
exists a unique real number.
R. Dedekind (1831-1916)
G. Cantor (1845-1918)
Fig. 1.4
Fig. 1.5
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 13

nq+ÔáyTî ®q n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T –H•jáT“ MTÅ£” ‚|ŸÎ{칿 Ôî\TdŸT. n<û$<óŠeTT>± nq+ÔáyîT®q ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T
Å£L&† –H•jáT“ Ôî\TdŸT+ï ~. ¿=“• –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T:
2, 3, 15,, p, 0.10110111011110...
dŸÖ#áq: eTq+ >·TsÁTï #ûdTŸ ¿=q•³¢sTTÔû , >·TsÁTqï T –|ŸjîÖÐ+ºq dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+ýË n~ dŸ+K« jîTT¿£Ø <óŠq esÁZ eTÖ\+ n“
uó²$kÍï+. 4 = 2 >± sd¾q|ŸÎ{ì¿¡ 2 eT]jáTT `2 \T 4 jîTT¿£Ø esÁeZ TÖý²\T.
™|qÕ ‚eNj&q ¿=“• ¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K«\T MTÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” ™|qÕ |s=ؓq #ý² esÁeZ TÖý²\T eT]jáTT
p nqT dŸ+K« >·T]+º MTÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT.

2 ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« n“ ™|Õ<¸‘>±sÁH\

Ž T “sÁÖ|¾+#sÁT. ÔásÁTyÔá dŸTeÖsÁT ç¿¡.|ŸP. 425 \ýË ™d]Õ HŽÅ”£ #î+~q
~¸jÖî &ÃsÁdt 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 eT]jáTT 17 nqTq$ Å£L&† ¿£sÁDj ¡ áT dŸ+K«\T>±
#áÖ|¾+#sÁT. 2 , 3 , 5 yîTT<Š\>·T y{ì “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 10e Ôás>Á Ü· ýË #á]Ì+#á‹&ƒÔsTT. p $wŸjá֓¿=d,ï ‚~ nHû¿£
dŸ+dŸØÔáT\ y]¿ì yûý²~ dŸ+eÔáàs\T>± Ôî\TdŸT, ‚~ 1700\ ºesÁýË ý²+uÉsY¼ eT]jáTT ýÉCÉ+ç&û #ûÔá »¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«µ
n“ “sÁÖ|¾+#á‹&+~. Ôá<ŠT|Ÿ] $uó²>·+ýË, 0.10110111011110... eT]jáTT p ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T m+<ŠT¿Ã #á]ÌkÍï+.
eTT+<ŠT $uó²>·+ ºesÁýË ýñeHîÜïq ç|ŸXø•\Å£” Ü]Ð yîÞ²Ý+. n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\
dŸ+º“ >·TsÁTÅï ”£ Ôî#Tá Ì¿Ã+&. eTq+ ‚|ŸÚð&ƒT n“• n¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K«\qT dŸ+ºýË 17 9 R
981
3 1471
–+ºq³¢sTTÔû, dŸ+U²«¹sK™|Õ @<îÕH dŸ+K« $TÐ* –+³T+<‘? Èy‹T>±, »ýñ<ŠTµ n“ 1 –12 36 0
20 006
05
2

58
6 -6 13 2 9
dŸeÖ<ó‘q+ #î‹TԐ+. n“• n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\, eT]jáTT ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ d¿£sÁDqT 19 5–2666 89 43 0662959
27 –
¿£*|¾ eTq+ ydŸeï dŸ+K«\ d¿£sD Á n“ |¾\TkÍï+. B““ R nHû n¿£ŒsÁ+ Ôà dŸÖºkÍï+. -45 –6 7 –8 60 –5
¿±‹{ì¼, ydŸïe dŸ+K« ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT ýñ<‘ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« neÚÔáT+~. ¿±‹{ì¼ ç|ŸÜ
ydŸïe dŸ+K«qT dŸ+U²« ¹sK™|Õ ÿ¿£ ç|ŸÔû«¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ Ôà >·T]ï+#áe#á̓ eTq+ #î|ŸÎ>·\+. ný²¹>, dŸ+U²« ¹sK™|Õ –q• ç|ŸÜ
_+<ŠTeÚ ç|ŸÔ«û ¿£ ydŸeï dŸ+K«qT dŸÖºdŸT+ï ~. n+<ŠT¹¿ eTq+ dŸ+U²«¹sKqT ydŸïe dŸ+U²« s¹ K n“ |¾\TkÍï+.

1870 ýýË ‚<ŠÝsÁT ÈsÁˆHŽ >·DìÔá XædŸïyûÔáï\T ¿±+³sY eT]jáTT &î&Â¿Õ+&Ž

‚ý² #îbÍÎsÁT: »» ç|ŸÜ ydŸeï dŸ+K«Å£” nqT>·TD+>±, ydŸeï dŸ+K« s¹ K™|Õ
ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ –+³T+~ eT]jáTT dŸ+U²«¹sKý˓ ç|ŸÜ _+<ŠTeÚÅ£”
nqT>·TD+>±, ÿ¿£ ç|ŸÔû«¿£ ydŸïe dŸ+K« –+³T+~µµ

€sY. &î&Â¿Õ+&Ž (1831-1916)

›. ¿±+³sY (1845-1918)
|Ÿ³+ 1.4
|Ÿ³+ 1.5
14 NUMBER SYSTEMS

Let us see how we can locate some of the irrational numbers on the number line.
Example 3 : Locate 2 on the number line.
Solution : It is easy to see how the Greeks might have discovered 2 . Consider
a square OABC, with each side 1 unit in length (see Fig. 1.6). Then you can see by
the Pythagoras theorem that OB = 12 + 12 = 2 . How do we represent 2 on Fig. 1.6
the number line? This is easy. Transfer Fig. 1.6 onto the number line making sure
that the vertex O coincides with zero (see Fig. 1.7).

Fig. 1.7
We have just seen that OB = 2 . Using a compass with centre O and radius OB, draw an arc
intersecting the number line at the point P. Then P corresponds to 2 on the number line.

Example 4 : Locate 3 on the number line.

Solution : Let us return to Fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.8
Construct BD of unit length perpendicular to OB (as in Fig. 1.8). Then using the Pythagoras

( 2)
2
theorem, we see that OD = + 12 = 3 Using a compass, with centre O and radius OD,

draw an arc which intersects the number line at the point Q. Then Q corresponds to 3 .
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 15

dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ ¿=“• ¿£sD

Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K«\qT mý² >·T]ï+#áe#áTÌHà ‚|Ÿð&ƒT #áÖ<‘Ý+.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 3 : 2 qT dŸ+U²« ¹sK ™|Õ dŸÖº+#á+&.
kÍ<óŠq : ç^Å£”\T 2 qT mý² ¿£qT>=H•sà #áÖ&ƒ³+ dŸT\uó„+.
ÿ¿£ jáT֓{Ù uó„TÈ+>± >·\ #áÔTá sÁçdŸ+ OABC“ (|Ÿ³+ 1.6 #áÖ&ƒ+&) rdŸT¿Ã+&. ™|<Õ ‘¸ >·sdÁ t d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ“•
nqTdŸ]+º OB = 1 + 1 = 2 ¿±“ 2 qT dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ mý² #áÖ|Ÿ>\· +? ‚~ #ý² dŸT\uó+„ .
2 2 |Ÿ³+. 1.6

|Ÿ³+ 1.6 ý˓ osÁü+ »0µ dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ O Ôà @¿¡uó„$+ºq³T¢ –+#á+& (|Ÿ³+ 1.7 #áÖ&ƒ+&).

|Ÿ³+ 1.7
OB = 2 n“
eTqÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. ÿ¿£ eÔáýï Ïñ ““ –|ŸjÖî Ð+º O ¹¿+ç<Š+>± OB, y«kÍsÁœ+ýË dŸ+K«qT P _+<ŠTeÚ e<ŠÝ
K+&+ºq³T¢ ÿ¿£ #b͓• ^jáT+&. ‚|Ÿð&ƒT P _+<ŠTeÚ dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ 2 qT dŸÖºdŸT+ï ~.

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 4 : 3 qT dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ dŸÖº+#á+&.

kÍ<óŠq : |Ÿ³+ 1.7 qT ÿ¿£kÍ] >·TsÁTïÅ£” Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&.

|Ÿ³+ 1.8

|Ÿ³eTT 1.8ýË 1 jáT֓{Ù bõ&ƒeÚ >·\ BD “ OB ¿ì \+‹+>± –+&û$<óŠ+>± ^jáT+&. ‚|ŸÚð&ƒT ™|Õ<¸‘>·sÁdt d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+
( 2)
2
ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ OD = + 12 = 3 ÿ¿£ eÔáïýÏñ “ –|ŸjîÖÐ+º O ¿¹ +ç<Š+>± OD y«kÍsÁ+œ ýË dŸ+U²«¹sKqT Q _+<ŠTeÚ
e<ŠÝ K+&+#áTq³T¢ ÿ¿£ #b͓• ^jáT+&. ‚|ŸÚð&ƒT Q _+<ŠTeÚ dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ 3 qT dŸÖºdŸT+ï ~.
16 NUMBER SYSTEMS

In the same way, you can locate n for any positive integer n, after n - 1 has been located.

EXERCISE 1.2
1. State whether the following statements are true or false. Justify your answers.
(i) Every irrational number is a real number.
(ii) Every point on the number line is of the form m , where m is a natural number..
(iii) Every real number is an irrational number.
2. Are the square roots of all positive integers irrational? If not, give an example of the
square root of a number that is a rational number.
3. Show how 5 can be represented on the number line.
4. Classroom activity (Constructing the ‘square root
spiral’) : Take a large sheet of paper and construct the ‘square
root spiral’ in the following fashion. Start with a point O and
draw a line segment OP1 of unit length. Draw a line segment
P1P2 perpendicular to OP1 of unit length (see Fig. 1.9). Now
draw a line segment P2P3 perpendicular to OP2. Then draw a Fig. 1.9 : Constructing
square root spiral
line segment P3P4 perpendicular to OP3. Continuing in this
manner, you can get the line segment Pn–1Pn by
drawing a line segment of unit length perpendicular to OPn–1. In this manner, you will
have created the points P2, P3,...., Pn,... ., and joined them to create a beautiful spiral
depicting 2, 3, 4, ...

1.3 Real Numbers and their Decimal Expansions

In this section, we are going to study rational and irrational numbers from a different point of
view. We will look at the decimal expansions of real numbers and see if we can use the expansions
to distinguish between rationals and irrationals. We will also explain how to visualise the
representation of real numbers on the number line using their decimal expansions. Since rationals
10 7 1
are more familiar to us, let us start with them. Let us take three examples : 3 , 8 , 7 .
Pay special attention to the remainders and see if you can find any pattern.
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 17

‚<û$<óeŠ TT>± @<îHÕ  <óqŠ |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K« nÅ£”, n - 1 qT dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ dŸÖº+ºq ÔásÇÔá, n qT dŸÖº+#áe#áTÌ.

nuó²«dŸ+ 1.2
1. ç¿ì+~ ç|Ÿe#áH\T dŸÔ«á eÖ? ndŸÔ«á eÖ? MT dŸeÖ<ó‘H“• dŸeT]œ+#á+&.
(i) ç|ŸÜ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« ÿ¿£ ydŸïe dŸ+K«.

(ii) dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ ç|ŸÜ _+<ŠTeÚ m , sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË –+³T+~. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ m nqTq~ ÿ¿£
dŸVŸ²È dŸ+U«.
(iii) ç|ŸÜ ydŸe ï dŸ+U²« ÿ¿£ ¿£sD Á j¡ Tá dŸ+K«.
2. ç|ŸÜ |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+U« jîTT¿£Ø <óŠHÔሿ£ esÁZ eTÖ\eTT ¿£sÁD¡jáTeÖ? ¿±q³¢sTTÔû ÿ¿£ |ŸPsÁ’
dŸ+U« jîTT¿£Ø esÁZeTÖ\eTT n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+U« njûT« –<‘VŸ²sÁD ‚eÇ+&.
3. 5 qT dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ mý² >·T]ïkÍïsà #áÖ|Ÿ+&.
4. Ôás>Á Ü· ¿£Ôá«+: (»»esÁeZ TÖ\ dŸ]Î\+µµ qT “]ˆ+#áT³ ):
ÿ¿£ ™|<ŠÝ ™dE
Õ ¿±ÐԐ“• rdŸT¿=“ ç¿ì+<Š dŸÖº+ºq kþyH\qT nqTdŸ]+º
esÁeZ TÖ\ dŸ]Î\+qT “]ˆ+#á+&. O _+<ŠTeÚ qT+& çbÍsÁ+_ó+º 1 jáT֓{Ù bõ&ƒeÚ >·\
¹sU²K+&ƒ+ OP “ ^jáT+&. OP Å£” \+‹+>± 1 jáT֓{Ù bõ&ƒeÚýË s¹ U²K+&ƒ+ ^jáT+&.
1 1

P P (|Ÿ³+ 1.9 “ #áÖ&ƒ+&) ‚|ŸÚð&ƒT OP Å£” \+‹+>± s

1, 2 2
¹ U²K+&ƒ+ P P qT ^jáT+&.
2 3
|Ÿ³+ 1.9 : esÁe
Z TÖ\ dŸ]Î\+
n<û$<ó+Š >± OP ¿ì \+‹+>± s¹ U²K+&ƒ+ P P qT ^jáT+&. ‡$<óeŠ TT>± ¿=qkÍÐ+ºq ÿ¿£ “]ˆ+#áT³
3 3, 4

jáT֓{Ù ¿=\ÔáÔà OP Å£” \+‹+>± ^ºq|ŸÚ&ƒT eTqÅ£” P P ¹sU² K+&ƒ+ e#áTÌqT.

n–1 n–1 n

‡$<ó+Š >± eTq+ P P .... P ...., _+<ŠTeÚ\qT “]ˆ+º y{ì“ ¿£*|¾q|Ÿð&ƒT n+<ŠeTsTTq
2, 3 n

dŸ]Î\+ 2, 3, 4, .... \qT dŸÖºdŸT+ï ~.

1.3 ydŸïe dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT y“ jîTT¿£Ø <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁD
‡ $uó²>·+ýË, eTq+ _óq•yîT®q ¿ÃD+ qT+& n¿£sDÁ j¡ Tá eT]jáTT ¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá dŸ+K«\qT n<ó«Š jáTq+ #ûjTá uËÔáTH•+. eTq+
ydŸïe dŸ+K«\ <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁDqT |Ÿ]o*+#á&ƒ+ eT]jáTT n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\qT, ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\qT yûsÁT #ûjáT{²“¿ì
‡ ydŸeï dŸ+K«\ <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸsï DÁ –|ŸjÖî Ð+#áe#áTÌHà ýñ<à #áÖ<‘Ý+. ydŸeï dŸ+K«\ <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸsï D Á qT –|ŸjÖî Ð+º
dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ ydŸeï dŸ+K«\qT mý² >·T]ï+#ýË <ŠXø« sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË $e]kÍï+. n¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K«\T >·T]+º eTqÅ£” u²>±
10 7 1
Ôî\TdŸT ¿±‹{ì¼ y{ìÔà çbÍsÁ+_ó<‘Ý+. eTÖ&ƒT –<‘VŸ²sÁD\qT rdŸTÅ£”+<‘+. , , .
3 8 7
@<îHÕ  ç¿£e֓• >·eT“+#s!
18 NUMBER SYSTEMS

10 7 1
Example 5 : Find the decimal expansions of ,
3 8
and 7 .
Solution :
3.333... 0.875 0.142857...
3 10 8 7.0 7 1.0
9 64 7
10 60 30
9 56 28
10 40 20
9 40 14
10 0 60
9 56
1 40
35
50
49
1

Remainders : 1, 1, 1, 1, 1...Remainders : 6, 4, 0 Remainders : 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1,

Divisor : 3 Divisor : 8 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1,...
Divisor : 7
What have you noticed? You should have noticed at least three things:
(i) The remainders either become 0 after a certain stage, or start repeating themselves.
10
(ii) The number of entries in the repeating string of remainders is less than the divisor (in
1 3
one number repeats itself and the divisor is 3, in there are six entries 326451 in the
7
repeating string of remainders and 7 is the divisor).
(iii) If the remainders repeat, then we get a repeating block of digits in the quotient
10 1
(for , 3 repeats in the quotient and for , we get the repeating block 142857 in the
3 7
quotient).
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 19

10 7
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 5 : ,
3 8
eT]jáTT 17 \ <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁDqT ¿£qT>=q+&.
kÍ<óŠq :
3.333... 0.875 0.142857...
3 10 8 7.0 7 1.0
9 64 7
10 60 30
9 56 28
10 40 20
9 40 14
10 0 60
9 56
1 40
35
50
49
1
XâwŸeTT\T : 1, 1, 1, 1, 1... XâwŸeTT\T : 6, 4, 0 XâwŸeTT\T : 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1,
$uó²È¿£+ : 3 $uó²È¿£+ : 8 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1,...
$uó²È¿£+ : 7

MTsÁT @+ >·eT“+#sÁT? MTsÁT ¿£údŸ+ eTÖ&ƒT $wŸjÖá \qT >·eT“+º –+&†*.

(i) ÿ¿£ “]ÝwŸ¼ <ŠXø ÔásÁTyÔá XâwŸ+ »0µ >± eÖsÁTԐsTT ýñ<‘ n$ |ŸÚqseÔáeTT neÚԐsTT.

(ii) XâwŸeTT\ |ŸÚqseÔá esÁTdŸýË –q• dŸ+K«\T $uó²È¿£eTT ¿£+fñ ÔáÅ£”Øe>± –+{²sTT.
10 1
(
3
ýË ÿ¿£ dŸ+K« |ŸÚqseÔá eTeÚÔáT+~ eT]jáTT $uó²È¿£+ 7 nsTTq 7
ýË XâcÍ\ |ŸÚqseÔá esÁTdŸýË €sÁT
n+¿\T –H•sTT n$ 326451 ).
10
(iii) XâwŸeTT\T |ŸÚqseÔáyîTq ® ³¢sTTÔû uó²>±|˜Ÿ\+ýË n+¿\T |ŸÚqseÔáeTeÚԐsTT. ( 3 jîTT¿£Ø uó²>·|˜Ÿ\+ýË
1
3 |ŸÚqseÔáeTeÚÔáT+~. 7 jîTT¿£Ø uó²>·|\˜Ÿ +ýË 1,4,2,8,5,7\T |ŸÚqseÔá+ neÚÔáTH•sTT)
20 NUMBER SYSTEMS

Although we have noticed this pattern using only the examples above, it is true for all rationals
of the form p (q ¹ 0). On division of p by q, two main things happen – either the remainder
q
becomes zero or never becomes zero and we get a repeating string of remainders. Let us look
at each case separately.

Case (i) : The remainder becomes zero

7
In the example of , we found that the remainder becomes zero after some steps and the decimal
8
7 1 639
expansion of = 0.875. Other examples are = 0.5, = 2.556. In all these cases, the
8 2 250
decimal expansion terminates or ends after a finite number of steps. We call the decimal
expansion of such numbers terminating.
Case (ii) : The remainder never becomes zero
10 1
In the examples of and , we notice that the remainders repeat after a certain stage forcing
3 7
the decimal expansion to go on for ever. In other words, we have a repeating block of digits in
10
the quotient. We say that this expansion is non-terminating recurring. For example, = 3.3333...
3
1
and = 0.142857142857142857...
7

10
The usual way of showing that 3 repeats in the quotient of is to write it as 3.3 . Similarly,,
3
1 1
since the block of digits 142857 repeats in the quotient of , we write as 0.142857 , where
7 7
the bar above the digits indicates the block of digits that repeats. Also 3.57272... can be written
as 3.572 . So, all these examples give us non-terminating recurring (repeating) decimal
expansions.
Thus, we see that the decimal expansion of rational numbers have only two choices: either they
are terminating or non-terminating recurring.
Now suppose, on the other hand, on your walk on the number line, you come across a number
like 3.142678 whose decimal expansion is terminating or a number like 1.272727... that is,
1.27 , whose decimal expansion is non-terminating recurring, can you conclude that it is a rational
number? The answer is yes!
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 21

p
™|Õ –<‘VŸ²sÁD\qT eÖçÔáyûT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º ‡ qeTÖH\qT eTq+ >·eT“+ºq|ŸÎ{ì¿¡, ‚~ (q ¹ 0) sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË
q

–q• n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T n“•+{ì¿ì “ÈeTeÚÔáT+~ ýñ<‘ e]ïdŸTï+~. p “ q Ôà uó²Ð+ºq|Ÿð&ƒT Âs+&ƒT ç|Ÿ<ó‘q $wŸjáÖ\T
ÈsÁT>·TԐsTT. XâwŸ+ dŸTH• neÚÔáT+~ ýñ<‘ XâwŸ+ dŸTH• ¿±<Š“ bõ+<ŠTԐ+. |ŸÚqseÔá+ njûT« XâcÍ\ esÁTdŸqT eTq+
bõ+<ŠTԐ+. ç|ŸÜ $wŸjá֓• $esÁ+>± #áÖ<‘Æ+.
dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+ (i) : XâweŸ TT dŸTH• neÚÔáT+~
7 7
8
jîTT¿£Ø –<‘VŸ²sÁDýË ¿=“• kþbÍH\ ÔásÇÔá XâwŸeTT dŸTH• neÚÔáT+~ eT]jáTT 8
jîTT¿£Ø <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁD
7 1 639
8
= 0.875. eT]¿=“• –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T 2
= 0.5,
250
= 2.556. ‡ dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\“•+{ìýË <ŠXæ+Ôá $dŸïsÁD |Ÿ]$TÔá
kþbÍH\ ÔásÁTyÔá eTT>·TdŸTï+~. ýñ¿£ n+Ôá+ neÚÔáT+~. eTq+ ‚³Te+{ì <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁDqT n+ÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xæ\T
n“ |¾\TkÍï+.
dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+(ii) : XâweŸ TT m|ŸÎ{ì¿ì dŸTH• ¿±<ŠT
10 1
3
eT]jáTT 7 jîTT¿£Ø –<‘VŸ²sÁD\ýË ÿ¿£ “]Ýw¼<Ÿ ŠXø ÔásÁTyÔá XâcÍ\T m|ŸÎ{ì¿¡ |ŸÚqseÔá+ neÚÔáÖHû <ŠXæ+XøŠ $dŸïsÁD
m|ŸÎ{ì¿ì ¿=qkÍ>·TÔáÖHû –+³T+~. eTsÃ$<óŠ+>± #îbÍÎ\+fñ eTq+ uó²>· |˜Ÿ\+ýË |ŸÚqseÔáeTjûT« n+¿\ dŸeTÖVŸ²+
–+~. ‡ <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁD\qT »»n+Ôá+¿±“ <ŠXæ+Xæ\Tµµ n“ eTqeTT #î‹TԐ+.
10 1
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” 3
= 3.3333... eT]jáTT
7
= 0.142857142857142857...

10 1
kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± 3
jîTT¿£Ø uó²>±|˜ýŸ ²“• 3 |ŸÚqseÔá+ n>·T³qT 3.3 >± skÍï+. n<û$<ó+Š >± 7
jîTT¿£Ø uó²>·|\Ÿ˜ +ýË
1
142857 nqTq$ |ŸÚqseÔáeTjûT« n+¿\ dŸeTÖVŸ²+. B““ dŸÖº+#áT³qT eTq+ 7
qT 0.142857 >± skÍï+.
n+¿\™|Õ >·\ ^Ôá |ŸÚqseÔáeTjûT« n+¿\ dŸeTÖVŸä“• dŸÖºdŸT+ï ~. ný²¹> 3.57272... qT 3.572 >± sjáTe#áTÌqT.
¿±‹{ì¼ ‡ –<‘VŸ²sÁD\ú• Å£L&† eTqÅ£” n+Ôá+ ¿±“ €eÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸsï D Á \T.
‡$<óŠ+>± n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁDýË ¹¿e\+ Âs+&ƒT dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\T eÖçÔáyûT –+{²sTT. n$ n+Ôá+
njûT« <ŠXæ+Xæ\T (ýñ¿)£ n+Ôá+ ¿±“ €eÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xæ\T.
‚|ŸÚð&ƒT eTsÃyî|Õ ÚŸ dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ MTsÁT 3.142678 e+{ì dŸ+K«qT #áÖkÍsÁqT¿Ã+&. B“ <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸsï DÁ eTT>·TdŸT+ï ~.
ýñ<‘ 1.272727... e+{ì dŸ+U« nq>± 1.27 , B“ <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁD n+Ôá+ ¿±“ €eÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xø+ neÚÔáT+~. ‚~
n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« n“ MTsÁT “sÆ]+#á>·\s? dŸeÖ<ó‘q+ neÚÔáT+~.
22 NUMBER SYSTEMS

We will not prove it but illustrate this fact with a few examples. The terminating cases are easy.
Example 6 : Show that 3.142678 is a rational number. In other words, express 3.142678 in the
form p , where p and q are integers and q ¹ 0.
q

3142678 ,
Solution : We have 3.142678 = and hence is a rational number..
1000000
Now, let us consider the case when the decimal expansion is non-terminating recurring.

Example 7 : Show that 0.3333... = 0.3 can be expressed in the form p , where p and q are
q
integers and q ¹ 0.

Solution : Since we do not know what 0.3 is , let us call it ‘x’ and so
x = 0.3333...
Now here is where the trick comes in. Look at
10 x = 10 × (0.333...) = 3.333...
Now, 3.3333... = 3 + x, since x = 0.3333...
Therefore, 10 x = 3 + x
Solving for x, we get
1
9x = 3, i.e., x =
3

Example 8 : Show that 1.272727... = 1.27 can be expressed in the form p , where p and q are
q
integers and q ¹ 0.
Solution : Let x = 1.272727... Since two digits are repeating, we multiply x by 100 to get
100 x = 127.2727...
So, 100 x = 126 + 1.272727... = 126 + x
Therefore, 100 x – x = 126, i.e., 99 x = 126
126 14
i.e., x= =
99 11
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 23

<‘““ eTq+ “sÁÖ|¾+#áýñ+. ¿±ú ‡ ydŸïy“• ¿=“• –<‘VŸ²sÁD\ <‘Çs $e]kÍï+. n+ÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xæ\ dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+
eTqÅ£” dŸT\uó„+.
¡ Tá dŸ+K« n“ #áÖ|Ÿ+&. eTs=¿£ eÖ³\ýË 3.142678 “ qp sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáT+&.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 6 : 3.142678 ÿ¿£ n¿£sDÁ j
‚¿£Ø&ƒ p, q \T |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT q ¹ 0.
3142678 ,
kÍ<óŠq : eTqÅ£” 3.142678 =
1000000
¿±‹{ì¼ ‚~ ÿ¿£ n¿£sD
Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K«.
‚|ŸÚð&ƒT eTq+ n+Ôá+ ¿±“ €eÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁD jîTT¿£Ø dŸ+<ŠsÒۓ• rdŸT¿=+<‘+.
p
–<‘VŸ²sÁD7 : p , q \T |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT q¹0 nsTTÔû 0.3333... = 0.3 qT q
, sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË #áÖ|Ÿ+&.

kÍ<óŠq : eTqÅ£” 0.3 $\Te Ôî*jáT<ŠT ¿±‹{ì¼ <‘““ ‘x’ nqT¿Ã+&. ¿±‹{ì¼
x = 0.3 = 0.3333...
10 x = 10 × (0.333...) = 3.333...
‚|ŸÚð&ƒT, 3.3333... = 3 + x, x = 0.3333... ¿±‹{ì¼

n<û$<óŠ+>± 10 x = 3 + x

1
9x = 3, ¿£qT¿£., x =
3

p
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 8 : p , q \T |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT q ¹ 0 nsTTÔû 1.272727... = 1.27 qT q
sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË
sjáT>·\eT“ “sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.

kÍ<óŠq : x = 1.272727... nqT¿Ã+&. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ Âs+&ƒT n+¿\T |ŸÚqseÔá+ neÚÔáTH•sTT. ¿±‹{ì¼ x qT ™|Õ 100ÔÃ
>·TDì+#á>±, eTqÅ£” 100 x = 127.2727...

¿±‹{ì¼ , 100 x = 126 + 1.272727... = 126 + x

100 x – x = 126, i.e., 99 x = 126

126 14
x= =
99 11
24 NUMBER SYSTEMS

14
You can check the reverse that = 1.27 .
11

Example 9 : Show that 0.2353535... = 0.235 can be expressed in the form p , where p and q
q
are integers and q ¹ 0.

Solution : Let x = 0.235 . Over here, note that 2 does not repeat, but the block 35 repeats. Since
two digits are repeating, we multiply x by 100 to get

100 x = 23.53535...

So, 100 x = 23.3 + 0.23535... = 23.3 + x

Therefore, 99 x = 23.3
233
i.e., 99 x = , which gives x = 233
10 990
233
You can also check the reverse that = 0.235 .
990

So, every number with a non-terminating recurring decimal expansion can be expressed in the
form p (q ¹ 0), where p and q are integers. Let us summarise our results in the following form
q
The decimal expansion of a rational number is either terminating or non-terminating
recurring. Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is terminating or non-terminating
recurring is rational.

So, now we know what the decimal expansion of a rational number can be. What about the
decimal expansion of irrational numbers? Because of the property above, we can conclude that
their decimal expansions are non-terminating non-recurring.
So, the property for irrational numbers, similar to the property stated above for rational numbers,
is

The decimal expansion of an irrational number is non-terminating non-recurring. Moreover,

dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 25

14
‚<û$<óeŠ TT>± eTq+ 11
= 1.27 n“ dŸ] #áÖ&ƒe#áTÌqT.
p
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 9 : p , q \T |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT q ¹ 0 nsTTÔû 0.2353535... = 0.235 qT q
sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË #áÖ|Ÿ+&.
kÍ<óŠq : x = 0.235 nqT¿Ã+&. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ 2 nHû~ €eÔá+ ¿±e³+ ýñ<“Š >·eT“+#á+&. ¿±“ 35 nHû~ €eÔáeTeÚÔáTq•~.
Âs+&ƒT n+¿\T neÔáeTeÚÔáTH•sTT. ¿±‹{ì¼ eTq+ x qT 100#û >·TDì+ºq
100 x = 23.53535...

¿±‹{ì¼ 100 x = 23.3 + 0.23535... = 23.3 + x

n+<ŠTe\q, 99 x = 23.3

233 233
99 x = , x=
10 990

233
eTq+ B““ e«Ü¹s¿£ ~XøýË 990
= 0.235 n“ dŸ] #áÖ&ƒe#áTÌ.
p
B““ ‹{ì¼ ç|ŸÜ n+Ôá+ >±“ €eÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xæ\qT q
sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáT>·\+. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ p, q \T |ŸPsÁ’dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT
q ¹ 0, eTq+ |˜Ÿ*Ԑ\qT ç¿ì+~ sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË dŸ+ç>·VŸ²+>± $e]<‘Ý+.
ç|ŸÜ n¿£sDÁ ¡jáT dŸ+K« <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸsï ÁD ÿ¿£ n+ÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xø+ (ýñ¿£) n+Ôá+ ¿±“ €eÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xø+ neÚÔáT+~.
n<û$<óŠ+>± ÿ¿£ n+ÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xø+ (ýñ¿£) n+Ôá+ ¿±“ €eÔá <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁD n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« neÚÔáT+~.
¿±‹{ì¼ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+U« <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁD >·T]+º eTqÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ <ŠXæ+Xø “jáTeT+ $dŸïsÁD >·T]+º
eTq+ Ôî\TdŸT¿Ãy*. ™|Õ €<ó‘sÁ+>± eTq+ n+Ôá+ ¿±“ eT]jáTT €eÔá+ ¿±“ <ŠXæ+Xæ\qT ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T
neÚԐjáT“ “sÆ]+#áe#áTÌqT.
¿±‹{ì¼ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ “jáTeT+, ™|Õq #î|¾Îq n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ “jáTe֓¿ì dŸeÖq+. ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+U« <ŠXæ+Xø
$dŸïsÁD sÁÖ|Ÿ+ n+Ôá+ ¿±“ €eÔá <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁD. ‚<û$<óŠ+>± n+Ôá+ ¿±“ €eÔá+ ¿±“ <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁD\T n“•
¿£sÁDj
¡ Tá dŸ+K«\T neÚԐsTT.
26 NUMBER SYSTEMS

a number whose decimal expansion is non-terminating non-recurring is irrational.

Recall s = 0.10110111011110... from the previous section. Notice that it is non-terminating
and non-recurring. Therefore, from the property above, it is irrational. Moreover, notice that
you can generate infinitely many irrationals similar to s.
What about the famous irrationals 2 and p? Here are their decimal expansions up to a certain
stage.

2 = 1.4142135623730950488016887242096...
p = 3.14159265358979323846264338327950...
22 22
(Note that, we often take as an approximate value for p, but p ¹ .)
7 7
Over the years, mathematicians have developed various techniques to produce more and more
digits in the decimal expansions of irrational numbers. For example, you might have learnt to
find digits in the decimal expansion of 2 by the division method. Interestingly, in the Sulbasutras
(rules of chord), a mathematical treatise of the Vedic period (800 BC - 500 BC), you find an
approximation of 2 as follows:

1 æ 1 1ö æ 1 1 1ö
2 = 1+ + ç ´ ÷ - ç ´ ´ ÷ = 1.4142156
3 è 4 3 ø è 34 4 3 ø
Notice that it is the same as the one given above for the first five decimal places. The history of
the hunt for digits in the decimal expansion of p is very interesting.

The Greek genius Archimedes was the first to compute digits in

the decimal expansion of p. He showed 3.140845 < p <
3.142857. Aryabhatta (476 – 550 C.E.), the great Indian
mathematician and astronomer, found the value of p correct to
four decimal places (3.1416). Using high speed computers and
advanced algorithms, p has been computed to over 1.24 trillionArchimedes (287 BCE – 212 BCE)
decimal places! Fig. 1.10

Now, let us see how to obtain irrational numbers.

1 2
Example 10 : Find an irrational number between and .
1 7 7 2
Solution : We saw that = 0142857
. . So, you can easily calculate = 0.285714 .
7 1 2 7
To find an irrational number between and , we find a number which is
7 7
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 27

eTTqT|Ÿ{ì $uó²>·+ýË s = 0.10110111011110... qT >·TsÁTï #ûdTŸ ¿Ã+&. ‚~ n+Ôá+ ¿±“ eT]jáTT €eÔá+ ¿±“ <ŠXæ+Xø
$dŸïsÁD ¿±‹{ì¼ ™|Õq #î|¾Îq “jáTeT+ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ ‚~ ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«. n+Ôû¿±Å£”+&†, sÅ£” dŸeÖqyîT®q nq+ÔáyîT®q
¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\qT eTq+ ç|ŸÜbÍ~+#áe#áTÌqT.
eT] ç|Ÿd¾<ŠÆyîT®q 2 eT]jáTT p \ dŸ+>·Ü @$T{ì? ÿ¿£ “]Ýw¼Ÿ <ŠXýø Ë <‘“ $dŸsï D
Á sÁÖb͓• ‚¿£Ø&ƒ >·eT“+#áe#áTÌ.
2 = 1.4142135623730950488016887242096...

p = 3.14159265358979323846264338327950...
22 22
(>·eT“¿£: eTqeTT 7
qT p ¿ì dŸTeÖsÁT $\Te>± rdŸT¿=+<‘+. ¿±“ p¹
7
)

n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁDýË eT]+Ôá mÅ£”Øe n+¿\qT $dŸï]+#á&†“¿ì >·Ôá ¿=“• dŸ+eÔáàs\T>± $$<óŠ
|Ÿ<ŠÆÔáT\qT >·DìÔá XædŸïEã\T n_óe~Æ #ûkÍsÁT. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” eTq+ uó²>±VŸäsÁ |Ÿ<ŠÆÜ <‘Çs 2 jîTT¿£Ø <ŠXæ+Xø
$dŸsï D
Á ýË –q• n+¿\qT ¿£qT>=q&ƒ+ HûsTÁ ÌÅ£”H•+. €dŸ¿¿ïì s£ +Á >± Xø—\ÒÛ dŸÖçԐ\T (C²« jîTT¿£Ø “jáTeÖ\T) nHû
yû<Š¿±\+ý˓ >·DìÔá ç>·+<óŠ+ýË 2 jîTT¿£Ø dŸTeÖsÁT $\TeqT yû<Š >·DìÔá+) >·DìÔá+ýË (ç¿¡.|ŸP.800 - ç¿¡.|ŸP.500)
¿±\+ýË ‡ ç¿ì+~ $<óŠ+>± ‚#ÌsÁT.
1 æ 1 1ö æ 1 1 1ö
2 = 1+ + ç ´ ÷ - ç ´ ´ ÷ = 1.4142156
3 è 4 3 ø è 34 4 3 ø
‚~ yîTT<Š{ì ×<ŠT <ŠXæ+Xø k͜H\Å£” ™|Õq ‚ºÌq $<óŠ+>±Hû –+<Š“ >·eT“+#á+&. p jîTT¿£Ø <ŠXæ+Xø
$dŸïsÁDýË n+¿\ yû³ jîTT¿£Ø #á]çÔá #ý² €dŸ¿ìï¿£sÁ+>± –+~.
ç^Å£” yûT<ó‘$ €]ØyîT&dt p jîTT¿£Ø <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁDýË n+¿\qT >·Dì+ºq yîTT<Š{ì
e«¿ì.ï nÔáqT 3.140845 < p < 3.142857 n“ dŸÖº+#sÁT. €sÁ«uó³ „ ¼ (ç¿¡.Xø.476 – 550)
Ÿ ã&ƒT eT]jáTT K>ÃÞø XædŸïyÔû áï ‚ÔáqT p jîTT¿£Ø $\TeqT
>=|ŸÎ uó²sÁrjáT >·DìÔá XædïE
H\T>·T <ŠXæ+Xø k͜H\Å£” dŸe]+º (3.1416) n“ ¿£qT>=H•sÁT. ™V²Õ dÓÎ&ƒT ¿£+|ŸP«³sÁT¢
eT]jáTT n<óTŠ HÔáq ný²Z]<¸yŠ TŽ \qT –|ŸjÖî Ð+º p jîTT¿£Ø $\Te 1.24 _*jáTq¢
<ŠXæ+Xø k͜H\ esÁÅ£” ýÉ¿ìØ+#sÁT! €]ØyîT&dt (ç¿¡.|ŸP.287 – ç¿¡.|ŸP.212)
|Ÿ³+ 1.10
‚|ŸÚð&ƒT ¿£sD
Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K«\qT mý² bõ+<‘ýË #áÖ<‘Ý+.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 10 : 17 eT]jáTT 72 \ eT<óŠ« ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
kÍ<óŠq : eTq+ 17 = 0142857
. n“ #áÖXæ+. ¿±‹{ì¼ eTq+ 2 = 0.285714
7
1 2
n“ dŸT\uó+„ >± ýÉ¿Øì +#áe#áTÌ. 7
eT]jáTT 7
\ eT<óŠ«>·\ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«qT ¿£qT>=qT³Å£” eTq+ y{ì eT<óŠ« >·\
28 NUMBER SYSTEMS

non-terminating non-recurring lying between them. Of course, you can find infinitely many
such numbers.
An example of such a number is 0.150150015000150000...

EXERCISE 1.3

1. Write the following in decimal form and say what kind of decimal expansion each
has :
36 1 1
(i) 100
(ii) (iii) 4
8
11
3 2 329
(iv) 13
(v) (vi) 400
11
1 2 3 4 5
2. You know that 7
= 0142857
. . Can you predict what the decimal expansions of 7 , 7 , 7 , 7 ,
6
7
are, without actually doing the long division? If so, how?
1
[Hint : Study the remainders while finding the value of 7
carefully.]
p
3. Express the following in the form , where p and q are integers and q ¹ 0.
q
(i) 0.6 (ii) 0.47 (iii) 0.001
p
4. Express 0.99999 .... in the form . Are you surprised by your answer? With your teacher
q
and classmates discuss why the answer makes sense.
5. What can the maximum number of digits be in the repeating block of digits in the decimal
1
expansion of 17
? Perform the division to check your answer..
6. Look at several examples of rational numbers in the form p (q ¹ 0), where p and q are
q
integers with no common factors other than 1 and having terminating decimal
representations (expansions). Can you guess what property q must satisfy?
7. Write three numbers whose decimal expansions are non-terminating non-recurring.
5 9
8. Find three different irrational numbers between the rational numbers 7
and .
11
9. Classify the following numbers as rational or irrational :
(i) 23 (ii) 225 (iii) 0.3796
(iv) 7.478478... (v) 1.101001000100001...
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 29

n+Ôá+ ¿±“ eT]jáTT €esÁqï + ¿±“ <ŠXæ+X擕 ¿£qT>=+{²+. ydŸyï “¿ì eTq+ n³Te+{ì nHû¿£ dŸ+K«\qT ¿£qT>=qe#áTÌ.
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” 0.150150015000150000...
nuó²«dŸ+ 1.3
1. ¿ì+~ y{ì“ <ŠXæ+Xø sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sd¾ ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø{ì @$<óŠyîT®q <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁDqT ¿£*Ð –+<à #î|ŸÎ+&.
36 1 1
(i) (ii) (iii) 4
100 11 8
3 2 329
(iv) (v) (vi)
13 11 400
1
2.
7
= 0142857
. n“ eTqÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. <‘“ qT+& 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 \ <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸsï D
Á \qT uó²>±VŸäsÁ |Ÿ<ÜƊ ýË
#ûjáTÅ£”+&†Hû n+#áH yûjáT>·\s? nsTTÔû mý²?
1
(dŸÖ#áq : jîTT¿£Ø $\TeqT ¿£qT>=q•|ŸÚð&ƒT e#áTÌ XâcÍ\qT C²ç>·Ôáï>± |Ÿ]o*+#á+&)
7
3. ç¿+ì ~ y{ì“ qp sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáT+&. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ p eT]jáTT q \T |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT q ¹ 0 nsTTÔû
(i) 0.6 (ii) 0.47 (iii) 0.001

4. 0.99999 .... qT p . sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáT+&.

MT dŸeÖ<ó‘q+ #áÖd¾ MTsÁT €XøÌsÁ«bþÔáTH•s? nsÁeÆ +Ôá+>± –q•<Ã
q
ýñ<à MT –bÍ<ó‘«jáTT\T eT]jáTT dŸVŸ² $<‘«sÁTœ\Ôà #á]Ì+#á+&.
1
5.
17
jîTT¿£Ø <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁDýË |ŸÚqseÔáeTjûT« n+¿\ dŸeTÖVŸ²+ýË >·]wŸ¼+>± m“• n+¿\T –+{²sTT?
uó²>±VŸäsÁ |Ÿ<Ü݊ “ –|ŸjÖî Ð+º MT dŸeÖ<ó‘H“• dŸ]#áÖ&ƒ+&.
6. p , q \T |ŸPsÁ’d+ Ÿ K«\T qp (q ¹ 0) sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË –q• $$<óŠ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø $$<óŠ –<‘VŸ²sÁD\qT
|Ÿ]o*+#á+&. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ p , q \Å£” 1 Ôá|ŸÎ eT] @ ‚ÔásÁ ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T ýñ“ eT]jáTT n+ÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xø
$dŸsï D
Á qT ¿£*Ðq |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\T, @ “jáTe֓• q Ôá|ŸÎ“dŸ]>± bÍ{ì+#ýË MTsÁT }V¾²+#á>·\s?
7. n+ÔáeTT ¿±“ €esÁqï eTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸsï D
Á qT ¿£*Ðq eTÖ&ƒT dŸ+K«\qT sjáT+&.
5
8.
7
eT]jáTT 119 \ eT<óŠ« 3 yû¹sÇsÁT ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
9. ç¿ì+~ y{ìýË n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\qT, ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\qT e¯Z¿£]+#á+&.
(i) 23 (ii) 225 (iii) 0.3796

(iv) 7.478478... (v) 1.101001000100001...

30 NUMBER SYSTEMS

1.4 Operations on Real Numbers

You have learnt, in earlier classes, that rational numbers satisfy the commutative, associative
and distributive laws for addition and multiplication. Moreover, if we add, subtract, multiply or
divide (except by zero) two rational numbers, we still get a rational number (that is, rational
numbers are ‘closed’ with respect to addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). It turns
out that irrational numbers also satisfy the commutative, associative and distributive laws for
addition and multiplication. However, the sum, difference, quotients and products of irrational
17
numbers are not always irrational. For example, ( 6 ) + ( - 6 ) , ( 2 ) - ( 2 ) , ( 3 ) ×( 3 ) and 17
are rationals.

Let us look at what happens when we add and multiply a rational number with an irrational
number. For example, 3 is irrational. What about 2 + 3 and 2 3 ? Since 3 has a non-
terminating non-recurring decimal expansion, the same is true for 2 + 3 and 2 3 . Therefore,
both 2 + 3 and 2 3 are also irrational numbers.
7 ,
Example 11 : Check whether 7 5 , 2 + 21 , p - 2 are irrational numbers or not.
5
Solution : 5 = 2.236... , 2 = 1.4142..., p = 3.1415...

7 7 5 7 5
Then 7 5 = 15.652..., = = = 3.1304...
5 5 5 5

2 + 21 = 22.4142..., p – 2 = 1.1415...

All these are non-terminating non-recurring decimals. So, all these are irrational numbers.
Now, let us see what generally happens if we add, subtract, multiply, divide, take square roots
and even nth roots of these irrational numbers, where n is any natural number. Let us look at
some examples.

Example 12 : Add 2 2 + 5 3 and 2 – 3 3 .

Solution : ( 2 2 + 5 3 ) + ( 2 – 3 3 ) = ( 2 2 + 2 ) + ( 5 3 – 3 3 )
= (2 + 1) 2 + (5 - 3) 3 = 3 2 + 2 3
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 31

1.4 ydŸe
ï dŸ+K«\ ™|Õ |Ÿ]ç¿ìjTá \T
ç¿ì+~ ÔásÁ>·ÔáT\ýË eTq+ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ dŸ+¿£\q+ eT]jáTT >·TD¿±sÁ+ <Šcͼ« d¾œÔá«+ÔásÁ <óŠsÁˆ+, dŸVŸ²#ásÁ <óŠsÁˆ+
eT]jáTT $uó²>· H«jáÖ\T bÍ{ìkÍïjáT“ Ôî\TdŸTÅ£”H•+. n+Ôû¿±¿£ Âs+&ƒT n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\qT Å£L&H, rd¾yûd¾H,
>·TDì+ºH, uó²Ð+ºH (dŸTH•Ôà ¿±¿£) eTq+ eTsÁý² n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\qT bõ+<ŠTԐ+. (nq>± n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T
Å£L&¿£, rd¾yûÔá, >·TD¿±sÁ+ eT]jáTT uó²>±VŸäsÁeTT\ýË dŸ+eÔá <óŠsˆ“• bÍ{ìkÍïsTT). ‚<û $<óŠ+>± ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T
Å£L&† rd¾yûÔá, >·TD¿±sÁ+ eT]jáTT uó²>±VŸäs\T dŸ+eÔá, dŸVŸ²#ásÁ, d¾œÔá«+ÔásÁ <óŠsˆ\qT bÍ{ìkÍïjáT“ #î|ŸÎ>·\eÖ?
¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+, uñ<óŠ+, \‹Ý+ eT]jáTT uó²>·|Ÿ\˜ + Ü]Ð ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« ¿±qedŸsÁ+ ýñ<ŠT.
17
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” ( ) (
6 + - 6 , ) ( 2 ) - ( 2 ) , ( 3 ) ×( 3 ) eT]jáTT 17
\T n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T.
eTq+ >·eT“+ºq³¢sTTÔû ÿ¿£ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«qT eT]jîTT¿£ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«Ôà ţL&q, rd¾yûd¾q eT]jáTT
>·TDì+ºq @+ ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+~? –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” 3 nqTq~ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«, eT] 2 + 3 eT]jáTT 2 3 \ dŸ+>·Ü
@$T{ì? 3 Å£” n+Ôá+ ¿±“ eT]jáTT €esÁïq+ ¿±“ <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸsï DÁ qT ¿£*Ð –q•~ ¿±‹{ì¼ 2 + 3 eT]jáTT 2 3 \Å£”
Å£L&† n<û e]ïdŸTï+~. ¿£qT¿£ 2 + 3 eT]jáTT 2 3 \T Âs+&ƒÖ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T.
7 ,
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 11: 7 5, 2 + 21 , p - 2 \T ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«ý²? ¿±<‘? dŸ]#áÖ&ƒ+&.
5
kÍ<óqŠ : 5 = 2.236... , 2 = 1.4142..., p = 3.1415...

7 7 5 7 5
‚|Ÿð&ƒT 7 5 = 15.652..., = = = 3.1304...
5 5 5 5

2 + 21 = 22.4142..., p – 2 = 1.1415...

‚eú• Å£L&† n+Ôá+ ¿±“ €esÁqï + ¿±“ <ŠXæ+Xæ\T. ¿±‹{ì¼ ‚eú• Å£L&† ¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K«ýñ. ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT n nHû~ @<îHÕ 
¡ Tá dŸ+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø Å£L&¿£, rd¾yûÔá, >·TD¿±sÁ+, uó²>±VŸäs\T, esÁeZ TÖý²\T eT]jáTT n jîTT¿£Ø
dŸV²Ÿ È dŸ+K« nsTTq ¿£sDÁ j
eTÖý²\qT rdŸTÅ£”+fñ kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± @$T ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+<à ¿=“• –<‘VŸ²sÁD\ <‘Çs #áÖ<‘Ý+.

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 12 : 2 2+5 3 eT]jáTT 2 – 3 3 \qT Å£L&ƒ+&.

kÍ<óŠq : ( 2 2 +5 3 +) ( ) ( ) (
2 –3 3 = 2 2 + 2 + 5 3 –3 3 )
= (2 + 1) 2 + (5 - 3) 3 = 3 2 + 2 3
32 NUMBER SYSTEMS

Example 13 : Multiply 6 5 by 2 5 .
Solution : 6 5 × 2 5 = 6 × 2 × 5 × 5 = 12 × 5 = 60

Example 14 : Divide 8 15 by 2 3 .

Solution : 8 15 ¸ 2 3 = 8 3 ´ 5 = 4 5
2 3
These examples may lead you to expect the following facts, which are true:
(i) The sum or difference of a rational number and an irrational number is irrational.
(ii) The product or quotient of a non-zero rational number with an irrational number is irrational.
(iii) If we add, subtract, multiply or divide two irrationals, the result may be rational or
irrational.
We now turn our attention to the operation of taking square roots of real numbers. Recall
that, if a is a natural number, then a = b means b2 = a and b > 0. The same definition can be
extended for positive real numbers.
Let a > 0 be a real number. Then a = b means b2 = a and b > 0.
In Section 1.2, we saw how to represent n for any positive integer n on the number line. Wee
now show how to find x for any given positive real number x geometrically. For example, let
us find it for x = 3.5, i.e., we find 3.5 geometrically..

Fig. 1.11
Mark the distance 3.5 units from a fixed point A on a given line to obtain a point B such that AB
= 3.5 units (see Fig. 1.11). From B, mark a distance of 1 unit and mark the new point as C. Find
the mid-point of AC and mark that point as O. Draw a semicircle with centre O and radius OC.
Draw a line perpendicular to AC passing through B and intersecting the semicircle at D. Then,
BD = 3.5 .
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 33

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 13 : 6 5 qT 2 5 Ôà >·TDì+#á+&.
kÍ<óŠq : 6 5 × 2 5 =6×2× 5 × 5 = 12 × 5 = 60

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 14 : 8 15 qT 2 3 #û uó²Ð+#á+&.
8 3´ 5
kÍ<óŠq : 8 15 ¸ 2 3 = =4 5
2 3
‡ –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T eTqÅ£” ‡ ç¿ì+~ ydŸyï \qT €¥+#á&†“¿ì <‘] rjáTe#áTÌ. n~ dŸÔá«+
(i) ÿ¿£ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« eT]jáTT ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ eT]jáTT uóñ<Š+ ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«.
(ii) ÿ¿£ dŸTH• ¿±“ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« eT]jáTT ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ \‹Ý+ eT]jáTT uó²>·|˜Ÿ\+ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+U«.
(iii) Âs+&ƒT ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+, uóñ<Š+, \‹Æ+ eT]jáTT uó²>·|˜Ÿý²\T n¿£sÁD¡jáTdŸ+K« >±“, ¿£sÁD¡jáT
dŸ+K« >±“ neÚÔáT+~.
eTq+ ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ydŸeï dŸ+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø esÁeZ TÖý²\ ç|Ÿç¿ìjTá \™|Õ <Šw¾“¼ kÍ]<‘Ý+. a ÿ¿£ dŸVŸ²È dŸ+K«
nsTTq|ŸÚ&ƒT a = b nsTTq b2 = a eT]jáTT b > 0 neÚÔáT+<Š“ >·TsÁTÅï ”£ Ôî#Tá Ì¿Ã+&. ‡ “sÁÇ#áH“• <óqŠ ydŸeï
dŸ+K«\Å£” Å£L&† $dŸ]ï +#áe#áTÌ.

a > 0 nqTq~ ydŸïe dŸ+K« nsTTq|ŸÚ&ƒT a = b nq>± b = a eT]jáTT b > 0 neÚÔáT+~.

2

$uó²>·+ 1.2 ýË, n @<û“ <óŠHÔሿ£ |ŸPsÁd’ Ÿ+K« nsTTq n dŸ+U²« s¹ K™|Õ @$<ó+Š >± >·T]ï+#ýË #áÖXæ+. ‚|Ÿð&ƒT eTq+
x @<îÕH ÿ¿£ <óŠq ydŸïe dŸ+K« nsTTq x $\TeqT @$<ó+Š >± ¿£qT>=HýË C²«$TrjáT+>± #áÖ<‘Ý+.
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” x = 3.5 nsTTq 3.5 qT C²«$TrjáT+>± ¿£qT>=+<‘eTT.

|Ÿ³+ 1.11

AB R 3.5 jáT֓³T¢ <ŠÖsÁ+ n>·Tq³T¢ d¾œsÁ _+<ŠTeÚ A qT+& _+<ŠTeÚ B e<ŠÝÅ£” ¹sU²K+&†“• ^jáT+&.
B qT+& 1 jáT֓{Ù <ŠÖsÁ+ýË C nqT ¿=Ôáï _+<ŠTeÚ >·T]ï+#á+&. AC jîTT¿£Ø eT<óŠ« _+<ŠTeÚqT O >± >·T]ï+#á+&.
O ¹¿+ç<Š+>± OC y«kÍsÁÆ+Ôà ÿ¿£ nsÁÆeÔï“• ^jáT+&. AC ¿ì \+‹+>± B >·T+&† bþeÚq³T¢ eT]jáTT nsÁe Æ Ôï“•
D e<ŠÝ K+&+ºq³T¢ ÿ¿£ \+u²“• ^jáT+&. BD = 3.5 .
34 NUMBER SYSTEMS

More generally, to find x , for any positive real number x, we

mark B so that AB = x units, and, as in Fig. 1.12, mark C so that BC
= 1 unit. Then, as we have done for the case x = 3.5, we find BD =
x (see Fig. 1.12). We can prove this result using the Pythagoras
Theorem. Fig. 1.12
x +1
Notice that, in Fig. 1.12, D OBD is a right-angled triangle. Also, the radius of the circle is
2
units.

x +1
Therefore, OC = OD = OA = units.
2

æ x + 1ö x - 1
Now, OB = x - ç ÷= ×
è 2 ø 2

So, by the Pythagoras Theorem, we have

2 2
æ x + 1ö æ x - 1ö 4x
B D = OD – OB = ç ÷ -ç ÷ = = x.
2 2 2
è 2 ø è 2 ø 4

This shows that BD = x .

This construction gives us a visual, and geometric way of showing that x exists for all real
numbers x > 0. If you want to know the position of x on the number line, then let us treat the
line BC as the number line, with B as zero, C as 1, and so on. Draw an arc with centre B and
radius BD, which intersects the number line in E (see Fig. 1.13). Then, E represents x .

Fig. 1.13
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 35

kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± @<îHÕ  <óqŠ ydŸeï dŸ+K« x Å£” x qT ¿£qT¿ÃØy\+fñ AB = x

jáT֓³T¢ njûT«$<óŠ+>± B _+<ŠTeÚqT >·T]ï+#á+&. eT]jáTT |Ÿ³+ 1.12 ýË #áÖ|¾q
$<ó+Š >± BC = 1 jáT֓{Ù njûT«$<ó+Š >± C _+<ŠTeÚqT >·T]ï+#á+&. ‚|Ÿð&ƒT
x = 3.5 ýË #ûd¾q$<óŠ+>± (|Ÿ³+ 1.16“ #áÖ&ƒ+&) eTq+ BD = x qT
¿£qT>=+{²+. ‡ $\TeqT eTq+ ™|Õ<¸‘>·sÁdt d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ <‘Çs “sÁÖ|¾kÍï+.
|Ÿ³+ 1.12
x +1
|Ÿ³+ 1.12 “ >·eT“+#á³s¢ TTÔû D OBD ÿ¿£ \+‹¿ÃD çÜuó„TÈ+ eT]jáTT eÔáï y«kÍsÁœ+ 2
jáT֓³T¢.

x +1
¿±‹{ì¼ OC = OD = OA = 2
jáT֓³T¢.

æ x + 1ö x - 1
‚|Ÿð&ƒT OB = x - çè 2 ø
÷=
2
×

¿£qT¿£, ™|Õ<¸‘>·sdt d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+, eTqÅ£”

2 2
æ x + 1ö æ x - 1ö 4x
BD = OD – OB = ç ÷ -ç ÷ = = x.
2 2 2
è 2 ø è 2 ø 4

‚~ BD = x n“ dŸÖºdŸT+ï ~.
‡ “sˆD+ eTqÅ£” x > 0 nsTTq ç|ŸÜ ydŸeï dŸ+K«Å£” x –+³T+<Š“ C²«$TrjáT+>± #áÖ|¾+#áT |Ÿ<ÜƊ “ Ôî*jáT#ûdTŸ +ï ~.
dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ x k͜H“• Ôî\TdŸT¿ÃeýÉqq• BC qT dŸ+U²«¹sK>± uó²$+#á+& B dŸTH•>± C qT 1 >± yîTT<Š\>·Tq$.
B qT ¹¿+ç<Š+>±, BD y«kÍsÁ+Æ Ôà ÿ¿£ #|Ÿ+ ^jáT+&. ‡ #|Ÿ+ dŸ+U²«¹sKqT E _+<ŠTeÚ e<ŠÝ K+&dTŸ +ï ~.
(|Ÿ³+ 1.13#áÖ&ƒ+&) ‚|Ÿð&ƒT E nHû~ x qT dŸÖºdŸT+ï ~.

|Ÿ³+ 1.13
36 NUMBER SYSTEMS

We would like to now extend the idea of square roots to cube roots, fourth roots, and in
general nth roots, where n is a positive integer. Recall your understanding of square roots
and cube roots from earlier classes.

What is 3 8 ? Well, we know it has to be some positive number whose cube is 8, and you must
have guessed 3 8 = 2. Let us try 5 243 . Do you know some number b such that b5 = 243? The
answer is 3. Therefore, 5 243 = 3.

From these examples, can you define n a for a real number a > 0 and a positive integer n?
Let a > 0 be a real number and n be a positive integer. Then n a = b, if bn = a and
b > 0. Note that the symbol ‘ ’ used in 2, 3 8, n a , etc. is called the radical sign.
We now list some identities relating to square roots, which are useful in various ways.
You are already familiar with some of these from your earlier classes. The remaining ones
follow from the distributive law of multiplication over addition of real numbers, and from
the identity (x + y) (x – y) = x2 – y2, for any real numbers x and y.
Let a and b be positive real numbers. Then

a a
(i) ab = a b (ii) =
b b

(iii) ( a+ b )( )
a - b = a - b (iv) (a + b ) (a - b ) = a 2
-b

(v) ( a+ b )( )
c + d = ac + ad + bc + bd

(vi) ( a + b ) = a + 2 ab + b
2

Let us look at some particular cases of these identities.

Example 15 : Simplify the following expressions:

(i) (5 + 7 ) ( 2 + 5 ) (ii) ( 5 + 5 ) ( 5 - 5 )

( ) ( )( )
2
(iii) 3+ 7 (iv) 11 - 7 11 + 7
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 37

‡ esÁeZ TÖý²\ $<ó‘H“•, |˜TŸ q eTÖý²\T>± eT]jáTT 4e eTÖ\eTT>±, n<û $<ó+Š >± kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± n
eTÖ\eTT\qT ¿£qT>=qT³Å£” $dŸ]ï +#áe#áTÌqT. ‚#á̳ n ÿ¿£ <óŠq|ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«. ç¿ì+~ ÔásÁ>·ÔáT\ýË esÁZeTÖý²\T
eT]jáTT |˜ŸTq eTÖý²\ ™|Õ MT jîTT¿£Ø ne>±VŸ²qqT >·TsÁTïÅ£” Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&.
3
8 nq>± @$T{ì? 8 nqTq~ ÿ¿£ <óH Š Ôሿ£ dŸ+K« jîTT¿£Ø |˜TŸ q+ nsTT –+³T+<Š“ eTqÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. eT]jáTT 3 8
= 2 n“ eTq+ }V¾²+#á>·\+. 5 243 $\Te ¿£qT>=qT³Å£” ç|ŸjáTܕ+#á+&. MTÅ£” Ôî\TkÍ, @<à ÿ¿£ dŸ+K« b Å£”
b5 = 243? dŸeÖ<ó‘q+ 3 ¿±‹{ì¼ 5 243 = 3
‡ –<‘VŸ²sÁD\ <‘Çs @<îÕH |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K« n eT]jáTT a > 0 nqT ydŸïe dŸ+K«Å£” n a qT “sÁÇV¾²+#á>·\s?
a>0 nqTq~ ÿ¿£ ydŸïe dŸ+U« eT]jáTT n ÿ¿£ <óŠq |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K« nqT¿Ã+&. ‚|Ÿð&ƒT n a = b nsTTq
bn = a eT]jáTT b > 0 >·eT“+#á+&. 2, 8, a yîTT<Š\>·T y{ìýË –|ŸjîÖÐ+ºq ‘ ’ >·TsÁTq
3 n
ï T s&¿ý£ Ù >·TsÁTï
n+{²sÁT.
eTq+ ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT esÁZeTÖý²\Å£” dŸ+‹+~ó+ºq ¿=“• dŸsÁÇ dŸeÖqÔáÇ “jáTeÖ\ C²_ԐqT s<‘Ý+. ç¿ì+~
Ôás>Á Ô· Tá \ýË MTsÁT M{ìýË ¿=“•+{ì >·T]+º HûsÁTÌÅ£”“ –H•sÁT. $TÐ*q$ ydŸeï dŸ+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø dŸ+¿£\q+™|Õ >·TD¿±sÁ
$uó²>· H«jáTeTT eT]jáTT (x + y) (x – y) = x2 – y2 nHû dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖqÔáÇ “jáTeT+ <‘Çs sjáTe#áTÌqT. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ
x , y \T @yîH Õ  ydŸeï dŸ+K«\T.
a,b \T @yû“ <óq Š ydŸeï dŸ+K«\T, ×q
a a
(i) ab = a b (ii) =
b b

(iii) ( a+ b )( )
a - b =a-b (iv) ( a + b ) ( a - b ) = a 2 - b

(v) ( a+ b )( )
c + d = ac + ad + bc + bd

(vi) ( a + b ) = a + 2 ab + b
2

‡ dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖqÔáÇ “jáTeÖ\ jîTT¿£Ø ¿=“• ç|ŸÔ«û ¿£ dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\qT |Ÿ]o*<‘Ý+.

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 15 : ç¿ì+~ dŸeÖkÍ\qT dŸÖ¿¡Œˆ¿£]+#á+&.
(i) ( 5 + 7 ) ( 2 + 5 ) (ii) ( 5 + 5 ) ( 5 - 5 )

( ) ( )( )
2
(iii) 3+ 7 (iv) 11 - 7 11 + 7
38 NUMBER SYSTEMS

Solution : (i) ( 5 + 7 ) ( 2 + 5 ) = 10 + 5 5 + 2 7 + 35

(ii) ( 5 + 5 ) ( 5 - 5 ) = 52 - ( 5 ) = 25 – 5 = 20
2

(iii) ( 3 + 7 ) = ( 3 ) + 2 3 7 + ( 7 ) = 3 + 2 21 + 7 = 10 + 2 21
2 2 2

(iv) ( 11 - 7 ) ( 11 + 7 ) = ( 11 ) - ( 7 ) = 11 - 7 = 4
2 2

Remark : Note that ‘simplify’ in the example above has been used to mean that the expression
should be written as the sum of a rational and an irrational number.
1
We end this section by considering the following problem. Look at × Can you tell where it
2
shows up on the number line? You know that it is irrational. May be it is easier to handle if the
denominator is a rational number. Let us see, if we can ‘rationalise’ the denominator, that is, to
make the denominator into a rational number. To do so, we need the identities involving square
roots. Let us see how.

1
Example 16 : Rationalise the denominator of ×
2

1
Solution : We want to write as an equivalent expression in which the denominator is a
2

1 2
rational number. We know that 2 . 2 is rational. We also know that multiplying by
2 2

2
will give us an equivalent expression, since = 1. So, we put these two facts together to get
2

1 1 2 2
= ´ = ×
2 2 2 2

1
In this form, it is easy to locate on the number line. It is half way between 0
2
and 2 .
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 39

kÍ<óŠq : (i) ( 5 + 7 ) ( 2 + 5 ) = 10 + 5 5 + 2 7 + 35

(ii) ( 5 + 5 ) ( 5 - 5 ) = 52 - ( 5 ) = 25 – 5 = 20
2

( ) = ( 3) ( 7)
2 2 2
(iii) 3+ 7 +2 3 7+ = 3 + 2 21 + 7 = 10 + 2 21

(iv) ( 11 - 7 ) ( 11 + 7 ) = ( 11 ) - ( 7 ) = 11 - 7 = 4
2 2

>·eT“¿£ : ™|Õq |s=ؓq –<‘VŸ²sÁD\Ôà dŸÖ¿¡Œˆ¿£]+#á&ƒ+ nHû~ ‚ºÌq dŸeÖdŸ+ ÿ¿£ n¿£sÁD¡jáT eT]jáTT ¿£sÁD¡jáT
dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+>± çyjáÖ\“ nsÁœ+ #ûdŸT¿Ãe&†“¿ì –|ŸjîÖ>·|Ÿ&ƒTÔáT+~ n“ >·eT“+#á+&.
1
‡ ç¿ì+~ dŸeTdŸ«qT |Ÿ]>·DqýË¿ì rdŸT¿Ãe&ƒ+ <‘Çs eTq+ ‡ $uó²>±“• eTTÐkÍï+. × qT #áÖ&ƒ+&. ‚~ dŸ+U²«¹sK
2
™|Õ m¿£Ø&ƒ >·T]ïkÍïsà MTsÁT #î|ŸÎ>·\s? ‚~ ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« n“ eTqÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. <‘“ jîTT¿£Ø VŸäsÁ+ ÿ¿£ n¿£sÁD¡jáT
dŸ+K« nsTTq eTq+ <‘““ dŸT\uó„+>± “sÁǺ+#áe#áTÌqT. eTq+ VŸäs“• n¿£sÁD¡jáT+ #ûjáT>·\eÖ? nq>± VŸäs“•
n¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K«>± eÖsÁÌ&ƒ+. B““ #ûjTá T³Å£” eTq+ esÁeZ TÖý²\Å£” dŸ+‹+~ó+ºq dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖqÔáÇ “jáTeÖ\qT –
|ŸjÖî Ð+#*. n~ mý²Hà #áÖ<‘Ý+.
1
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 16 : × jîTT¿£Ø VŸäs“• n¿£sÁD¡jáT+ #ûjáT+&.
2

1
kÍ<óŠq : ‚|Ÿ ð&ƒT eTq+ 2
Å£” dŸeÖqyîT®q VŸäsÁ+ n¿£sÁD ¡jáT dŸ+K« nsTTq dŸeÖH“• sjáÖ*.
1 2 1
2. 2 ÿ¿£ n¿£sD
Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K« n“ eTqÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. 2
qT 2
#û >·TDì+ºq eTqÅ£” 2
Å£” dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖqyîTq®
2
dŸeÖdŸ+ edŸT+ï <Š“ eTqÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. m+<ŠT¿£+fñ = 1. eTq+ ‡ Âs+&ƒT dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\qT|ŸjîÖÐ+º
2

1 1 2 2
= ´ = ×
2 2 2 2

1
‡ sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË 2
qT dŸ+U²«¹sK ™|Õ >·T]ï+#áT³ dŸT\uó+„ . ‚~ 0 eT]jáTT 2 \ eT<óŠ« –+³T+~.
40 NUMBER SYSTEMS

1
Example 17 : Rationalise the denominator of 2 + 3 ×

1
Solution : We use the Identity (iv) given earlier. Multiply and divide 2 + 3 by 2 - 3 to get

1 2- 3 2- 3
´ = =2 - 3.
2+ 3 2- 3 4-3

5
Example 18 : Rationalise the denominator of 3 - 5 ×

Solution : Here we use the Identity (iii) given earlier.

5 3+ 5 5 ( 3+ 5 ) = æ -5 ö
So, 3- 5 = 3- 5
´
5
3+ 5
=
3-5
ç ÷
è 2 ø
( 3+ 5 )

1
Example 19 : Rationalise the denominator of ×
7+3 2

1 1 æ7 -3 2ö 7 -3 2 7 -3 2
Solution : = ´ çç ÷= =
7 + 3 2 7 + 3 2 è 7 - 3 2 ÷ø 49 - 18 31

So, when the denominator of an expression contains a term with a square root (or a number
under a radical sign), the process of converting it to an equivalent expression whose denominator
is a rational number is called rationalising the denominator.

EXERCISE 1.4
1. Classify the following numbers as rational or irrational:

(ii) ( 3 + 23 ) - 23 (iii)
2 7
(i) 2 - 5
7 7
1
(iv) (v) 2p
2
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 41

1
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 17 : 2 + × jîTT¿£Ø VŸäs“• n¿£sÁD¡jáT+ #ûjáT+&.
3

1 1
kÍ<óŠq : (iv) e dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖq “jáTeÖ\qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º 2+ 3 qT 2- 3 #û >·TDì+º, uó²Ð+ºq 2+ 3

1 1 2- 3 2- 3
R ´ = = 2- 3.
2+ 3 2+ 3 2- 3 4-3

5
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 18 : × jîTT¿£Ø VŸäs“• n¿£sÁD¡jáT+ #ûjáT+&.
3- 5

kÍ<óŠq : (iii) e dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖqÔáÇ “jáTe֓• –|ŸjÖî Ð+º

5 3+ 5 5 ( 3+ 5 ) = æ -5 ö
3- 5 = 3- 5
´
3+ 5
=
5
3-5
ç ÷
è 2 ø
( 3+ 5 )

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 19 : 7 + 13 2
× jîTT¿£Ø VŸäs“• n¿£sÁD¡jáT+ #ûjáT+&.

1 1 æ7 -3 2 ö 7 -3 2 7 -3 2
kÍ<óŠq : = ´ çç ÷= =
7 + 3 2 7 + 3 2 è 7 - 3 2 ø÷ 49 - 18 31

¿±‹{ì,¼ ÿ¿£ dŸeÖdŸ+ý˓ VŸäsÁ+ esÁeZ TÖ\+ (ýñ<‘ s&¿ý£ Ù >·TsÁTï ¿ì+<Š –q• dŸ+K«) ÿ¿£ |Ÿ<‘“• ¿£*Ð –q•|ŸÚÎ&ƒT <‘““
n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« >·\ VŸäsÁ+>± eÖsÁÌ{²“¿ì –|ŸjîÖÐ+#û ç|Ÿç¿ìjáTqT VŸäs“• €¿£sÁD¡jáT+ #ûjáT³+ n+{²sÁT.

nuó²«dŸ+ 1.4
1. ç¿ì+~ dŸ+K«\qT n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T, ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T>± e¯Z¿£]+#á+&.
(ii) ( 3 + 23 ) - 23
2 7
(i) 2 - 5 (iii)
7 7
1
(iv) (v) 2 p
2
42 NUMBER SYSTEMS

2. Simplify each of the following expressions:

(i) ( 3 + 3 ) ( 2 + 2 ) (ii) ( 3 + 3 ) ( 3 - 3 )

( ) (iv) ( 5 - 2 ) ( 5 + 2 )
2
(iii) 5+ 2

3. Recall, p is defined as the ratio of the circumference (say c) of a circle to its diameter
c
(say d). That is, p = × This seems to contradict the fact that p is irrational. How will
d
you resolve this contradiction?
4. Represent 9.3 on the number line.
5. Rationalise the denominators of the following:

1 1
(i) (ii) 7- 6
7

1 1
(iii) 5+ 2 (iv) 7 - 2

1.5 Laws of Exponents for Real Numbers

Do you remember how to simplify the following?
(i) 172 . 175 = (ii) (52)7 =
2310
(iii) = (iv) 73 . 93 =
237
Did you get these answers? They are as follows:
(i) 172 . 175 = 177 (ii) (52)7 = 514
2310
(iii) 7
= 233 (iv) 73 . 93 = 633
23
To get these answers, you would have used the following laws of exponents, which you have
learnt in your earlier classes. (Here a, n and m are natural numbers. Remember, a is called the
base and m and n are the exponents.)
(i) am . an = am + n (ii) (am)n = amn
am
(iii) = am - n , m > n (iv) ambm = (ab)m
an
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 43

2. ç¿ì+~ dŸeÖkÍ\qT dŸÖ¿¡Œˆ¿£]+#á+&.

(i) ( 3 + 3 ) ( 2 + 2 ) (ii) ( 3 + 3 ) ( 3 - 3 )

( ) ( )( )
2
(iii) 5+ 2 (iv) 5- 2 5+ 2

c
3. >·TsÁTï #ûdŸT¿Ã+&. p nqTq~ ÿ¿£ eÔáï |Ÿ]~ó(c)¿ì <‘“ y«dŸ+ (d) ¿ì >·\ “wŸÎÜï. nq>± p = d
×

‚~ p nHû~ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« nqT uó²eqÅ£” $sÁT<ŠÆ+>± –+~. ‡ $sÁT<ŠÆÔáqT MTsÁT mý² |Ÿ]wŸØ]kÍïeÚ?
4. qT dŸ+U²« ¹sK ™|Õ dŸÖº+#á+&.
9.3

5. VŸäs\qT n¿£sÁD¡jáT+ #ûjáT+&.

1 1
(i) (ii) 7- 6
7

1 1
(iii) 5+ 2 (iv) 7 - 2

1.5 ydŸe
ï dŸ+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø |˜ÖŸ Ԑ+¿£ “jáTeÖ\T:
‡ ç¿ì+~ y{ì“ mý² dŸÖ¿¡Œˆ¿£]+#ýË MTÅ£” Ôî\TkÍ?
(i) 172 . 175 = (ii) (52)7 =
2310
(iii) = (iv) 73 . 93 =
237
¿ì+~ $<óŠ+>± ‡ dŸeÖ<ó‘H\T MTsÁT bõ+<‘s?
(i) 172 . 175 = 177 (ii) (52)7 = 514
2310
(iii) 7
= 233 (iv) 73 . 93 = 633
23

‡ dŸeÖ<ó‘H\qT bõ+<Š{²“¿ì, MTsÁT MT ç¿ì+~ Ôás>Á ·ÔTá \ýË HûsTÁ ÌÅ£”q• ‡ ç¿ì+~ |˜ÖŸ Ԑ+¿£ “jáTeÖ\qT –|ŸjÖî Ð+#sÁT.
(‚¿£Ø&ƒ a, n eT]jáTT m \T dŸVŸ²È dŸ+K«\“ >·TsÁTï+#áT¿Ã+&. »aµ “ uóք $T n“ m eT]jáTT n \qT |˜ÖŸ Ԑ+¿±\T n“
n+{²sÁT.)
(i) am . an = am + n (ii) (am)n = amn
am
(iii) = am - n , m > n (iv) ambm = (ab)m
an
44 NUMBER SYSTEMS

1
What is (a)0? Yes, it is 1! So you have learnt that (a)0 = 1. So, using (iii), we can get n
= a-n .
a
We can now extend the laws to negative exponents too.
So, for example :
1
(i) 172 × 17 –5 = 17 –3 = (ii) (52 ) –7 = 5–14
173
23–10
(iii) 7
= 23–17 (iv) (7) –3 × (9) –3 = (63) –3
23

Suppose we want to do the following computations:

4
2 1
æ 1
ö
(i) 2 3 × 2 3 (ii) ç 35 ÷
è ø
1
75 1 1
(iii) 1 (iv) 135 × 17 5
73
How would we go about it? It turns out that we can extend the laws of exponents that we have
studied earlier, even when the base is a positive real number and the exponents are rational
numbers. (Later you will study that it can further to be extended when the exponents are real
numbers.) But before we state these laws, and to even make sense of these laws, we need to first
3
understand what, for example 4 2 is. So, we have some work to do!
We define n a for a real number a > 0 as follows:
Let a > 0 be a real number and n a positive integer. Then n
a = b, if b = a and
n

b > 0.
1 1
In the language of exponents, we define n a = a n . So, in particular,, 3 2 = 2 3 . There are now
3
two ways to look at 4 2 .
3
3 æ 12 ö
42= ç4 ÷ = 2 = 8
3

è ø

3 1 1
4 = ( 4 ) 2 = ( 64 ) 2 = 8
2 3
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 45

(a)0 n+fñ @$T{ì?neÚqT. ‚~ 1! ¿±‹{ì¼ eTq+ (a)0 = 1 n“ HûsTÁ ÌÅ£”H•+. ¿±‹{ì¼ (iii)qT –|ŸjÖ
î Ð+º eTq+
1
n
= a-n . “ bõ+<Š>\· +. ‚|Ÿð&ƒT ‡ “jáTeÖ\qT eTq+ ‹TTD |˜ÖŸ Ԑ+¿±\Å£” $dŸ]ï +#áe#áTÌ.
a

¿±‹{ì¼ –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”
1
(i) 172 × 17 –5 = 17 –3 = (ii) (52 ) –7 = 5–14
173
23–10
(iii) = 23–17 (iv) (7) –3 × (9) –3 = (63) –3
237

eTq+ ‡ ç¿ì+~ >·Dq\qT #ûjáÖ\qTÅ£”+³TH•+.

4
2 1
æ 1ö
(i) 2 × 2 3 3 (ii) ç 35 ÷
è ø
1
75 1 1
(iii) 1 (iv) 135 × 17 5
7 3

eTq+ <‘“ >·T]+º mý² yîÞ²ï+? uó„Ö$T ÿ¿£ <óŠq ydŸïe dŸ+K« eT]jáTT |˜ŸÖԐ+¿±\T n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T>±
>·\ |˜ŸÖԐ+¿±\Å£” ‡ “jáTeÖ\qT $dŸï]+#áe#áTÌ n“ eTq+ ç¿ì+~ ÔásÁ>·ÔáT\ýË HûsÁTÌÅ£”H•+ (|˜ŸÖԐ+¿±\T ydŸïe
dŸ+K«ýÉÕq dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\ýË ‡ “jáTeÖ\qT $dŸï]+#á&ƒ+ ÔásÁTyÔá n<óŠ«jáTq+ #ûkÍïsÁT). ¿±“ <‘“¿ì eTT+<ŠT eTq+ ‡
“jáTeÖ\qT nsÁœ+ #ûdŸT¿Ãy*. yîTT<Š³ @$T nsÁœ+ #ûdŸT¿Ãy*?
3
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” 4 ‚¿£Ø&ƒ eTq+ ¿=+Ôá |Ÿ“ #ûjáÖ*. $uó²>·+ 1.4 ýË eTq+ n a “sÁǺ+#+. ( a ÿ¿£ <óqŠ ydŸeï
2

dŸ+K«)
a > 0, a ÿ¿£ <óŠq ydŸïe dŸ+K« eT]jáTT n ÿ¿£ <óŠq |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«. b > 0 n|Ÿð&ƒT bn = a nsTTq|ŸÚ&ƒT
n
a = b neÚÔáT+~.
1 1 3
|˜ŸÖԐ+¿±\ uó²wŸýË eTq+ n a = a >± “sÁǺkÍï+. ¿±‹{ì¼ ç|ŸÔû«¿£+>±
n 3
2=2 3 ‚|Ÿð&ƒT eTqÅ£” 4 2 qT
#áÖ&ƒ{²“¿ì Âs+&ƒT eÖsZ\T –H•sTT.
3
æ 12 ö
3
4 = ç4 ÷ = 2 = 8
2 3

è ø
3 1 1
42 = ( 43 ) 2 = ( 64 ) 2 = 8
 46 NUMBER SYSTEMS

Therefore, we have the following definition:

Let a > 0 be a real number. Let m and n be integers such that m and n have no common
factors other than 1, and n > 0. Then,
m

( a)
m
an = n
= n am
We now have the following extended laws of exponents:
Let a > 0 be a real number and p and q be rational numbers. Then, we have
(i) ap . aq = ap+q (ii) (ap)q = apq
ap
(iii) q
= a p - q (iv) apbp = (ab)p
a
You can now use these laws to answer the questions asked earlier.
4
2 1
æ 1ö
Example 20 : Simplify (i) 2 × 2 3 3 (ii) ç 35 ÷
è ø
1
75 1 1
(iii) 1 (iv) 135 × 17 5
73
Solution :
æ 2 1ö 4
2 1
ç + ÷
3
æ 1
ö 4
(i) 2 3 × 2 3 = 2è 3 3ø
= 2 = 2 = 2
3 1
(ii) ç 35 ÷ = 35
è ø
1
æ1 1ö 3-5 -2 1 1 1 1
75 ç - ÷
(iii) 1
= 7è 5 3ø
= 7 15
= 7 15 (iv) 135 × 17 5 = (13 ´ 17) 5 = 2215
73

EXERCISE 1.5
1 1 1
1. Find : (i) 64 2 (ii) 32 5 (iii) 125 3
3 2 3 -1
2. Find : (i) 92 (ii) 32 5 (iii) 16 4 (iv) 125 3
1
2 1
æ 1 ö
7
112 1 1
3. Simplify : (i) 2 ×2
3 5 (ii) ç 3÷
è3 ø
(iii) 1
(iv) 7 2 × 82
11 4
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 47

¿±‹{ì¼ eTqÅ£” ç¿ì+<Š “sÁÇ#áH\T –H•sTT.

ÿ¿£ <óqŠ ydŸeï dŸ+U« a > 0. m eT]jáTT n \T 1, Ôá|ŸÎ eT] @ ‚ÔásÁ ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T ýñ“ |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT
n > 0 nsTTq
m

( a)
m
an = n
= n am
eTq+ ‚|Ÿð&ƒT |˜ÖŸ Ԑ+¿±+¿£ “jáTeÖ\qT ‡ ç¿ì+~ $<ó+Š >± $dŸ]ï +#áe#áTÌ.
a > 0 nHû~ ÿ¿£ ydŸïe dŸ+K«. p eT]jáTT q \T n¿£sÁDj
¡ áT dŸ+K«\T nsTTq
(i) ap . aq = ap+q (ii) (ap)q = apq
ap
(iii) = ap- q (iv) apbp = (ab)p
aq
‚|Ÿð&ƒT eTq+ eTT+<ŠT n&Ðq ¿=“• ç|ŸX•ø \ dŸeÖ<ó‘H\qT ‡ |˜ÖŸ Ԑ+¿£ “jáTeÖ\qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º #î|Ο e#áTÌ.
4
2 1
æ 1ö
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 20 : dŸÖ¿¡Œˆ¿£]+#á+&. (i) 2 ×2
3 3 (ii) ç 35 ÷
è ø
1
75 1 1
(iii) 1 (iv) 135 × 17 5
73
kÍ<óŠq :
æ 2 1ö 4
2 1
ç + ÷
3
æ 1ö 4
(i) 2 × 2 = 2
3 3 è 3 3ø
=2 =2 =2
3 1
(ii) ç 35 ÷ = 35
è ø
1
æ1 1ö 3-5 -2 1 1 1 1
75 ç - ÷
(iii) 1
=7 è 5 3ø
=7 15
= 7 15 (iv) 135 × 17 5 = (13 ´ 17) 5 = 2215
73

nuó²«dŸ+ 1.5
1 1 1
1. (i) 64 2 (ii) 32 5 (iii) 125 3 \ $\Te\qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
3 2 3 -1
2. (i) 92 (ii) 32 5 (iii) 16 4 (iv) 125 3 \ $\Te\qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
1
2 1
æ 1 ö
7
112 1 1
3. dŸÖ¿¡Œˆ¿£]+#á+& : (i) 2 ×2 3 5 (ii) ç 3÷
è3 ø
(iii) 1
(iv) 7 2 × 82
114
48 NUMBER SYSTEMS

1.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
p
1. A number r is called a rational number, if it can be written in the form q
, where p and q are

integers and q ¹ 0.
p
2. A number s is called a irrational number, if it cannot be written in the form q
, where p and

q are integers and q ¹ 0.

3. The decimal expansion of a rational number is either terminating or non-terminating
recurring. Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is terminating or non-terminating
recurring is rational.
4. The decimal expansion of an irrational number is non-terminating non-recurring. Moreover,
a number whose decimal expansion is non-terminating non-recurring is irrational.
5. All the rational and irrational numbers make up the collection of real numbers.
r
6. If r is rational and s is irrational, then r + s and r – s are irrational numbers, and rs and s
are irrational numbers, r ¹ 0.
7. For positive real numbers a and b, the following identities hold:

a a
(i) ab = a b (ii) =
b b

(iii) ( a + b )( )
a - b =a-b (iv) (a + b ) (a - b) = a 2
-b

( )
2
(v) a + b = a + 2 ab + b

1 , a -b
8. To rationalise the denominator of we multiply this by , where a and b are
a +b a -b
integers.
9. Let a > 0 be a real number and p and q be rational numbers. Then
(i) ap . aq = ap + q (ii) (ap)q = apq
ap
(iii) = ap - q (iv) apbp = (ab)p
aq
dŸ+U²«eÖq+eÖq+ 49

1.6 kÍs+Xø+ :
‡ n<ó‘«jáT+ýË eTq+ ‡ ç¿ì+~ n+Xæ\qT #á]Ì+#+.
p
1. ÿ¿£ dŸ+K« r qT n¿£sD ¡ Tá dŸ+K« nH\+fñ r qT
Á j q
sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáÖ*. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ p eT]jáTT q \T |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\T
eT]jáTT q ¹ 0.
p
2. ÿ¿£ dŸ+K« s qT ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« nH\+fñ s qT sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáTýñ+ ‚¿£Ø&ƒ p, q \T |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT
q

q¹0
3. ÿ¿£ n¿£sÁDj ¡ áT dŸ+K« jîTT¿£Ø <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸsï ÁD n+ÔáeTjûT« ýñ¿£ n+Ôá+ ¿±“ €eÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xø+ eT]jáTT ÿ¿£
dŸ+K« jîTT¿£Ø <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁD n+ÔáeTsTTq ýñ¿£ n+Ôá+ ¿±“ €eÔá <ŠXæ+Xø+ nsTTq n~ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«.
4. ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« jîTT¿£Ø <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁD n+Ôá+ ¿±“ eT]jáTT €eÔá+ ¿±“ <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁD, n<û$<óŠ+>±
n+Ôá+ ¿±“ eT]jáTT €eÔá+ ¿±“ <ŠXæ+Xø $dŸïsÁD\T n“• ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«ýñ.
5. n“• €¿£sD Á j¡ Tá eT]jáTT ¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K«\ dŸeÖVŸäsÁ+ ydŸeï dŸ+K«ýeÚԐsTT.
6. r nqTq~ ÿ¿£ n¿£sÁDj ¡ áT dŸ+K« eT]jáTT s nqTq~ ¿£sÁDj ¡ áT dŸ+K« nsTTq, r + s eT]jáTT r – s \T ¿£sÁD¡jáT
r
dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT r s eT]jáTT s \T ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T r ¹ 0.
7. a eT]jáTT b \T <óq Š ydŸeï dŸ+K«\T nsTTq ‡ ç¿ì+~ dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖq “jáTeÖ\T e]ïkÍïsTT.
a a
(i) ab = a b (ii) =
b b

(iii) ( a + b )( )
a - b =a-b (iv) (a + b ) (a - b) = a 2
-b

( )
2
(v) a + b = a + 2 ab + b

1 a -b
8. jîTT¿£Ø VŸäs“• n¿£sD
Á j
¡ Tá + #ûjTá T³Å£” B““ eTq+ >·TDìkÍï+. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ a eT]jáTT b \T |ŸPsÁ’
a +b a -b
dŸ+K«\T.
9. a > 0 ÿ¿£ ydŸïe dŸ+K« eT]jáTT p , q \T n¿£sÁDj
¡ áT dŸ+K«\T nsTTÔû
(i) ap . aq = ap + q (ii) (ap)q = apq
ap
(iii) q
= ap - q (iv) apbp = (ab)p
a
50 POLYNOMIALS

CHAPTER 2

POLYNOMIALS

2.1 Introduction
You have studied algebraic expressions, their addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
in earlier classes. You also have studied how to factorise some algebraic expressions. You may
recall the algebraic identities :
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x – y)2 = x2 – 2xy + y2
and x2 – y2 = (x + y) (x – y)
and their use in factorisation. In this chapter, we shall start our study with a particular type of
algebraic expression, called polynomial, and the terminology related to it. We shall also study
the Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem and their use in the factorisation of polynomials.
In addition to the above, we shall study some more algebraic identities and their use in
factorisation and in evaluating some given expressions.

2.2 Polynomials in One Variable

Let us begin by recalling that a variable is denoted by a symbol that can take any real value. We
use the letters x, y, z, etc. to denote variables. Notice that 2x, 3x, – x, – 1 x are algebraic
2
expressions. All these expressions are of the form (a constant) × x. Now suppose we want to
write an expression which is (a constant) × (a variable) and we do not know what the constant is.
In such cases, we write the constant as a, b, c, etc. So the expression will be ax, say.
However, there is a difference between a letter denoting a constant and a letter denoting a
variable. The values of the constants remain the same throughout a particular situation, that is,
the values of the constants do not change in a given problem, but the value of a variable can keep
changing.
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 51

‘«jáT+ 22
CHAPTER
n<ó
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \T

2.1 |Ÿ]#ájTá +
MTsÁT ç¿ì+<Š ÔásÁ>·ÔáT\ýË ;JjáT dŸeÖkÍ\ >·Ö]Ì y{ì dŸ+¿£\q+, e«e¿£\q+, >·TD¿±sÁ+, uó²>±VŸäs\ >·Ö]Ì
#á~ysÁT. ¿=“• ;JjáT dŸeÖkÍ\ ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uó„Èq Å£L&† HûsÁTÌÅ£”H•sÁT. ¿=“• ;JjáT dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT >·TsÁTïÅ£”
Ôî#Tá Ì¿Ãe#áTÌ.
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x – y)2 = x2 – 2xy + y2
eT]jáTT x2 – y2 = (x + y) (x – y)
eT]jáTT y{ì –|ŸjîÖ>±\qT ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uó„ÈqýË Ôî\TdŸTÅ£”H•+. ‡ n<ó‘«jáT+ýË eTq+ ÿ¿£ ç|ŸÔû«¿£yîT®q ;JjáT
dŸeÖdŸyîTq® ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~, y{ì¿ì dŸ+‹+~+ºq |Ÿ<¿Š ÃXø+ >·Ö]Ì #á]ÌkÍï+. n<û$<óŠ+>± XâwŸ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+, ¿±sÁD²+¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\qT
eT]jáTT y{ìqT|ŸjîÖÐ+º ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\ ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uó„Èq >·T]+º HûsÁTÌÅ£”+{²+. M{ìÔÃbͳT>±, eT]¿=“• ;JjáT
dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD²\T, ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uó„ÈqýË y{ì –|ŸjîÖ>±\T >·T]+º Å£L&† HûsÁTÌÅ£”+<‘+.

2.2 @¿£#ásÁs¥ýË ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T

@ ydŸïe dŸ+K« nsTTq ¿±>·\ ÿ¿£ dŸ+¿¹ Ԑ“• #ásÁs¥ n+{²sÁ“ eTq+ >·TsÁTïÅ£” Ôî#áTÌÅ£”+<‘+. #ásÁs¥“ kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>±
x, y, z yîTT<ŠýÉÕq n¿£Œs\Ôà dŸÖºkÍïsÁT. 2x, 3x, – x, – 1 x e+{ì$ ;JjáT dŸeÖkÍ\“ >·T]ï+#á+&. ‚eú• Å£L&† ÿ¿£
2
(d¾sœ Ás¥) × x sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË –+{²sTT. ‚|Ÿð&ƒT eTqyûT<îHÕ  dŸeÖk͓• sjáÖ\+fñ (d¾sœ sÁ ¥) × (#ássÁ ¥>±) skÍï+. nsTTÔû
‚¿£Ø&ƒ d¾œsÁs¥ Ôî*jáT<ŠT ¿£qT¿£, d¾œsÁsXø—\qT a, b, c yîTT<ŠýqÕÉ $>± skÍï+ eT]jáTT #ásÁs¥“ x, y, z \T skÍï+. n|Ÿð&ƒT
€ dŸeÖdŸ+ ax nqT¿Ã+&.
nsTTÔû, d¾sœ Ás¥, #ásÁsXø—\qT dŸÖº+#û n¿£Œs\ eT<óŠ« Ôû&† –+³T+~. ÿ¿£ d¾sœ Ás¥ $\Te ÿ¿£ dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛeT+Ô᳿¡
d¾œsÁ+>± –+³T+~. nq>± <‘“ $\Te € dŸeTdŸ«ýË eÖsÁTÌ #î+<Š<TŠ , ¿±ú #ásÁs¥ $\Te eÖçÔá+ eÖsÁTÔáÖ –+³T+~.
52 POLYNOMIALS

Now, consider a square of side 3 units (see Fig. 2.1). What is its 3
perimeter? You know that the perimeter of a square is the sum of the
lengths of its four sides. Here, each side is 3 units. So, its perimeter is 4 3 3

× 3, i.e., 12 units. What will be the perimeter if each side of the square is
10 units? The perimeter is 4 × 10, i.e., 40 units. In case the length of each 3
Fig. 2.1
side is x units (see Fig. 2.2), the perimeter is given by 4x units. So, as the
length of the side varies, the perimeter varies.
Can you find the area of the square PQRS? It is x × x = x2 square units. x R
S
x2 is an algebraic expression. You are also familiar with other algebraic
expressions like 2x, x2 + 2x, x3 – x2 + 4x + 7. Note that, all the algebraic x x
expressions we have considered so far have only whole numbers as the
P Q
exponents of the variable. Expressions of this form are called polynomials x
in one variable. In the examples above, the variable is x. For instance, x3 Fig. 2.2

– x2 + 4x + 7 is a polynomial in x. Similarly, 3y2 + 5y is a polynomial in

the variable y and t2 + 4 is a polynomial in the variable t.
In the polynomial x2 + 2x, the expressions x2 and 2x are called the terms of the polynomial.
Similarly, the polynomial 3y2 + 5y + 7 has three terms, namely, 3y2, 5y and 7. Can you write the
terms of the polynomial –x3 + 4x2 + 7x – 2 ? This polynomial has 4 terms, namely, –x3, 4x2, 7x
and –2.
Each term of a polynomial has a coefficient. So, in –x3 + 4x2 + 7x – 2, the coefficient of x3
is –1, the coefficient of x2 is 4, the coefficient of x is 7 and –2 is the coefficient of x0 (Remember,
x0 = 1). Do you know the coefficient of x in x2 – x + 7? It is –1.
2 is also a polynomial. In fact, 2, –5, 7, etc. are examples of constant polynomials. The
constant polynomial 0 is called the zero polynomial. This plays a very important role in the
collection of all polynomials, as you will see in the higher classes.
1
Now, consider algebraic expressions such as x + , x + 3 and 3 y + y 2 . Do you know that
1 x
you can write x + = x + x–1? Here, the exponent of the second term, i.e.,
x
x–1 is –1, which is not a whole number. So, this algebraic expression is not a polynomial.
1
1
Again, x + 3 can be written as x 2 + 3 . Here the exponent of x is , which is not a whole
2
number. So, is x + 3 a polynomial? No, it is not. What about 3 y + y2? It is also not a polynomial
(Why?).
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 53

‚|Ÿð&ƒT 3 jáT֓³¢ uóT„ È+>± >·\ ÿ¿£ #áÔTá sÁçdŸ+ (|Ÿ³+ 2.1) rdŸT¿Ã+&. <‘“ #áT³T¼¿=\Ôá 3

m+Ôá? #áÔTá sÁçdŸ+ jîTT¿£Ø H\T>·T uó„TC²\ yîTTÔá+ï <‘“ #áT³T¼¿=\ÔᓠMTÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ ç|Ÿr
3 3
uóT„ È+ 3 jáT֓³T¢ ¿£qT¿£ <‘“ #áT³T¼¿=\Ôá 4×3, nq>± 12 jáT֓³T¢. ç|Ÿr uóT„ È+ 10
jáT֓³T¢ nsTTq{ì¼ #áÔáTsÁçdŸ+ #áT³T¼¿=\Ôá m+Ôá? 4 × 10 jáT֓³T¢ nq>± 40 jáT֓³T¢. 3

ÿ¿£yÞû ø ç|Ÿr uó„TÈ+ ¿=\Ôá x jáT֓³T¢ nsTTq (|Ÿ³+ 2.2), <‘“ #áT³T¼¿=\Ôá 4x jáT֓³T¢. |Ÿ³+ 2.1

‚¿£Ø&ƒ uóT„ È+ ¿=\Ôá eÖsÁTÔáT+fñ, <‘“ #áT³T¼¿=\Ôá eÖsÁTÔáT+³T+~.

x R
S
PQRS #áÔTá sÁçdŸ yîXÕ æ\«+ ¿£qT¿ÃØ>·\s? B““ x × x = x2 #á<sŠ |Á ڟ jáT֓³T¢>±
rdŸTÅ£”+{²+. x2 nHû~ ÿ¿£ ;JjáT dŸeÖdŸ+. ný²¹> 2x, x2 + 2x, x3 – x2 + 4x + 7 x x
e+{ì$ Å£L&† ;JjáT dŸeÖkÍ\“ MTÅ£” u²>± Ôî\TdŸT. ‚+ÔáesÁÅ£” eTq+ |Ÿ]o*+ºq n“•
;JjáT dŸeÖkÍýË¢ #ássÁ ¥ |˜ÖŸ Ԑ\T |ŸPs’+¿±\“ >·eT“+#á+&. ‚³Te+{ì ;JjáT dŸeÖkÍ\Hû P Q
x
@¿£ #ásÁs¥ýË ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T n+{²sÁT. ™|Õ y{ìýË #ássÁ ¥ x. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ x #ássÁ ¥ýË x3 – x2 |Ÿ³+ 2.2

+ 4x + 7 ÿ¿£ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~. ‚ý²¹> y #ássÁ ¥ýË 3y2 + 5y, t #ássÁ ¥ýË t2 + 4 \T Å£L&†
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠTýñ.
x2 + 2x nHû ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ýË x2 eT]jáTT 2x \qT |Ÿ<‘\T n+{²sÁT. ‚ý²¹> 3y2 + 5y + 7 nHû ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ýË 3y2, 5y
eT]jáTT 7 nHû eTÖ&ƒT |Ÿ<‘\TH•sTT. –x3 + 4x2 + 7x – 2 nHû ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ý˓ |Ÿ<‘\qT MTsÁT sjáT>·\s? ‡
‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ýË –x3, 4x2, 7x eT]jáTT –2 nHû 4 |Ÿ<‘\T ¿£\eÚ.
‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ý˓ ç|Ÿr |Ÿ<‘“¿ì ÿ¿£ >·TD¿£+ –+³T+~. n+<ŠTe\¢ –x3 + 4x2 + 7x – 2 q+<ŠT x3 >·TD¿£+ –1
x2 >·TD¿£+ G4, x >·TD¿£+ 7, x0 >·TD¿£+ –2 neÚԐsTT ( x0 = 1 n“ >·TsÁTÅï ”£ Ôî#Tá Ì¿Ã+&). x2 – x + 7 q+<ŠT x
jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£+ m+Ôá? –1 neÚÔáT+~.

2 Å£L&† ÿ¿£‹VŸQ|Ÿ<.û “C²“¿ì 2, `5, 7... yîTT<ŠýqÉÕ $. d¾œsÁ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\Å£” –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T. d¾sœ Á ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ »0µ qT
XøSq« ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ n+{²sÁT. ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \ d¿£sDÁ ýË ‚~ ç|ŸeTTK bÍçÔá eV¾²dŸT+ï ~. M{ì >·T]+º ™|Õ ÔásÁ>Ô· Tá ýË¢ HûsTÁ ÌÅ£”+{²sÁT.
1 1
‚|Ÿð&ƒT x + , x +3 eT]jáTT 3 y+y ý²+{ì ;JjáT dŸeÖkÍ\qT >·eT“+#á+&. x + = x + x–1>±
x x
sjáTe#á̓ MTÅ£” Ôî\TkÍ? ‚¿£Ø&ƒ s +&à |Ÿ<+Š jîTT¿£Ø |˜ÖŸ Ôá+ n+fñ x–1 Å£” –1 nHû~ |ŸPs’+¿£+ ¿±<ŠT. ¿±eÚq ‡
dŸeÖdŸ+ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ ¿±<ŠT.
1
1
ný²¹> x + 3 qT x 2
+3 >± sdï , ‚¿£Ø&ƒ x |˜ŸÖÔá+ 2 Å£L&† |ŸPs’+¿£+ ¿±<ŠT. ¿±‹{ì¼ x+3 ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~
neÚÔáT+<‘? ¿±<ŠT. eT] 3 y + y2 >·T]+º? ‚~ Å£L&† ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ ¿±<ŠT (m+<ŠTÅ£”?).
54 POLYNOMIALS

If the variable in a polynomial is x, we may denote the polynomial by p(x), or q(x), or

r(x), etc. So, for example, we may write :
p(x) = 2x2 + 5x – 3
q(x) = x3 –1
r(y) = y3 + y + 1
s(u) = 2 – u – u2 + 6u5
A polynomial can have any (finite) number of terms. For instance, x150 + x149 + ...
+ x2 + x + 1 is a polynomial with 151 terms.
Consider the polynomials 2x, 2, 5x3, –5x2, y and u4. Do you see that each of these
polynomials has only one term? Polynomials having only one term are called monomials
(‘mono’ means ‘one’).
Now observe each of the following polynomials:
p(x) = x + 1, q(x) = x2 – x, r(y) = y9 + 1, t(u) = u15 – u2
How many terms are there in each of these? Each of these polynomials has only two
terms. Polynomials having only two terms are called binomials (‘bi’ means ‘two’).
Similarly, polynomials having only three terms are called trinomials
(‘tri’ means ‘three’). Some examples of trinomials are
p(x) = x + x2 + p, q(x) = 2 + x – x2,
r(u) = u + u2 – 2, t(y) = y4 + y + 5.
Now, look at the polynomial p(x) = 3x7 – 4x6 + x + 9. What is the term with the highest
power of x ? It is 3x7. The exponent of x in this term is 7. Similarly, in the polynomial q(y) =
5y6 – 4y2 – 6, the term with the highest power of y is 5y6 and the exponent of y in this term
is 6. We call the highest power of the variable in a polynomial as the degree of the polynomial.
So, the degree of the polynomial 3x7 – 4x6 + x + 9 is 7 and the degree of the polynomial 5y6
– 4y2 – 6 is 6. The degree of a non-zero constant polynomial is zero.
Example 1 : Find the degree of each of the polynomials given below:
(i) x5 – x4 + 3 (ii) 2 – y2 – y3 + 2y8 (iii) 2
Solution : (i) The highest power of the variable is 5. So, the degree of the polynomial is 5.
(ii)The highest power of the variable is 8. So, the degree of the polynomial is 8.
(iii)The only term here is 2 which can be written as 2x0. So the exponent of x is 0. Therefore,
the degree of the polynomial is 0.
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 55

x #ásÁs¥ýË >·\ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~“ p(x) ýñ<‘ q(x) ýñ<‘ r(x) yîTT<Š\>·T y{ìÔà dŸÖºkÍï+.
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”: p(x) = 2x2 + 5x – 3
q(x) = x3 –1
r(y) = y3 + y + 1
s(u) = 2 – u – u2 + 6u5
ÿ¿£ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ýË |Ÿ]$TÔá dŸ+K«ýË m“• |Ÿ<‘ýÉqÕ –+&ƒe#áTÌ. x150 + x149 + ...+ x2 + x + 1 nHû ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ýË
151 |Ÿ<‘\T+{²sTT.
2x, 2, 5x3, –5x2, y eT]jáTT u4 ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\qT |Ÿ]o*+#á+&. ç|ŸÜ ‹VŸQ |Ÿ~ýË Å£L&† ÿ¹¿ |Ÿ<Š+
–+&ƒ³+ >·eT“+#s? ÿ¹¿ |Ÿ<‘“• ¿£*ÐjáTTq• ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\qT @¿£|Ÿ<ŠT\T (monomials) n+{²sÁT. (yîÖHÃ
(mono) nq>± 1 n“ nsÁÆ+)
‚|ŸÚ&ƒT ç¿ì+~ ç|ŸÜ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~“ >·eT“+#á+&:
p(x) = x + 1, q(x) = x2 – x, r(y) = y9 + 1, t(u) = u15 – u2
™|Õ ç|ŸÜ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ýË mHû•d¾ |Ÿ<‘\T ¿£\eÚ? ç|ŸÜ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ s +&ûd¾ |Ÿ<‘\T ¿£*j
Z áTTH•sTT. s +&ûd¾ |Ÿ<‘\T ¿£*ÐjáTTq•
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \qT (»~ǵ nq>± s +&ƒT) ~Ç|Ÿ<TŠ \T n+{²sÁT. n<û$<óŠ+>± eTÖ&ûd¾ |Ÿ<‘\T ¿£*ÐjáTTq• ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\qT
çÜ|Ÿ<TŠ \T n+{²sÁT. (»çܵ nq>± eTÖ&ƒT). ¿=“• çÜ|Ÿ<ŠT\Å£” –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T:
p(x) = x + x2 + p, q(x) = 2 + x – x2,
r(u) = u + u2 – 2, t(y) = y4 + y + 5.
‚|ŸÚ&ƒT p(x) = 3x7 – 4x6 + x + 9 ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ #áÖ&ƒ+&. x jîTT¿£Ø >·]wŸ¼ |˜ŸÖԐ“• ¿£*ÐjáTTq• |Ÿ<ŠyûT~? n~ 3x7.
‡ |Ÿ<Š+ýË x jîTT¿£Ø |˜ŸÖÔá+ 7. ný²¹> q(y) = 5y6 – 4y2 – 6 q+<ŠT 5y6 |Ÿ<+Š ýË y jîTT¿£Ø >·]wŸ¼ |˜ŸÖÔá+ 6. ÿ¿£
‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ýË #ássÁ ¥ jîTT¿£Ø >·]wŸ¼ |˜ÖŸ Ԑ“• € ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ jîTT¿£Ø |Ÿ]eÖD+ n+{²sÁT. ¿±‹{ì¼ 3x7 – 4x6 + x + 9 nHû
‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ |Ÿ]eÖD+ 7 eT]jáTT 5y6 – 4y2 – 6 ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ |Ÿ]eÖD+ 6 neÚԐsTT. ÿ¿£ XøSHû«ÔásÁ d¾sœ Á ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ jîTT¿£Ø
|Ÿ]eÖD+ dŸTH• neÚÔáT+~.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 1 : ç¿ì+~ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\ |Ÿ]eÖD²\T ¿£qT>=q+&.
(i) x5 – x4 + 3 (ii) 2 – y2 – y3 + 2y8 (iii) 2
kÍ<óŠq : (i) #ásÁs¥ >·]wŸ¼ |˜ŸÖÔá+ 5. ¿±eÚq ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ |Ÿ]eÖD+ 5.
(ii) #ásÁs¥ >·]wŸ¼ |Ÿ]eÖD+ 8. ¿±eÚq ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ |Ÿ]eÖD+ 8.
(iii) ‚+<ŠTýË –q• @¿տ£ |Ÿ<Š+ 2qT 2x0 >± sjáTe#áTÌ. ¿±‹{ì¼ x jîTT¿£Ø |˜ŸÖÔá+ 0. n+<ŠTe\¢ ‡ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~
|Ÿ]eÖD+ »0µ.
56 POLYNOMIALS

Now observe the polynomials p(x) = 4x + 5, q(y) = 2y, r(t) = t + 2 and s(u) = 3 – u. Do
you see anything common among all of them? The degree of each of these polynomials is one.
A polynomial of degree one is called a linear polynomial. Some more linear polynomials in
one variable are 2x – 1, 2 y + 1, 2 – u. Now, try and find a linear polynomial in x with 3 terms?
You would not be able to find it because a linear polynomial in x can have at most two terms. So,
any linear polynomial in x will be of the form ax + b, where a and b are constants and a ¹ 0
(why?). Similarly, ay + b is a linear polynomial in y.
Now consider the polynomials :
2
2x2 + 5, 5x2 + 3x + p, x2 and x2 + 5
x
Do you agree that they are all of degree two? A polynomial of degree two is called a quadratic
polynomial. Some examples of a quadratic polynomial are 5 – y2, 4y + 5y2 and 6 – y – y2. Can
you write a quadratic polynomial in one variable with four different terms? You will find that a
quadratic polynomial in one variable will have at most 3 terms. If you list a few more quadratic
polynomials, you will find that any quadratic polynomial in x is of the form ax2 + bx + c, where
a ¹ 0 and a, b, c are constants. Similarly, quadratic polynomial in y will be of the form ay2 + by
+ c, provided a ¹ 0 and a, b, c are constants.
We call a polynomial of degree three a cubic polynomial. Some examples of a cubic
polynomial in x are 4x3, 2x3 + 1, 5x3 + x2, 6x3 – x, 6 – x3, 2x3 + 4x2 + 6x + 7. How many terms
do you think a cubic polynomial in one variable can have? It can have at most 4 terms. These
may be written in the form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where a ¹ 0 and a, b, c and d are constants.
Now, that you have seen what a polynomial of degree 1, degree 2, or degree 3 looks like, can
you write down a polynomial in one variable of degree n for any natural number n? A polynomial
in one variable x of degree n is an expression of the form
anxn + an–1xn–1 + . . . + a1x + a0
where a0, a1, a2, . . ., an are constants and an ¹ 0.
In particular, if a0 = a1 = a2 = a3 = . . . = an = 0 (all the constants are zero), we get the zero
polynomial, which is denoted by 0. What is the degree of the zero polynomial? The degree of
the zero polynomial is not defined.
So far we have dealt with polynomials in one variable only. We can also have polynomials in
more than one variable. For example, x2 + y2 + xyz (where variables are x, y and z) is a polynomial
in three variables. Similarly p2 + q10 + r (where the variables are p, q and r), u3 + v2 (where the
variables are u and v) are polynomials in three and two variables, respectively. You will be
studying such polynomials in detail later.
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 57

‚|ŸÚ&ƒT p(x) = 4x + 5, q(y) = 2y, r(t) = t + 2 eT]jáTT s(u) = 3 – u ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \qT >·eT“+#á+&.
M³“•+{Ë¢ @<îHÕ  kÍeÖq«Ôá ¿£“|¾dTŸ +ï <‘? ç|ŸÜ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ |Ÿ]eÖD+ ÿ¿£{ì neÚÔáT+~. ÿ¿£{ì |Ÿ]eÖD+ >·\ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \qT
¹sFjáT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T n+{²sÁT. eT]¿=“• @¿£#sá sÁ ¥ýË s¹ FjáT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \T 2x – 1, 2 y + 1, 2 – u. ‚|ŸÚð&ƒT
x #ássÁ ¥Ôà 3 |Ÿ<‘\Tq• s¹ FjáT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ ¿£qT¿ÃØ&†“¿ì ç|ŸjTá ܕ+#á+&. ný²+{ì ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~“ MTsÁT çyjáTýñsTÁ ,
m+<ŠT¿£+fñ ¹sFjáT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ýË >·]wŸ¼+>± Âs+&ƒT |Ÿ<‘\T eÖçÔáyûT –+{²sTT. n+<ŠTe\¢ x #ásÁs¥ýË >·\ ¹sFjáT
‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>±, ax + b sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË –+{²sTT. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ a eT]jáT b \T d¾sœ sÁ Xø—\T a ¹ 0 (m+<ŠTÅ£”?). ný²¹>
ay + b nHû~ y ýË s¹ FjáT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~.
ç¿ì+~ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \T >·eT“+#á+& :
2
2x2 + 5, 5x2 + 3x + p, x2 eT]jáTT x2 + 5
x

™|Õ e“•+{ì¿ì |Ÿ]eÖD+ »2µ n>·TH? 2e |Ÿ]eÖD+ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \qT esÁZ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T n+<ŠTsÁT. esÁZ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\Å£”
¿=“• –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T 5 – y2, 4y + 5y2 eT]jáTT 6 – y – y2. H\T>·T $_óq• |Ÿ<‘\Ôà @¿£#sá sÁ ¥ýË ÿ¿£ esÁZ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~
çyjáT>·\s? esÁZ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ýË >·]wŸ¼+>± 3 |Ÿ<‘\T+{²jáT“ MTsÁT Ôî\TdŸTÅ£”+{²sÁT. eT]¿=“• esÁZ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\qT MTsÁT
>·eT“+ºq³¢sTTÔû neú• Å£L&† a, b, c d¾œs+¿±\Å£”, a ¹ 0 nsTTq|Ÿð&ƒT ax2 + bx + c sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË
–+{²jáT“ “sœ]+#áe#áTÌ. n<û$<óŠ+>± y #ásÁs¥ýË esÁZ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ a, b, c d¾œs+¿±\Å£” a ¹ 0 nsTTq|Ÿð&ƒT
ay2 + by + c sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË –+³T+~.
3e |Ÿ]eÖD+ >·\ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~“ |˜TŸ q ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ n+{²sÁT. |˜TŸ q ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì ¿=“• –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T>± 4x3, 2x3 + 1,
5x3 + x2, 6x3 – x, 6 – x3, 2x3 + 4x2 + 6x + 7 yîTT<Š\>·T y{ì“ #î|🠿Ãe#áTÌ. @¿£ #ássÁ ¥ýË >·\ |˜TŸ q ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~
m“• |Ÿ<‘\qT ¿£*Ð –+³T+~? n+<ŠTýË >·]wŸ+¼ >± 4 |Ÿ<‘\T+{²sTT. a, b, c, d \T d¾sœ sÁ Xø—\T a ¹ 0 nsTTq|ŸÚ&ƒT
|˜ŸTq ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\qT kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± ax3 + bx2 + cx + d sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáTe#áTÌ.
‚|ŸÎ{ìesÁŔ£ 1e, 2e, 3e |Ÿ]eÖD ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \T mý² –+{²jîÖ #áÖXæsÁT ¿£<‘? ‚|Ÿð&ƒT @<îHÕ  dŸV²Ÿ È dŸ+K«
nÅ£” @¿£#sá sÁ ¥ýË ne |Ÿ]eÖD ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ sjáT>·\s? B“• ç¿ì+~ sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáTe#áTÌ.
anxn + an–1xn–1 + . . . + a1x + a0
‚¿£Ø&ƒ a0, a1, a2, . . ., an \T d¾œsÁsXø—\T eT]jáTT an ¹ 0.
ÿ¿£yûÞø a0 = a1 = a2 = a3 = . . . = an = 0 (n“• d¾œsÁsXø—\T »0µ) nsTTÔû n|Ÿð&ƒT n~ XøSq« ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ n>·TqT.
B“• »0µ Ôà dŸÖºkÍï+. XøSq«‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ |Ÿ]eÖD+ m+Ôá? XøSq« ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ |Ÿ]eÖD+ “sÁǺ+#áýñ+.
‚+ÔáesÁŔ£ eTq+ @¿£#sá sÁ ¥ýË ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \ >·Ö]Ì #á]Ì+#+. ÿ¿£{ì ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe #ássÁ Xø—ýË¢ Å£L&† ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\qT
sjáTe#áTÌ. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” x2 + y2 + xyz (‚¿£Ø&ƒ x, y, z \T #ásÁsXø—\T) nHû~ 3 #ásÁsXø—ýË¢ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~. n<û$<óŠ+>±
p2 + q10 + r (p, q, r #ásÁsXø—\T), u3 + v2 (u, v \T #ásÁsXø—\T)\T esÁTdŸ>± 3 eT]jáTT 2 #ásÁsXø—ýË¢
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T. M{ì >·T]+º ÔásÇÔá $esÁ+>± HûsÁTÌÅ£”+{²sÁT.
58 POLYNOMIALS

EXERCISE 2.1
1. Which of the following expressions are polynomials in one variable and which are not?
State reasons for your answer.
2
(i) 4x2 – 3x + 7(ii) y2 + 2 (iii) 3 t + t 2 (iv) y +
y
(v) x10 + y3 + t50
2. Write the coefficients of x2 in each of the following:
p
(i) 2 + x2 + x (ii) 2 – x2 + x3 (iii) x 2 + x (iv) 2 x -1
2
3. Give one example each of a binomial of degree 35, and of a monomial of degree 100.
4. Write the degree of each of the following polynomials:
(i) 5x3 + 4x2 + 7x (ii) 4 – y2
(iii) 5t – 7 (iv) 3
5. Classify the following as linear, quadratic and cubic polynomials:
(i) x2 + x (ii) x – x3 (iii) y + y2 + 4 (iv) 1 + x
(v) 3t (vi) r2 (vii) 7x3

2.3 Zeroes of a Polynomial

Consider the polynomialp(x) = 5x3 – 2x2 + 3x – 2.
If we replace x by 1 everywhere in p(x), we get
p(1) = 5 × (1)3 – 2 × (1)2 + 3 × (1) – 2
= 5 – 2 + 3 –2
=4
So, we say that the value of p(x) at x = 1 is 4.
Similarly, p(0) = 5(0)3 – 2(0)2 + 3(0) –2
= –2
Can you find p(–1)?

Example 2 : Find the value of each of the following polynomials at the indicated value of
variables:
(i) p(x) = 5x2 – 3x + 7 at x = 1.
(ii) q(y) = 3y3 – 4y + 11 at y = 2.
(iii) p(t) = 4t4 + 5t3 – t2 + 6 at t = a.
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 59

nuó²«dŸ+ 2.1
1. ç¿ì+~ y{ìýË @$ @¿£#sá sÁ ¥ýË ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \T? @$ ¿±eÚ? MT dŸeÖ<ó‘H\Å£” ¿±sÁD²\qT Ôî\|Ÿ+&.
2
(i) 4x2 – 3x + 7(ii) y2 + 2 (iii) 3 t +t 2 (iv) y +
y
(v) x10 + y3 + t50
2. ç¿ì+~ y{ìýË x2 >·TD¿±\qT sjáT+&.
p 2
(i) 2 + x2 + x (ii) 2 – x2 + x3 (iii) x +x (iv) 2 x -1
2
3. 35e |Ÿ]eÖD+ >·\ ÿ¿£ ~Ç|Ÿ~, 100e |Ÿ]eÖD+ >·\ ÿ¿£ @¿£|Ÿ<ŠT\Å£” –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T ‚eÇ+&.
4. ç¿ì+~ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\ |Ÿ]eÖD²\qT sjáT+&.
(i) 5x3 + 4x2 + 7x (ii) 4 – y2
(iii) 5t – 7 (iv) 3
5. ç¿ì+~ y{ì“ ¹sFjáT, esÁZ, |˜ŸTq ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T>± e¯Z¿£]+#á+&.
(i) x2 + x (ii) x – x3 (iii) y + y2 + 4 (iv) 1 + x
(v) 3t (vi) r2 (vii) 7x3

2.3 ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ XøSH«\T

p(x) = 5x3 – 2x2 + 3x – 2 ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~“ rdŸTÅ£”+<‘+. B“ýË x ‹<ŠT\T 1qT ç|ŸÜ¿¹ |Œ ¾ dï
p(1) = 5 × (1)3 – 2 × (1)2 + 3 × (1) – 2
= 5 – 2 + 3 –2
=4
n+<ŠTe\¢ x = 1 e<ŠÝ p(x) $\Te 4 neÚÔáT+~.
n<û$<ó+Š >±, p(0) =5(0)3 – 2(0)2 + 3(0) –2
= –2
MTsÁT p(–1) $\Te ¿£qT>=q>·\s?
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 2: ç¿ì+~ ‚eNj&q ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \ $\Te\qT €jáÖ #ássÁ Xø—\ e<ŠÝ ¿£qT>=q+&.
(i) x = 1 e<Š,Ý (x) = 5x2 – 3x + 7
(ii) y = 2 e<Š,Ý q(y) = 3y3 – 4y + 11
(iii) t = a e<Š,Ý p(t) = 4t4 + 5t3 – t2 + 6
60 POLYNOMIALS

Solution : (i) p(x) = 5x2 – 3x + 7

The value of the polynomial p(x) at x = 1 is given by
p(1) = 5(1)2 – 3(1) + 7
= 5–3+7= 9
(ii) q(y) = 3y3 – 4y + 11
The value of the polynomial q(y) at y = 2 is given by
q(2) = 3(2)3 – 4(2) + 11 = 24 – 8 + 11 = 16 + 11
(iii) p(t) = 4t4 + 5t3 – t2 + 6
The value of the polynomial p(t) at t = a is given by
p(a) = 4a4 + 5a3 – a2 + 6
Now, consider the polynomial p(x) = x – 1.
What is p(1)? Note that : p(1) = 1 – 1 = 0.
As p(1) = 0, we say that 1 is a zero of the polynomial p(x).
Similarly, you can check that 2 is a zero of q(x), where q(x) = x – 2.
In general, we say that a zero of a polynomial p(x) is a number c such that p(c) = 0.
You must have observed that the zero of the polynomial x – 1 is obtained by equating it to 0,
i.e., x – 1 = 0, which gives x = 1. We say p(x) = 0 is a polynomial equation and 1 is the root of
the polynomial equation p(x) = 0. So we say 1 is the zero of the polynomial x – 1, or a root of
the polynomial equation x – 1 = 0.
Now, consider the constant polynomial 5. Can you tell what its zero is? It has no zero because
replacing x by any number in 5x0 still gives us 5. In fact, a non-zero constant polynomial has
no zero. What about the zeroes of the zero polynomial? By convention, every real number is a
zero of the zero polynomial.
Example 3 : Check whether –2 and 2 are zeroes of the polynomial x + 2.
Solution : Let p(x) = x + 2.
Then p(2) = 2 + 2 = 4,p(–2) = –2 + 2 = 0
Therefore, –2 is a zero of the polynomial x + 2, but 2 is not.
Example 4 : Find a zero of the polynomial p(x) = 2x + 1.
Solution : Finding a zero of p(x), is the same as solving the equation
p(x) = 0
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 61

kÍ<óŠq : (i) p(x) = 5x2 – 3x + 7

<ŠÔï+X擕 nqTdŸ]+º x = 1 e<Š,Ý ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ p(x) $\Te
p(1) = 5(1)2 – 3(1) + 7
= 5–3+7=9
(ii) q(y) = 3y3 – 4y + 11
y = 2 e<ŠÝ, q(y) $\Te
q(2) =3(2)3 – 4(2) + 11 = 24 – 8 + 11 = 16 + 11
(iii) p(t) = 4t4 + 5t3 – t2 + 6
t = a e<ŠÝ, p(t) $\Te
p(a) =4a4 + 5a3 – a2 + 6
‚|Ÿð&ƒT p(x) = x – 1nHû ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ >·eT“+#á+&.
p(1) $\Te m+Ôá? p(1) = 1 – 1 = 0 n“ >·eT“+#á+&. p(1) = 0 nsTTq+<ŠTq 1 nHû~ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ p(x)
XøSq« $\Te n+{²+.
n<û$<óŠ+>±, q(x) = x – 2 jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te 2 neÚÔáT+<Š“ #î|Ο >·\eÚ.
kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>±, p(x) ýË p(c) = 0 nsTTÔû c qT p(x) jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te n+{²sÁT.
x – 1 jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te Ôî\TdŸT¿=qT³Å£” x – 1 qT 0 Å£” dŸeÖq+ #ûjTá &ƒ+ <‘Çs bõ+<Še#áTÌ. nq>± x – 1
= 0 nsTTq x = 1. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ p(x) = 0 qT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ dŸMT¿£sÁDeTú, 1qT <‘“ eTÖ\+ n“ n+{²sÁT. n+<ŠTe\¢ 1“
x – 1 jîTT¿£Ø ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ XøSq« $\Te ýñ<‘ x – 1 = 0 ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ dŸMT¿£sÁD+ jîTT¿£Ø eTÖ\+ n“ n+{²sÁT.
‚|Ÿð&ƒT ÿ¿£ d¾sœ Á ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ 5 rdŸT¿Ã+&. B“ jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te #î|Ο >·\s? B“¿ì XøSq« $\Te ýñ<TŠ . m+<ŠT¿£+fñ
x qT @ $\TeÔà ç|ŸÜ¿¹ | Œ +¾ ºH 5x0 $\Te 5 eÖçÔáyûT n>·TqT. “C²“¿ì, @ XøSHû«ÔásÁ d¾sœ Á ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿Â HÕ  XøSH«\T
–+&ƒeÚ. eT] XøSq« ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te @eTeÚÔáT+~. kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± ç|Ÿr ydŸïe dŸ+U« Å£L&† XøSq«
‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì XøSq« $\Tyû.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 3: –2 eT]jáTT 2 \T x + 2 ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì XøSq« $\Te\T n>·THûyîÖ dŸ]#áÖ&ƒ+&.
kÍ<óŠq : p(x) = x + 2 nqT¿Ã+&.
n|Ÿð&ƒT p(2) = 2 + 2 = 4,p(–2) = –2 + 2 = 0
\ –2 nHû~ x + 2 ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì XøSq« $\Te n>·TqT.

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 4 : p(x) = 2x + 1 jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te m+Ôá?

kÍ<óŠq : p(x) R 0 qT kÍ~ó+ºqfñ¢ p(x) jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\TeqT ¿£qT>=+<‘+.
p(x) qT 0 Å£” dŸeÖq+ #ûjáT+&.
62 POLYNOMIALS

1
Now, 2x + 1 = 0 gives us x = –
2
1
So, – is a zero of the polynomial 2x + 1.
2
Now, if p(x) = ax + b, a ¹ 0, is a linear polynomial, how can we find a zero of p(x)? Example
4 may have given you some idea. Finding a zero of the polynomial p(x), amounts to solving the
polynomial equation p(x) = 0.
Now, p(x) = 0 means ax + b = 0, a ¹ 0
So, ax = –b
b
i.e., x= – .
a
b
So, x = - is the only zero of p(x), i.e., a linear polynomial has one and only one zeroo.
a
Now we can say that 1 is the zero of x – 1, and –2 is the zero of x + 2.

Example 5 : Verify whether 2 and 0 are zeroes of the polynomial x2 – 2x.

Solution : Let p(x) = x2 – 2x
Then p(2) = 22 – 4 = 4 – 4 = 0
and p(0) = 0 – 0 = 0
Hence, 2 and 0 are both zeroes of the polynomial x2 – 2x.
Let us now list our observations:
(i) A zero of a polynomial need not be 0.
(ii) 0 may be a zero of a polynomial.
(iii) Every linear polynomial has one and only one zero.
(iv) A polynomial can have more than one zero.

EXERCISE 2.2
1. Find the value of the polynomial 5x – 4x2 + 3 at
(i) x = 0 (ii) x = –1 (iii) x = 2
2. Find p(0), p(1) and p(2) for each of the following polynomials:
(i) p(y) = y2 – y + 1 (ii) p(t) = 2 + t + 2t2 – t3
(iii) p(x) = x3 (iv) p(x) = (x – 1) (x + 1)
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 63

1
‚|Ÿð&ƒT 2x + 1 = 0 , x = – 2
1
n+<ŠTe\¢ –
2
nHû~ 2x + 1 nHû ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te.
‚|Ÿð&ƒT p(x) = ax + b, a ¹ 0 nHû ¹sFjáT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te mý² ¿£qT>=+{²eÚ? –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” 4 <‘Çs
¿=+Ôá ne>±VŸ²q njûT« –+³T+~. ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ p(x) Å£” XøSq« $\Te ¿£qT>=q&ƒ+ n+fñ p(x) = 0 dŸMT¿£sÁD+
kÍ~ó+#á&ƒeT“ nsÁ+œ .
‚|Ÿð&ƒT p(x) = 0 nq>± ax + b = 0, a ¹ 0
¿±‹{ì¼ ax = –b
b
n+fñ x= –
a
b
n+<ŠTe\¢, p(x) jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te – eÖçÔáyTû . nq>± ÿ¿£ ¹sFjáT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ XøSq« $\Te –+³T+~.
a
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 5 : 2 eT]jáTT 0 \T, x2 – 2x ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì XøSq« $\Te\T n>·TH?
kÍ<óŠq : p(x) = x2 – 2x nqT¿Ã+&
n|Ÿð&ƒT, p(2) = 22 – 4 = 4 – 4 = 0
eT]jáTT p(0) = 0 – 0 = 0
n+<ŠTe\¢, x2 – 2x Å£” 2 eT]jáTT 0 \T XøSq« $\Te\T
‚+ÔáesÁÅ£” eTq+ |Ÿ]o*+ºq n+Xæ\T :
(i) XøSq« ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te dŸTH• ¿±q¿£Ø¹s¢<ŠT.
(ii) ÿ¿£ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ XøSq« $\Te 0 Å£L&† ¿±e#áTÌ.
(iii) ç|Ÿr ¹sFjáT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ XøSq« $\Te –+³T+~.
(iv) ÿ¿£ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì ÿ¿£{ì ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe XøSq« $\Te\T –+&ƒe#áTÌ.
nuó²«dŸ+ 2.2
1. ç¿ì+~ $\Te\ e<ŠÝ 5x – 4x2 + 3 ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ $\Te\qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
(i) x = 0 (ii) x = –1 (iii) x = 2
2. ç¿ì+~ ç|Ÿr ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì p(0), p(1) eT]jáTT p(2) $\Te\T ¿£qT>=q+&.
(i) p(y) = y2 – y + 1 (ii) p(t) = 2 + t + 2t2 – t3
(iii) p(x) = x3 (iv) p(x) = (x – 1) (x + 1)
64 POLYNOMIALS

3. Verify whether the following are zeroes of the polynomial, indicated against them.
1 4
(i) p(x) = 3x + 1, x = – (ii) p(x) = 5x – p, x = 5
3
(iii) p(x) = x2 – 1, x = 1, –1 (iv) p(x) = (x + 1) (x – 2), x = – 1, 2
m
(v) p(x) = x2, x = 0 (vi) p(x) = lx + m, x = –
l
1 , 2 1
(vii) p(x) = 3x2 – 1, x = - (viii) p(x) = 2x + 1, x =
3 3 2
4. Find the zero of the polynomial in each of the following cases:
(i) p(x) = x + 5 (ii) p(x) = x – 5 (iii) p(x) = 2x + 5
(iv) p(x) = 3x – 2 (v) p(x) = 3x (vi) p(x) = ax, a ¹ 0
(vii)p(x) = cx + d, c ¹ 0, c, d are real numbers.

2.4 Factorisation of Polynomials

Let us now look at the situation of Example 10 above more closely. It tells us that since the
æ ö1
remainder, q ç - ÷ = 0, (2t + 1) is a factor of q(t), i.e., q(t) = (2t + 1) g(t)
è 2ø
for some polynomial g(t). This is a particular case of the following theorem.
Factor Theorem : If p(x) is a polynomial of degree n > 1 and a is any real number, then
(i) x – a is a factor of p(x), if p(a) = 0, and (ii) p(a) = 0, if x – a is a factor of p(x).
Proof: By the Remainder Theorem, p(x)=(x – a) q(x) + p(a).
(i) If p(a) = 0, then p(x) = (x – a) q(x), which shows that x – a is a factor of p(x).
(ii) Since x – a is a factor of p(x), p(x) = (x – a) g(x) for same polynomial g(x). In this case,
p(a) = (a – a) g(a) = 0.

Example 6 : Examine whether x + 2 is a factor of x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 6 and of 2x + 4.

Solution : The zero of x + 2 is –2. Let p(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 6 and s(x) = 2x + 4

Then, p(–2) = (–2)3 + 3(–2)2 + 5(–2) + 6
= –8 + 12 – 10 + 6
=0
So, by the Factor Theorem, x + 2 is a factor of x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 6.
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 65

3. ç¿ì+~ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\Å£” m<ŠTsÁT>± ‚ºÌq $\Te\T y{ì XøSH«\eÚԐjûTyîÖ dŸ]#áÖ&ƒ+&.

1 4
(i) p(x) = 3x + 1, x = – (ii) p(x) = 5x – p, x = 5
3
(iii) p(x) = x2 – 1, x = 1, –1 (iv) p(x) = (x + 1) (x – 2), x = – 1, 2
m
(v) p(x) = x2, x = 0 (vi) p(x) = lx + m, x = –
l
1 , 2 1
(vii) p(x) = 3x2 – 1, x = - (viii) p(x) = 2x + 1, x =
3 3 2
4. ç¿ì+~ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\ XøSq« $\Te\T ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
(i) p(x) = x + 5 (ii) p(x) = x – 5 (iii) p(x) = 2x + 5
(iv) p(x) = 3x – 2 (v) p(x) = 3x (vi) p(x) = ax, a ¹ 0
(vii) p(x) = cx + d, c ¹ 0, c, d \T ydŸeï dŸ+K«\T.

2.4 ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\ ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uó„Èq

™|Õ –<‘VŸ²sÁD 10 ýË >·\ dŸ+<ŠsÒۓ• dŸT“¥Ôá+>± |Ÿ]o*<‘Ý+. ‚~, XâwŸ+ q æç - 2 ö÷ = 0 n>·T³ e\q (2t + 1) nHû~
1
è ø
q(t) Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿£eTeÚÔáT+~. nq>± q(t) = (2t + 1) g(t), g(t) nHû~ ÿ¿£ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~. ‚~ ç¿ì+~ d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ“¿ì ÿ¿£
ç|ŸÔ«û ¿£ dŸ+<ŠsÁÒ+Û .
¿±sÁD²+¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ : ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ |Ÿ]eÖD+ n > 1 >± >·\ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ p(x) eT]jáTT a @<û“ ydŸïedŸ+K«
nsTTq|ŸÚ&ƒT (i) p(a) = 0 nsTTq (x – a) nHû~ p(x)Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ neÚÔáT+~. eT]jáTT (ii) (x – a) nHû~
p(x) Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ nsTTq p(a) = 0 neÚÔáT+~.
“sÁÖ|ŸD : XâwŸ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ p(x)=(x – a) q(x) + p(a)
(i) p(a) = 0 nsTTq dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+ýË p(x) = (x – a) q(x) B““ ‹{ì¼ p(x)Å£” x – a ÿ¿£ ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ neÚÔáT+~.
(ii) ‚<û$<ó+Š >± x – a nHû~ p(x) Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ ¿±eÚq p(x) = (x – a) g(x) dŸÔá«eTeÚÔáT+~. g(x) nHû~
ÿ¿£ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~. \ p(a) = (a – a) g(a) = 0.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 6 : x + 2 nHû~ x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 6 eT]jáTT 2x + 4 \Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ neÚÔáT+<‘?
kÍ<óŠq : x + 2 jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te –2 . p(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 6 eT]jáTT s(x) = 2x + 4 nqT¿Ã+&.
p(–2) =(–2)3 + 3(–2)2 + 5(–2) + 6
= –8 + 12 – 10 + 6
n|Ÿð&ƒT, =0
¿±eÚq, ¿±sÁD²+¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ ‚ºÌq ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 6Å£” x + 2 ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ neÚÔáT+~.
66 POLYNOMIALS

Again, s(–2) = 2(–2) + 4 = 0

So, x + 2 is a factor of 2x + 4. In fact, you can check this without applying the Factor Theorem,
since 2x + 4 = 2(x + 2).

Example 7 : Find the value of k, if x – 1 is a factor of 4x3 + 3x2 – 4x + k.

Solution : As x – 1 is a factor of p(x) = 4x3 + 3x2 – 4x + k, p(1) = 0
Now, p(1) =4(1)3 + 3(1)2 – 4(1) + k
So, 4+3–4+k= 0
i.e., k= –3
We will now use the Factor Theorem to factorise some polynomials of degree 2 and 3. You are
already familiar with the factorisation of a quadratic polynomial like
x2 + lx + m. You had factorised it by splitting the middle term lx as ax + bx so that
ab = m. Then x2 + lx + m = (x + a) (x + b). We shall now try to factorise quadratic polynomials
of the type ax2 + bx + c, where a ¹ 0 and a, b, c are constants.
Factorisation of the polynomial ax2 + bx + c by splitting the middle term is as follows:
3x 2
Let its factors be (px + q) and (rx + s). Then = 3x = first term of quotient
x
ax2 + bx + c = (px + q) (rx + s) = pr x2 + (ps + qr) x + qs
Comparing the coefficients of x2, we get a = pr.
Similarly, comparing the coefficients of x, we get b = ps + qr.
And, on comparing the constant terms, we get c = qs.
This shows us that b is the sum of two numbers ps and qr, whose product is
(ps)(qr) = (pr)(qs) = ac.
Therefore, to factorise ax2 + bx + c, we have to write b as the sum of two numbers whose
product is ac. This will be clear from Example 13.

Example 8 : Factorise 6x2 + 17x + 5 by splitting the middle term, and by using the Factor
Theorem.
Solution 1 : (By splitting method) : If we can find two numbers p and q such that
p + q = 17 and pq = 6 × 5 = 30, then we can get the factors.
So, let us look for the pairs of factors of 30. Some are 1 and 30, 2 and 15, 3 and 10, 5 and 6. Of
these pairs, 2 and 15 will give us p + q = 17.
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 67
eTsÁý, s(–2) = 2(–2) + 4 = 0
ný²¹> (x + 2) nHû~ 2x + 4 Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ neÚÔáT+~. m+<ŠT¿£+fñ 2x + 4 = 2(x + 2) neÚÔáT+~. B“ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+
¿±sÁD²+¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ ç|ŸÜbÍ~+#áÅ£”+&†Hû x + 2 ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ n“ #î|Ο e#áTÌ.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 7 : 4x3 + 3x2 – 4x + k nHû ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì (x – 1) ¿±sÁD²+¿£yîT®Ôû k $\Te ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
kÍ<óŠq : (x – 1) nHû~ p(x) = 4x3 + 3x2 – 4x + k ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì ¿±sÁD²+¿£+, p(1) = 0
‚|Ÿð&ƒT, p(1) = 4(1)3 + 3(1)2 – 4(1) + k
¿±‹{ì¼, 4+3–4+k=0
nq>±., k = –3
‚|ŸÚ&ƒT ¿±sÁD²+¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ nqTdŸ]+º |Ÿ]eÖD+ 2 eT]jáTT 3 >·\ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\qT ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $&ƒ>=³¼e#áTÌ.
x2 + lx + m e+{ì esÁZ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\qT ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uó„Èq #ûjáT&ƒ+ eTqÅ£” Ôî*d¾q $wŸjáTyûT. nsTTÔû eT<óŠ«|Ÿ<ŠyîT®q lx
qT ax + bx e+{ì s +&ƒT |Ÿ<‘\ ¿£\sTT¿£>± $&ƒBdŸÖ,ï ab = m njûT«³T¢ ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uó„Èq #ûkÍï+. n|Ÿð&ƒT
x2 + lx + m = (x + a) (x + b) ‚|Ÿð&ƒT ax2 + bx + c nHû esÁZ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~“ ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uó„Èq #û<‘Ý+. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ
a ¹ 0 eT]jáTT a, b, c \T d¾sœ +¿±\T.
eT<óŠ«|Ÿ<‘“• $uó„›+#á&ƒ+ <‘Çs ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ ax2 + bx + c jîTT¿£Ø ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uó„Èq ç¿ì+~ $<óŠ+>± –+³T+~.
‡ esÁZ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì (px + q) eT]jáTT (rx + s) nHû$ ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T nqTÅ£”+<‘+.
¿±eÚq ax2 + bx + c = (px + q) (rx + s) = pr x2 + (ps + qr) x + qs
x2 >·TD¿±\qT bþ\Ì>± eTqÅ£” a = pr
‚<û$<óŠ+>±, x >·TD¿±\qT bþ\Ì>±, eTqÅ£” b = ps + qr
d¾sœ Á |Ÿ<‘\qT bþ\Ì>± c = qs n“ ekÍïsTT.
B“ qT+& eTqÅ£ ” >· T D¿£ + b nHû ~ ps eT]já T T qr \ yî T TÔá ï + n“ Ôî \ TdŸ T ï + ~. M{ì \‹Ý +
(ps)(qr) = (pr)(qs) = ac n“ sjáTe#áTÌ.
B““ ‹{ì¼ ax2 + bx + c esÁZ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uó„ÈqýË b nHû~ Âs+&ƒT dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ n“, y{ì \‹Ý+ ac
n“ Ôî\TdŸTï+~. ‚~ ÔásÁTyÔá e#ûÌ –<‘VŸ²sÁD 18ýË Ôî\TdŸTï+~.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 8 : 6x2 + 17x + 5qT eT<óŠ«|Ÿ<Š+ $&ƒBd¾ ¿±sÁD²+¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $&ƒBjáT+&.
kÍ<óŠq 1: (eT<ó«Š |Ÿ<+Š $&ƒBjáTT³ <‘Çs) : p,q\T nHû$ Âs+&ƒTdŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT p + q = 17 eT]jáTT pq = 6
× 5 = 30 ¿±sÁD²+¿±\qT bõ+<ŠTԐ+.
30 \‹Ý+>± sjáT>·*¹> ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ ÈÔá\qT |Ÿ]o*dï (1,30) , (2,15), (3,10) (5 ,6) ÈÔá\ýË (2,15) ÈÔá
p + q = 17qT Ôá|¾ï |ŸsÁTdŸTï+~.
68 POLYNOMIALS

So, 6x2 + 17x + 5 = 6x2 + (2 + 15)x + 5

= 6x2 + 2x + 15x + 5

= 2x(3x + 1) + 5(3x + 1)

= (3x + 1) (2x + 5)

Solution 2 : (Using the Factor Theorem)

æ 17 5ö
6x2 + 17x + 5 = 6 ç x 2 + x + ÷ = 6 p(x), say. If a and b are the zeroes of p(x), then
è 6 6ø
5
6x2 + 17x + 5 = 6(x – a) (x – b). So, ab = . Let us look at some possibilities for a and b.
6

They could be ± , ± , ± , ± , ± 1 . Now, p æç ö÷ = + æç ö÷ + ¹ 0. But

1 1 5 5 1 1 17 1 5
2 3 3 2 è 2ø 4 6 è 2ø 6

æ -1 ö æ 1ö æ 5ö
p ç ÷ = 0. So, ç x + ÷ is a factor of p(x). Similarly, by trial, you can find that ç x + ÷ is a
è 3 ø è 3ø è 2ø
factor of p(x).

6x2 + 17x + 5 = 6 æç x + ö÷ æç x + ö÷
1 5
Therefore,
è 3 øè 2 ø
3x + 1 ö æ 2 x + 5 ö
= 6 æç ÷ç ÷
è 3 øè 2 ø
= (3x + 1) (2x + 5)

For the example above, the use of the splitting method appears more efficient. However, let us
consider another example.

Example 9 : Factorise y2 – 5y + 6 by using the Factor Theorem.

Solution : Let p(y) = y2 – 5y + 6. Now, if p(y) = (y – a) (y – b), you know that the constant term
will be ab. So, ab = 6. So, to look for the factors of p(y), we look at the factors of 6.

The factors of 6 are 1, 2 and 3.

Now, p(2) = 22 – (5 × 2) + 6 = 0

So, y – 2 is a factor of p(y).

‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 69

¿±eÚq 6x2 + 17x + 5 = 6x2 + (2 + 15)x + 5

= 6x2 + 2x + 15x + 5
= 2x(3x + 1) + 5(3x + 1)
= (3x + 1) (2x + 5)
kÍ<óŠq 2 : (¿±sÁD²+¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+)
æ 17 5ö
6x2 + 17x + 5 = 6 ç x 2 + x + ÷ = 6 p(x) nqT¿Ã+&. ÿ¿£yûÞø a, b \T p(x) jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te\T
è 6 6ø
5.
nsTTÔû 6x2 + 17x + 5 = 6(x – a) (x – b). ¿±‹{ì¼ ab = 6
a, b \Å£” kÍ<ó«Š eTjûT« y{ì“ |Ÿ]o*+#á>±,
1 1 5 5 æ 1 ö 1 17 æ 1 ö 5
n$ ± , ± , ± , ± , ± 1 >± –+{²sTT. ‚|Ÿð&ƒT p ç ÷ = + ç ÷ + ¹ 0. ¿±“
2 3 3 2 è 2ø 4 6 è 2ø 6

æ -1 ö æ 1ö æ 5ö
p ç ÷ = 0, ¿±eÚq, çx + ÷ nHû~ p(x) Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ neÚÔáT+~. ‚<û$<óŠ+>± çx + ÷ Å£L&†
è 3 ø è 3ø è 2ø
¿±sÁD²+¿£eTeÚÔáT+~.
6x2 + 17x + 5 = 6 æç x + ö÷ æç x + ö÷
1 5
n+<ŠTe\q,
è 3ø è 2ø

3x + 1 ö æ 2 x + 5 ö
= 6 æç ÷ç ÷
è 3 øè 2 ø
= (3x + 1) (2x + 5)

™|Õ –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T ‹{ì¼ eT<ó«Š |Ÿ<+Š $&ƒBd |Ÿ<ÜƊ nqTyîeÕ q~ n“ #î|Ο e#áTÌ. ‚+¿=¿£ –<‘VŸ²sÁD #áÖ<‘Ý+.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 9 : y2 – 5y + 6 qT ¿±sÁD²+¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uó„Èq #ûjáT+&.
kÍ<óŠq : p(y) = y2 – 5y + 6. ‚|ŸÚ&ƒT p(y) = (y – a) (y – b) nqTÅ£”+fñ ab = 6 n>·TqT. p(y)Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T
¿£qT>=Hû ç¿£eT+ýË 6Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T #áÖ<‘Ý+.
6 ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T 1,2,3 eT]jáTT 6.
‚|Ÿð&ƒT p(2) = 22 – (5 × 2) + 6 = 0
¿±eÚq (y – 2) nHû~ p(y) Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ neÚÔáT+~.
70 POLYNOMIALS

Also, p(3) = 32 – (5 × 3) + 6 = 0
So, y – 3 is also a factor of y2 – 5y + 6.
Therefore, y2 – 5y + 6 = (y – 2)(y – 3)
Note that y2 – 5y + 6 can also be factorised by splitting the middle term –5y.
Now, let us consider factorising cubic polynomials. Here, the splitting method will not be
appropriate to start with. We need to find at least one factor first, as you will see in the following
example.
Example 10 : Factorise x3 – 23x2 + 142x – 120.
Solution : Let p(x) = x3 – 23x2 + 142x – 120
We shall now look for all the factors of –120. Some of these are ±1, ±2, ±3,
±4, ±5, ±6, ±8, ±10, ±12, ±15, ±20, ±24, ±30, ±60.
By trial, we find that p(1) = 0. So x – 1 is a factor of p(x).
Now we see that x3 – 23x2 + 142x – 120 = x3 – x2 – 22x2 + 22x + 120x – 120
= x2(x –1) – 22x(x – 1) + 120(x – 1) (Why?)
= (x – 1) (x2 – 22x + 120) [Taking (x – 1) common]
We could have also got this by dividing p(x) by x – 1.
Now x2 – 22x + 120 can be factorised either by splitting the middle term or by using the Factor
theorem. By splitting the middle term, we have:
x2 – 22x + 120 = x2 – 12x – 10x + 120
= x(x – 12) – 10(x – 12)
= (x – 12) (x – 10)
So, x3 – 23x2 – 142x – 120 = (x – 1)(x – 10)(x – 12)

EXERCISE 2.3
1. Determine which of the following polynomials has (x + 1) a factor :
(i) x3 + x2 + x + 1 (ii) x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
(iii) x4 + 3x3 + 3x2 + x + 1 (iv) x3 – x2 – (2 + 2) x + 2

2. Use the Factor Theorem to determine whether g(x) is a factor of p(x) in each of the
following cases:
(i) p(x) = 2x3 + x2 – 2x – 1, g(x) = x + 1
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 71

ný²¹>, p(3) = 32 – (5 × 3) + 6 = 0
¿±eÚq (y – 3) nHû~ Å£L&† y2 – 5y + 6 Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ neÚÔáT+~.
n+<ŠTe\q, y2 – 5y + 6 = (y – 2)(y – 3)
eT<ó«Š |Ÿ<+Š –5y“ $uó„›+#á&ƒ+ <‘Çs Å£L&† y2 – 5y + 6“ Å£L&† ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uóȄ q #ûjTá e#á̓ >·eT“+#á+&.
y2 – 5y + 6 ýË eT<ó«Š |Ÿ<+Š –5y $&ƒBjáT&ƒ+ <‘Çs ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uó„Èq È]Ð+~ nHû~ eTq+ >·T]ï+#áT¿Ãy*.
‚|Ÿð&ƒT, |˜ŸTq ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\qT ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $uó„›+#áT³ >·Ö]Ì Ôî\TdŸTÅ£”+<‘+. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ, eT<óŠ«|Ÿ<‘“• $&ƒBd |Ÿ<ŠÆÜ
nqTÅ£L\yîTq® ~ ¿±<ŠT. eTT+<ŠT>± <‘“¿=¿£ ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ ¿£qT>=H*. B““ ç¿ì+~ –<‘VŸ²sÁDýË #áÖ&ƒ+&.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 10 : x3 – 23x2 + 142x – 120 qT ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $uó„›+#á+&.
kÍ<óŠq : p(x) =x3 – 23x2 + 142x – 120 nqT¿Ã+&.
–120 jîTT¿£Ø ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T n“•+{ì“ |Ÿ]o*dï n$ ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±5, ±6, ±8, ±10, ±12, ±15, ±20,
±24, ±30, ±60.
M{ìÔà ç|ŸjTá ܕdï, p(1) = 0 neÚÔáT+~. ¿±eÚq (x – 1) nHû~ p(x) Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿£eTeÚÔáT+~.
‚|ŸÚð&ƒT x3 – 23x2 + 142x – 120 = x3 – x2 – 22x2 + 22x + 120x – 120
= x2(x –1) – 22x(x – 1) + 120(x – 1) (m+<ŠTÅ£”?)
= (x – 1) (x2 – 22x + 120) (x – 1qT –eTˆ&>± rdŸTÅ£”+³Ö)
ný²¹> p(x) qT x – 1 #û uó²Ð+ºq|ŸÚð&ƒT Å£L&† B““ bõ+<Še#áTÌqT. x2 – 22x + 120.
‚|Ÿð&ƒT x2 – 22x + 120 qT eT<ó«Š |Ÿ<‘“• $&ƒBjáT&ƒ+ <‘Çs >±“ ýñ<‘ ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ <‘Çs ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>±
$uó›„ +#áe#áTÌqT.
x2 – 22x + 120 = x2 – 12x – 10x + 120
= x(x – 12) – 10(x – 12)
= (x – 12) (x – 10)
¿±eÚq, x3 – 23x2 – 142x – 120 = (x – 1)(x – 10)(x – 12)
nuó²«dŸ+ 2.3
1. ç¿ì+~ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\Å£” (x + 1) ¿±sÁD²+¿£eT>·THà ýñ<à “sÆ]+#á+&?
(i) x3 + x2 + x + 1 (ii) x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
(iii) x4 + 3x3 + 3x2 + x + 1 (iv) x3 – x2 – (2 + 2) x + 2

2. ¿±sÁD²+¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ –|ŸjîÖÐ+º ç¿ì+~ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \ýË ç|Ÿr dŸ+<ŠsÒÁ Û+ýËqÖ p(x) Å£” g(x) ¿±sÁD²+¿£eT>·THÃ
ýñ<à Ôî\|Ÿ+&.
(i) p(x) = 2x3 + x2 – 2x – 1, g(x) = x + 1
72 POLYNOMIALS

(ii) p(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1, g(x) = x + 2

(iii) p(x) = x3 – 4x2 + x + 6, g(x) = x – 3
3. Find the value of k, if x – 1 is a factor of p(x) in each of the following cases:
(i) p(x) = x2 + x + k (ii) p(x) = 2x2 + kx + 2
(iii) p(x) = kx2 – 2x +1 (iv) p(x) = kx2 – 3x + k
4. Factorise :
(i) 12x2 – 7x + 1 (ii) 2x2 + 7x + 3
(iii) 6x2 + 5x – 6 (iv) 3x2 – x – 4
5. Factorise :
(i) x3 – 2x2 – x + 2 (ii) x3 – 3x2 – 9x – 5
(iii) x3 + 13x2 + 32x + 20 (iv) 2y3 + y2 – 2y – 1

2.5 Algebraic Identities

From your earlier classes, you may recall that an algebraic identity is an algebraic equation that
is true for all values of the variables occurring in it. You have studied the following algebraic
identities in earlier classes:
Identity I : (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
Identity II : (x – y)2 = x2 – 2xy + y2
Identity III: x2 – y2 = (x + y) (x – y)
Identity IV : (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
You must have also used some of these algebraic identities to factorise the algebraic
expressions. You can also see their utility in computations.
Example 11 : Find the following products using appropriate identities:
(i) (x + 3) (x + 3) (ii) (x – 3) (x + 5)
Solution : (i) Here we can use Identity I : (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2. Putting y = 3 in it, we get
(x + 3) (x + 3) = (x + 3)2 = x2 + 2(x)(3) + (3)2
= x2 + 6x + 9
(ii) Using Identity IV above, i.e., (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab, we have
(x – 3) (x + 5) = x2 + (–3 + 5)x + (–3)(5)
= x2 + 2x – 15
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 73

(ii) p(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1, g(x) = x + 2

(iii) p(x) = x3 – 4x2 + x + 6, g(x) = x – 3
3. ç¿ì+~ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\ýË, ç|Ÿr dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+ýËqÖ p(x) Å£” x – 1 ¿±sÁD²+¿£yîT®Ôû k $\Te ¿£qT>=q+&.
(i) p(x) = x2 + x + k (ii) p(x) = 2x2 + kx + 2
(iii) p(x) = kx2 – 2x +1 (iv) p(x) = kx2 – 3x + k
4. ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $uó„›+#á+&.
(i) 12x2 – 7x + 1 (ii) 2x2 + 7x + 3
(iii) 6x2 + 5x – 6 (iv) 3x2 – x – 4
5. ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $uó„›+#á+&.
(i) x3 – 2x2 – x + 2 (ii) x3 – 3x2 – 9x – 5
(iii) x3 + 13x2 + 32x + 20 (iv) 2y3 + y2 – 2y – 1

2.5 ;È>·DÔì á dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD²\T

ÿ¿£ ;È>·DÔì á dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sDÁ +ýË >·\ #ássÁ Xø—\Å£” @ $\Te\T ç|ŸÜ¿¹ |Œ +¾ ºqqÖ m\¢yÞû ýø ² dŸÔ«á eTjûT« <‘““ dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sDÁ +
n+{²sÁ“ >·TsÁTïÅ£” Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&. MTsÁT ç¿ì+~ ÔásÁ>·ÔáT\ýË ‡ ç¿ì+~ ;È>·DìÔá dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD²\T HûsÁTÌÅ£”H•sÁT.
dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sÁD+ I : (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sDÁ + II : (x – y)2 = x2 – 2xy + y2
dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sDÁ + III : x2 – y2 = (x + y) (x – y)
dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sDÁ + IV : (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
;JjáT dŸeÖkÍ\qT ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uó„Èq #ûjáTT³ýË dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD²\T –|ŸjîÖ>·|Ÿ&ƒÔsTT. ‚³Te+{ì ¿=“•
–<‘VŸ²sÁD\T |Ÿ]o*<‘Ý+.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 11 : ç¿ì+~ y{ì¿ì dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²\qT –|ŸjÖî Ð+º \u²Æ\T ¿£qT>=q+&.
(i) (x + 3) (x + 3) (ii) (x – 3) (x + 5)
kÍ<óŠq : (i) ‚#á̳, dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD+ I (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 “ –|ŸjîÖÐkÍï+. ‚+<ŠTýË y = 3 rdŸTÅ£”+fñ
(x + 3) (x + 3) = (x + 3)2 = x2 + 2(x)(3) + (3)2
= x2 + 6x + 9
(ii) ‚#á̳ dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD+ IV “ –|ŸjîÖÐ+º (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab “ –|ŸjÖî Нdï
‚|ŸÚ&ƒT (x – 3) (x + 5) = x2 + (–3 + 5)x + (–3)(5)
= x2 + 2x – 15
74 POLYNOMIALS

Example 12 : Evaluate 105 × 106 without multiplying directly.

Solution : 105 × 106 = (100 + 5) × (100 + 6)
= (100)2 + (5 + 6) (100) + (5 × 6), using Identity IV
= 10000 + 1100 + 30
= 11130
You have seen some uses of the identities listed above in finding the product of some given
expressions. These identities are useful in factorisation of algebraic expressions also, as you
can see in the following examples.
Example 13 : Factorise:
25 2 y2
(i) 49a2 + 70ab + 25b2 (ii) x -
4 9
Solution : (i) Here you can see that
49a2 = (7a)2, 25b2 = (5b)2, 70ab = 2(7a) (5b)
Comparing the given expression with x2 + 2xy + y2, we observe that x = 7a and y = 5b.
Using Identity I, we get
49a2 + 70ab + 25b2 = (7a + 5b)2 = (7a + 5b) (7a + 5b)

2 2
25 2 y 2 æ 5 ö æ yö
(ii) We have x – = ç x÷ – ç ÷
4 9 è2 ø è3ø

Now comparing it with Identity III, we get

2 2
25 2 y 2
= æç x ö÷ – æç ö÷
5 y
x –
4 9 è2 ø è 3ø

= æç x + ö÷ æç x - ö÷
5 y 5 y
è2 3ø è2 3ø
So far, all our identities involved products of binomials. Let us now extend the Identity I to a
trinomial x + y + z. We shall compute (x + y + z)2 by using Identity I.
Let x + y = t. Then,
(x + y + z)2 = (t + z)2
= t2 + 2tz + t2 (Using Identity I)
= (x + y)2 + 2(x + y)z + z2 (Substituting the value of t)
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 75

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 12 : >·TD¿±sÁ+ #ûjáTÅ£”+&†Hû 105 × 106 jîTT¿£Ø \u²Ý“• ¿£qT>=q+&.

kÍ<óŠq : 105 × 106 = (100 + 5) × (100 + 6)
= (100)2 + (5 + 6) (100) + (5 × 6), (dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£D+ IVqT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º)
= 10000 + 1100 + 30
= 11130
‚+ÔáesÁÅ£L eTq+ y&q dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD²\T ™|Õ \u²Ý\qT ¿£qT>=qT³ýË dŸVŸäjáT|Ÿ&†¦sTT. ‚|ŸÚ&ƒT ç¿ì+~ –<‘VŸ²sÁDýË
;JjáT dŸeÖkÍ\qT ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uóȄ q #ûjTá &†“¿ì dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sD Á ²\qT –|ŸjÖî Ð+#áe#áTÌ. <‘““ MTsÁT ç¿ì+~
–<‘VŸ²sÁD\ýË >·eT“+#áe#áTÌ.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 13 : ‡ ç¿ì+~ ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $uó„›+#á+&.
25 2 y2
(i) 49a2 + 70ab + 25b2 (ii) x -
4 9
kÍ<óŠq : (i) ‚¿£Ø&ƒ
49a2 = (7a)2, 25b2 = (5b)2, 70ab = 2(7a) (5b)
B““ x2 + 2xy + y2 Ôà bþ\Ì>± x = 7a eT]jáTT y = 5b neÚÔáT+~.
dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sDÁ + I ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+
49a2 + 70ab + 25b2 = (7a + 5b)2 = (7a + 5b) (7a + 5b)

2 2
25 2 y 2 æ 5 ö æ yö
(ii) x – = ç x÷ – ç ÷
4 9 è2 ø è3ø

Á + III ÔÃ bþ\Ì>±
B““ dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sD
2 2
25 2 y 2 æ5 ö æ yö
x – = ç x÷ – ç ÷
4 9 è 2 ø è3ø

æ5 yöæ5 yö
= ç2x + 3÷ç2x - 3÷
è øè ø
‚|ŸÎ{ìesÁŔ£ eTq+ y&q dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²\“•jáTÖ, ~Ç|Ÿ<TŠ \ \u²Ý\Å£” dŸ+‹+~ó+ºq$. ‚|Ÿð&ƒT eTq+ yîTT<Š{ì
Á ²“• –|ŸjÖî Ð+º, çÜ|Ÿ~ x + y + z jîTT¿£Ø esÁZ+, (x + y + z)2 “ >·Dì<‘Ý+.
dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sD
x + y = t nsTTq
(x + y + z)2 = (t + z)2
= t2 + 2tz + t2 (yîTT<Š{ì dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sD
Á +)
= (x + y)2 + 2(x + y)z + z2 ( t $\Te ç|ŸÜ¿¹ |
Œ +¾ #á>±)
76 POLYNOMIALS

= x2 + 2xy + y2 + 2xz + 2yz + z2 (Using Identity I)

= x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx(Rearranging the terms)
So, we get the following identity:
Identity V : (x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx
Remark : We call the right hand side expression the expanded form of the left hand side
expression. Note that the expansion of (x + y + z)2 consists of three square terms and three
product terms.
Example 14 : Write (3a + 4b + 5c)2 in expanded form.
Solution : Comparing the given expression with (x + y + z)2, we find that
x = 3a, y = 4b and z = 5c.
Therefore, using Identity V, we have
(3a + 4b + 5c)2 = (3a)2 + (4b)2 + (5c)2 + 2(3a)(4b) + 2(4b)(5c) + 2(5c)(3a)
= 9a2 + 16b2 + 25c2 + 24ab + 40bc + 30ac
Example 15 : Expand (4a – 2b – 3c)2.
Solution : Using Identity V, we have
(4a – 2b – 3c)2 = [4a + (–2b) + (–3c)]2
= (4a)2 + (–2b)2 + (–3c)2 + 2(4a)(–2b) + 2(–2b)(–3c) + 2(–3c)(4a)
= 16a2 + 4b2 + 9c2 – 16ab + 12bc – 24ac
Example 16 : Factorise 4x2 + y2 + z2 – 4xy – 2yz + 4xz.
Solution : We have 4x2 + y2 + z2 – 4xy – 2yz + 4xz = (2x)2 + (–y)2 + (z)2 + 2(2x)(–y)
+ 2(–y)(z) + 2(2x)(z)
= [2x + (–y) + z]2 (Using Identity V)
= (2x – y + z) = (2x – y + z)(2x – y + z)
2

So far, we have dealt with identities involving second degree terms. Now let us extend Identity
I to compute (x + y)3. We have:
(x + y)3 = (x + y) (x + y)2
= (x + y)(x2 + 2xy + y2)
= x(x2 + 2xy + y2) + y(x2 + 2xy + y2)
= x3 + 2x2y + xy2 + x2y + 2xy2 + y3
= x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
= x3 + y3 + 3xy(x + y)
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 77
= x2 + 2xy + y2 + 2xz + 2yz + z2 (dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sD
Á + I“ –|ŸjîÖÐ+º)
= x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx (|Ÿ<‘\ ç¿£eT+ eÖ]Ì sjáT>±)
¿±eÚq, dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sD
Á + ‚ý² sjáTe#áTÌ.
dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sDÁ + V : (x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx
$esÁD: Å£”&y|Õî ڟ –q• dŸeÖk͓•, m&ƒeTyî|Õ ÚŸ q eÚq• dŸeÖdŸ+ jîTT¿£Ø $dŸïsÁD sÁÖ|Ÿ+>± #î|Ο e#áTÌ. (x + y + z)2 nHû~
eTÖ&ƒT esÁZ |Ÿ<‘\qT eT]jáTT eTÖ&ƒT \‹Æ |Ÿ<‘\qT ¿£*Ð –+³T+~.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 14 : (3a + 4b + 5c)2 qT $dŸïsÁD sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáT+&.
kÍ<óŠq : ‚ºÌq dŸeÖdŸ+qT (x + y + z)2 Ôà bþ\Ì>± eTqÅ£”
x = 3a, y = 4b, z = 5c ekÍïsTT.
dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sDÁ + V ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+
(3a + 4b + 5c)2 = (3a)2 + (4b)2 + (5c)2 + 2(3a)(4b) + 2(4b)(5c) + 2(5c)(3a)
= 9a2 + 16b2 + 25c2 + 24ab + 40bc + 30ac
–<‘VŸ²sÁD15: (4a – 2b – 3c)2 qT $dŸï]+#á+&.
kÍ<óqŠ : dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD+ V ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+,
(4a – 2b – 3c)2 = [4a + (–2b) + (–3c)]2
= (4a)2 + (–2b)2 + (–3c)2 + 2(4a)(–2b) + 2(–2b)(–3c) + 2(–3c)(4a)
= 16a2 + 4b2 + 9c2 – 16ab + 12bc – 24ac
–<‘VŸ²sÁD16 : 4x2 + y2 + z2 – 4xy – 2yz + 4xz qT ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $uó„›+#á+&.
kÍ<óŠq : 4x2 + y2 + z2 – 4xy – 2yz + 4xz = (2x)2 + (–y)2 + (z)2 + 2(2x)(–y)
+ 2(–y)(z) + 2(2x)(z)
= [2x + (–y) + z]2 (dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD+ V“ –|ŸjÖ
î Ð+º)
= (2x – y + z)2 = (2x – y + z)(2x – y + z)
eTq+ ‚+ÔáesÁÅ£” Âs+&ƒe |Ÿ]eÖD |Ÿ<‘\Ôà ţL&jáTTq• dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT #á]Ì+#+. ‚|Ÿð&ƒT eTq+
dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD+ I“ $“jîÖÐ+º (x + y)3 $dŸsï D
Á #û<‘Ý+. eTqÅ£”
(x + y)3 = (x + y) (x + y)2
= (x + y)(x2 + 2xy + y2)
= x(x2 + 2xy + y2) + y(x2 + 2xy + y2)
= x3 + 2x2y + xy2 + x2y + 2xy2 + y3
= x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
= x3 + y3 + 3xy(x + y)
78 POLYNOMIALS

So, we get the following identity:

Identity VI : (x + y)3 = x3 + y3 + 3xy (x + y)
Also, by replacing y by –y in the Identity VI, we get
Identity VII :(x – y)3 = x3 – y3 – 3xy(x – y)
= x3 – 3x2y + 3xy2 – y3
Example 17 : Write the following cubes in the expanded form:
(i) (3a + 4b)3 (ii) (5p – 3q)3
Solution : (i) Comparing the given expression with (x + y)3, we find that
x = 3a and y = 4b.
So, using Identity VI, we have:
(3a + 4b)3 = (3a)3 + (4b)3 + 3(3a)(4b)(3a + 4b)
= 27a3 + 64b3 + 108a2b + 144ab2
(ii) Comparing the given expression with (x – y)3, we find that
x = 5p, y = 3q.
So, using Identity VII, we have:
(5p – 3q)3 = (5p)3 – (3q)3 – 3(5p)(3q)(5p – 3q)
= 125p3 – 27q3 – 225p2q + 135pq2
Example 18 : Evaluate each of the following using suitable identities:
(i) (104)3 (ii) (999)3
Solution : (i) We have
(104)3 = (100 + 4)3
= (100)3 + (4)3 + 3(100)(4)(100 + 4)
(Using Identity VI)
= 1000000 + 64 + 124800
= 1124864
(ii) We have
(999)3 = (1000 – 1)3
= (1000)3 – (1)3 – 3(1000)(1)(1000 – 1)
(Using Identity VII)
= 1000000000 – 1 – 2997000
= 997002999
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 79

¿±eÚq, eTq+ eTs=¿£ dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sD

Á ²\T ‚ý² sjáTe#áTÌ.
dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sDÁ + VI : (x + y)3 = x3 + y3 + 3xy (x + y)
dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD+ VIýË y k͜q+ýË –yqT –+#á>± eTq+ ç¿ì+~ dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD+ bõ+<ŠTԐ+.
dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sDÁ + VII : (x – y)3 = x3 – y3 – 3xy(x – y)
= x3 – 3x2y + 3xy2 – y3
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 17 : ç¿ì+~ |˜ŸTH\qT $dŸï]+#á+&.
(i) (3a + 4b)3 (ii) (5p – 3q)3
kÍ<óŠq : (i) ‚ºÌq dŸeÖk͓• (x + y)3 Ôà bþ\Ì>±, eTqÅ£”
x = 3a eT]jáTT y = 4b n>·TqT.
Á + VI –|ŸjÖî Нdï
¿±eÚq, dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sD
(3a + 4b)3 = (3a)3 + (4b)3 + 3(3a)(4b)(3a + 4b)
= 27a3 + 64b3 + 108a2b + 144ab2
(ii) ‚ºÌq dŸeÖk͓• (x – y)3 Ôà bþ\Ì>±, eTqÅ£”
x = 5p, y = 3q.
¿±eÚq dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD+ VII –|ŸjÖî Нdï
(5p – 3q)3 = (5p)3 – (3q)3 – 3(5p)(3q)(5p – 3q)
= 125p3 – 27q3 – 225p2q + 135pq2
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 18 : ç¿ì+~ y““ ÔáÐq dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º >·Dì+#á+&.
(i) (104)3 (ii) (999)3
kÍ<óŠq : (i) (104)3 = (100 + 4)3
= (100)3 + (4)3 + 3(100)(4)(100 + 4)
(dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sD
Á + VI“ –|ŸjÖî Ð+º)
= 1000000 + 64 + 124800
= 1124864
(ii) (999) = (1000 – 1)3
3

= (1000)3 – (1)3 – 3(1000)(1)(1000 – 1)

(dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sD
Á + VII“ –|ŸjÖî Ð+º)
= 1000000000 – 1 – 2997000
= 997002999
80 POLYNOMIALS

Example 19 : Factorise 8x3 + 27y3 + 36x2y + 54xy2

Solution : The given expression can be written as
(2x)3 + (3y)3 + 3(4x2)(3y) + 3(2x)(9y2)
= (2x)3 + (3y)3 + 3(2x)2(3y) + 3(2x)(3y)2
= (2x + 3y)3 (Using Identity VI)
= (2x + 3y)(2x + 3y)(2x + 3y)
Now consider (x + y + z)(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)
On expanding, we get the product as
x(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx) + y(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)
+ z(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx) = x3 + xy2 + xz2 – x2y – xyz – zx2 + x2y
+ y3 + yz2 – xy2 – y2z – xyz + x2z + y2z + z3 – xyz – yz2 – xz2
= x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz (On simplification)
So, we obtain the following identity:
Identity VIII : x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz = (x + y + z)(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)
Example 20 : Factorise : 8x3 + y3 + 27z3 – 18xyz
Solution : Here, we have
8x3 + y3 + 27z3 – 18xyz
= (2x)3 + y3 + (3z)3 – 3(2x)(y)(3z)
= (2x + y + 3z)[(2x)2 + y2 + (3z)2 – (2x)(y) – (y)(3z) – (2x)(3z)]
= (2x + y + 3z) (4x2 + y2 + 9z2 – 2xy – 3yz – 6xz)

EXERCISE 2.4
1. Use suitable identities to find the following products:
(i) (x + 4) (x + 10) (ii) (x + 8) (x – 10)(iii) (3x + 4) (3x – 5)
3 3
(iv) (y2 + ) (y2 – ) (v)(3 – 2x) (3 + 2x)
2 2

2. Evaluate the following products without multiplying directly:

(i) 103 × 107 (ii) 95 × 96 (iii) 104 × 96
3. Factorise the following using appropriate identities:
y2
(i) 9x2 + 6xy + y2 (ii) 4y2 – 4y + 1 (iii) x2 –
100
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 81

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 19 : 8x3 + 27y3 + 36x2y + 54xy2 qT ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $uó„›+#á+&.

kÍ<óŠq : ‚ºÌq dŸeÖk͓• ‡ ç¿ì+~ $<óŠ+>± sjáT>±
= (2x)3 + (3y)3 + 3(4x2)(3y) + 3(2x)(9y2)
= (2x)3 + (3y)3 + 3(2x)2(3y) + 3(2x)(3y)2
= (2x + 3y)3 ( dŸsÇÁ dŸMT¿£sÁD+ VIqT –|ŸjÖ
î Ð+º)
= (2x + 3y)(2x + 3y)(2x + 3y)
‚|ŸÚ&ƒT (x + y + z)(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx) rdŸT¿Ã+&.
B““ $dŸï]+#á>±, ‡ ç¿ì+~ \u²Æ“• bõ+<ŠTԐ+.
x(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx) + y(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)
+ z(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx) = x3 + xy2 + xz2 – x2y – xyz – zx2 + x2y
+ y3 + yz2 – xy2 – y2z – xyz + x2z + y2z + z3 – xyz – yz2 – xz2
= x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz (dŸÖ¿¡ˆŒ ¿£]+#á>±)
¿±eÚq, ‡ ç¿ì+~ dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT bõ+<ŠTԐ+.
dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD+ VIII : x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz = (x + y + z)(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 20 : 8x3 + y3 + 27z3 – 18xyz qT ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $uó„›+#á+&.
kÍ<óŠq : ‚eNj&q dŸeÖdŸ+
8x3 + y3 + 27z3 – 18xyz
= (2x)3 + y3 + (3z)3 – 3(2x)(y)(3z)
= (2x + y + 3z)[(2x)2 + y2 + (3z)2 – (2x)(y) – (y)(3z) – (2x)(3z)]
= (2x + y + 3z) (4x2 + y2 + 9z2 – 2xy – 3yz – 6xz)

nuó²«dŸ+ 2.4
1. ç¿ì+~ \u²Æ\qT ÔáÐq dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º >·Dì+#á+&.
(i) (x + 4) (x + 10) (ii) (x + 8) (x – 10) (iii) (3x + 4) (3x – 5)
3 3
(iv) (y2 + ) (y2 – ) (v) (3 – 2x) (3 + 2x)
2 2
2. >·TD¿±sÁ+ #ûjáTÅ£”+&†Hû ç¿ì+~ \u²Æ\qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
(i) 103 × 107 (ii) 95 × 96 (iii) 104 × 96
3. dŸÂsÕq dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º ç¿ì+~ y““ ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $uó„›+#á+&.
y2
(i) 9x2 + 6xy + y2 (ii) 4y2 – 4y + 1 (iii) x2 –
100
82 POLYNOMIALS

4. Expand each of the following, using suitable identities:

(i) (x + 2y + 4z)2 (ii) (2x – y + z)2 (iii) (–2x + 3y + 2z)2
2
é1 1 ù
(iv) (3a – 7b – c) 2
(v) (–2x + 5y – 3z) 2
(vi) ê 4 a - 2 b + 1ú
ë û
5. Factorise:
(i) 4x2 + 9y2 + 16z2 + 12xy – 24yz – 16xz
(ii) 2x2 + y2 + 8z2 – 2 2 xy + 4 2 yz – 8xz
6. Write the following cubes in expanded form:
3 3
é3 ù é 2 ù
(i) (2x + 1)3 (ii) (2a – 3b)3 (iii) ê 2 x + 1ú (iv) êx - 3 yú
ë û ë û
7. Evaluate the following using suitable identities:
(i) (99)3 (ii) (102)3 (iii) (998)3
8. Factorise each of the following:
(i) 8a3 + b3 + 12a2b + 6ab2 (ii) 8a3 – b3 – 12a2b + 6ab2
(iii) 27 – 125a3 – 135a + 225a2 (iv) 64a3 – 27b3 – 144a2b + 108ab2
1 9 2 1
(v) 27p3 – – p + p
216 2 4
9. Verify : (i) x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 – xy + y2) (ii) x3 – y3 = (x – y) (x2 + xy + y2)
10. Factorise each of the following:
(i) 27y3 + 125z3 (ii) 64m3 – 343n3
[Hint : See Question 9.]
11. Factorise : 27x3 + y3 + z3 – 9xyz
1
12. Verify that x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz = ( x + y + z ) éë ( x - y ) 2 + ( y - z ) 2 + ( z - x) 2 ùû
2
13. If x + y + z = 0, show that x3 + y3 + z3 = 3xyz.
14. Without actually calculating the cubes, find the value of each of the following:
(i) (–12)3 + (7)3 + (5)3
(ii) (28)3 + (–15)3 + (–13)3
15. Give possible expressions for the length and breadth of each of the following rectangles,
in which their areas are given:

Area : 25a2 – 35a + 12 Area : 35y2 + 13y –12

(i) (ii)
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 83

4. ç¿ì+~ y““ dŸÂsÕq dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º $dŸï]+#á+&.

(i) ( x + 2y + 4z)2 (ii) (2x – y + z)2 (iii) (–2x + 3y + 2z)2
2
é1 1 ù
(iv) (3a – 7b – c)2 (v) (–2x + 5y – 3z)2 (vi) ê 4 a - 2 b + 1ú
ë û
5. ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $uó„›+#á+&.
(i) 4x2 + 9y2 + 16z2 + 12xy – 24yz – 16xz
(ii) 2x2 + y2 + 8z2 – 2 2 xy + 4 2 yz – 8xz
6. ç¿ì+~ |˜ŸTH\qT $dŸïsÁDsÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáT+&.
3 3
é3 ù é 2 ù
(i) (2x + 1) 3
(ii) (2a – 3b) (iii) 3
ê 2 x + 1ú (iv) êx - 3 yú
ë û ë û
7. ç¿ì+~ y““ dŸÂsÕq dŸsÁÇdŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º >·Dì+#á+&:
(i) (99)3 (ii) (102)3 (iii) (998)3
8. ç¿ì+~ y““ ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $uó„›+#á+&:
(i) 8a3 + b3 + 12a2b + 6ab2 (ii) 8a3 – b3 – 12a2b + 6ab2
(iii) 27 – 125a3 – 135a + 225a2 (iv) 64a3 – 27b3 – 144a2b + 108ab2
1 9 2 1
(v) 27p3 – – p + p
216 2 4
9. dŸ]#áÖ&ƒ+&: (i) x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 – xy + y2) (ii) x3 – y3 = (x – y) (x2 + xy + y2)
10. ç¿ì+~ y““ ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $uó„›+#á+&:
(i) 27y3 + 125z3 (ii) 64m3 – 343n3
[dŸÖ#áq : ç|ŸXø• 9 #áÖ&ƒ+&]
11. ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>± $uó„›+#á+&.: 27x3 + y3 + z3 – 9xyz
1
12. x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz = ( x + y + z ) éë ( x - y )2 + ( y - z )2 + ( z - x)2 ùû qT dŸ]#áÖ&ƒ+&.
2
13. x + y + z = 0 nsTTH x3 + y3 + z3 = 3xyz n“ #áÖ|Ÿ+&.
14. ydŸïe >·Dq #ûjáTÅ£”+&†Hû ç¿ì+~ |˜ŸTH\ $\Te\qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
(i) (–12)3 + (7)3 + (5)3
(ii) (28)3 + (–15)3 + (–13)3
15. ç¿ì+~ ‚eNj&q BsÁé #áÔTá sÁçkÍ\ yîXÕ æ\«+ €<ó‘sÁ+>± y{ì bõ&ƒeÚ, yî&\ƒ TÎ\Å£” nqTyîÕq dŸeÖkÍ\qT sjáT+&.

yîÕXæ\«+: 25a2 – 35a + 12 yîÕXæ\«+: 35y2 + 13y –12

(i) (ii)
84 POLYNOMIALS

16. What are the possible expressions for the dimensions of the cuboids whose volumes are
given below?

Volume : 3x2 – 12x Volume : 12ky2 + 8ky – 20k

(i) (ii)

2.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. A polynomial p(x) in one variable x is an algebraic expression in x of the form
p(x) = anxn + an–1xn – 1 + . . . + a2x2 + a1x + a0,
where a0, a1, a2, . . ., an are constants and an ¹ 0.
a0, a1, a2, . . ., an are respectively the coefficients of x0, x, x2, . . ., xn, and n is called the
degree of the polynomial. Each of anxn, an–1 xn–1, ..., a0, with an ¹ 0, is called a term of the
polynomial p(x).
2. A polynomial of one term is called a monomial.
3. A polynomial of two terms is called a binomial.
4. A polynomial of three terms is called a trinomial.
5. A polynomial of degree one is called a linear polynomial.
6. A polynomial of degree two is called a quadratic polynomial.
7. A polynomial of degree three is called a cubic polynomial.
8. A real number ‘a’ is a zero of a polynomial p(x) if p(a) = 0. In this case, a is also called a
root of the equation p(x) = 0.
9. Every linear polynomial in one variable has a unique zero, a non-zero constant polynomial
has no zero, and every real number is a zero of the zero polynomial.
10. Factor Theorem : x – a is a factor of the polynomial p(x), if p(a) = 0. Also, if x – a is a
factor of p(x), then p(a) = 0.
11. (x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx
12. (x + y)3 = x3 + y3 + 3xy(x + y)
13. (x – y)3 = x3 – y3 – 3xy(x – y)
14. x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz = (x + y + z) (x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)
‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T 85

16. ç¿ì+~ ‚eNj&q BsÁ|é TŸ˜ H\ |˜TŸ q|Ÿ]eÖD+ €<ó‘sÁ+>± <‘“ ¿=\Ôá\Å£” nqTyîqÕ dŸeÖkÍ\qT sjáT+&.

|˜TŸ q|Ÿ]eÖD+: 3x2 – 12x |˜TŸ q|Ÿ]eÖD+ : 12ky2 + 8ky – 20k

(i) (ii)

2.6 kÍs+Xø+ :
‡ n<ó‘«jáT+ýË ç¿ì+~ $wŸjáÖ\qT HûsÁTÌÅ£”H•+.
1. @¿£ #ásÁs¥ x ýË ne |Ÿ]eÖD ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ dŸeÖdŸ+ p(x),
p(x) = anxn + an–1xn – 1 + . . . + a2x2 + a1x + a0 sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË –+³T+~.
‚+<ŠTýË a0, a1, a2, . . ., an \T d¾sœ +¿±\T, an ¹ 0
a0, a1, a2, . . ., an \qT x0, x, x2, . . ., xn \ jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿±\+{²+. n qT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ |Ÿ]eÖD+ n+{²+.
anxn, an–1 xn–1, ..., a0 \qT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ jîTT¿£Ø |Ÿ<‘\+{²+.
2. ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ |Ÿ<+Š >·\ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~“ @¿£|~ Ÿ n+{²+.
3. s +&ƒT |Ÿ<‘\ >·\ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~“ ~Ç|Ÿ~ n+{²+.
4. eTÖ&ƒT |Ÿ<‘\ >·\ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~“ çÜ|Ÿ~ n+{²+.
5. |Ÿ]eÖD+ ÿ¿£{>ì ± >·\ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~“ s¹ FjáT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ n+{²+.
6. |Ÿ]eÖD+ Âs+&ƒT>± >·\ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~“ esÁZ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ n+{²+.
7. |Ÿ]eÖD+ eTÖ&ƒT>± >·\ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~“ |˜TŸ q ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ n+{²+.
8. p(x) nHû ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì @<îH
Õ  ydŸeï dŸ+K« aÅ£” p(a) = 0 nsTTÔû aqT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ p(x) = 0 jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te
n+{²+.
9. @¿£ #ásÁs¥ ¿£*Ðq ç|Ÿr ¹sFjáT ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì XøSq« $\Te @¿տ£+>± –+³T+~. XøSHû«ÔásÁ d¾œssÁ ¥¿ì ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ XøSq«
$\Te “sÁǺ+#á‹&ƒ<ŠT. XøSq« ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì ç|ŸÜ ydŸïedŸ+K« ÿ¿£ XøSq«+ neÚÔáT+~.
10. ¿±sÁD²+¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+: p(a) = 0 nsTTq|ŸÚ&ƒT p(x) nHû ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ x – a nHû~ ¿±sÁD²+¿£eTeÚÔáT+~. ný²¹>
p(x)Å£” x – a ÿ¿£ ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ nsTTÔû p(a) = 0 neÚÔáT+~.
11. (x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx
12. (x + y)3 = x3 + y3 + 3xy(x + y)
13. (x – y)3 = x3 – y3 – 3xy(x – y)
14. x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz = (x + y + z) (x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)
86 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

CHAPTER 3

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

What’s the good of Mercator’s North Poles and Equators, Tropics, Zones and Meridian Lines?’
So the Bellman would cry; and crew would reply ‘ They are merely conventional signs!’
LEWIS CARROLL, The Hunting of the Snark
3.1 Introduction
You have already studied how to locate a point on a number line. You also know how to describe
the position of a point on the line. There are many other situations, in which to find a point we
are required to describe its position with reference to more than one line. For example, consider
the following situations:
I. In Fig. 3.1, there is a main road running in the East-
West direction and streets with numbering from West to East.
Also, on each street, house numbers are marked. To look for
a friend’s house here, is it enough to know only one reference
point? For instance, if we only know that she lives on Street
2, will we be able to find her house easily? Not as easily as
when we know two pieces of information about it, namely,
the number of the street on which it is situated, and the house
number. If we want to reach the house which is situated in the
2nd street and has the number 5, first of all we would identify
the 2nd street and then the house numbered 5 on it. In Fig. 3.1,
Fig. 3.1
H shows the location of the house. Similarly, P shows the
location of the house corresponding to Street number 7 and
House number 4.
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ C²«$TÜ 87

n<ó‘«jáT+ 3

“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ C²«$TÜ

yîTs¹ سsY jîTT¿£Ø –Ôásï Á ç<óTŠ y\T eT]jáTT uóք eT<ó«Š s¹ K\T, –wŸç’ |Ÿ<Xû æ\T, eT+&ƒý²\T eT]jáTT yîT]&jTá HŽ s¹ K\ e\¢ ç|ŸjÖî Èq+
@$T{ì?µ n“ uÉý²ˆHŽ n&ƒT>·>± d¾‹Ò+~ »n$ ¿¹ e\+ dŸ+ç|Ÿ<‘jáT dŸ+¿¹ Ԑ\T!µ n“ Ôî*bÍsÁT.
\ÖsTTdt ¿±sÃýÙ, The Hunting of the Snark
3.1 |Ÿ]#ájTá +
ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚqT dŸ+U²«¹sK™|Õ mý² dŸÖº+#á>·\yîÖ eTq+ ‚~ esÁ¹¿ HûsÁTÌÅ£”H•eTT. ÿ¿£ ¹sK™|Õ _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø k͜H“•
mý² $e]+#ýË Å£L&† HûsTÁ ÌÅ£”H•sÁT. ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø k͜H“• ÿ¿£{ì ¿£H• mÅ£”Øe ¹sK\ €<ó‘sÁ+>± $e]+#á&†“¿ì
nHû¿£ dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\T –H•sTT. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” ç¿ì+~ dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\qT |Ÿ]o*+#á+&.

I. |Ÿ³+ 3.1 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<ó+Š >± ÔáÖsÁTÎ`|Ÿ&eƒ TsÁ ~Xø\ýË ç|Ÿ<‘ó q

sÁVŸ²<‘] @sÁÎ&jáTTq•~ eT]jáTT |Ÿ&ƒeTsÁ qT+& ÔáÖsÁTÎÅ£” ç|ŸÜ M~ó¿ì
dŸ+K«\Ôà >·T]ï+#sÁT. ný²¹>, M~óý˓ ç|Ÿr ‚+{ì“ dŸ+K«\Ôà >·T]ï+#sÁT.
M~ó`1

M~ó`3

M~ó`5

M~ó`7

¿¹ e\+ ÿ¿£ dŸÖº¿£ €<ó‘sÁ+>± úeÚ ú d•V¾²ÔáTs* ‚\T¢ dŸÖº+#á>\· y?

–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” Âs+&ƒe M~óýË “ed¾dŸT+ï <Š“ eÖçÔáyûT eTqÅ£” Ôî*dï €yîT
‚+{ì“ dŸT\uó+„ >± ¿£qT¿ÃØ>·\eÖ? €yîT “ed¾+#û M~ó dŸ+K« eT]jáTT
‚+{ì dŸ+K« s +&ƒT $wŸjÖá \T Ôî*d¾q|ŸÚ&ƒT, ‚+{ì“ ¿£qT>=Hû+Ôá dŸT\uó„yTî ®Ôû
M~ó`2

M~ó`4

M~ó`6

M~ó`8

¿±<ŠT. Âs+&ƒe M~ó ×<Še dŸ+K« >·\ ‚+{ì“ #ûsÁT³Å£” yîTT<Š³>± Âs+&ƒe
M~ó“ >·T]ï+º €™|Õ n+<ŠTý˓ ×<Še ‚+{ì“ >·T]ï+#á>\· +. |Ÿ³+ 3.1 ýË
€ ‚\T¢ H <‘Çs dŸ Ö º+#á ‹ & + ~. n<û $ <ó Š + >± |Ÿ³+. 3.1
P nHû~ 7e M~óýË 4e ‚+{ì kÍH“• dŸÖºdŸTï+~.
88 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

II. Suppose you put a dot on a sheet of paper [Fig.3.2 (a)]. If we ask you to tell us the
position of the dot on the paper, how will you do this? Perhaps you will try in some such manner:
“The dot is in the upper half of the paper”, or “It is near the left edge of the paper”, or “It is very
near the left hand upper corner of the sheet”. Do any of these statements fix the position of the
dot precisely? No! But, if you say “ The dot is nearly 5 cm away from the left edge of the paper”,
it helps to give some idea but still does not fix the position of the dot. A little thought might
enable you to say that the dot is also at a distance of 9 cm above the bottom line. We now know
exactly where the dot is!

Fig. 3.2

For this purpose, we fixed the position of the dot by specifying its distances from two fixed
lines, the left edge of the paper and the bottom line of the paper [Fig.3.2 (b)]. In other words, we
need two independent informations for finding the position of the dot.
Now, perform the following classroom activity known as ‘Seating Plan’.
Activity 1 (Seating Plan) : Draw a plan of the seating in your classroom, pushing all the desks
together. Represent each desk by a square. In each square, write the name of the student occupying
the desk, which the square represents. Position of each student in the classroom is described
precisely by using two independent informations:
(i) the column in which she or he sits,
(ii) the row in which she or he sits.
If you are sitting on the desk lying in the 5th column and 3rd row (represented by the shaded
square in Fig. 3.3), your position could be written as (5, 3), first writing the column number, and
then the row number. Is this the same as (3, 5)? Write down the names and positions of other
students in your class. For example, if Sonia is sitting in the 4th column and 1st row, write S(4,1).
The teacher’s desk is not part of your seating plan. We are treating the teacher just as an observer.
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ C²«$TÜ 89

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™d+.MT

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90 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Fig. 3.3
In the discussion above, you observe that position of any object lying in a plane can be
represented with the help of two perpendicular lines. In case of ‘dot’, we require distance of the
dot from bottom line as well as from left edge of the paper. In case of seating plan, we require
the number of the column and that of the row. This simple idea has far reaching consequences,
and has given rise to a very important branch of Mathematics known as Coordinate Geometry.
In this chapter, we aim to introduce some basic concepts of coordinate geometry. You will
study more about these in your higher classes. This study was initially developed by the French
philosopher and mathematician René Déscartes.

René Déscartes, the great French mathematician of the

seventeenth century, liked to lie in bed and think! One day,
when resting in bed, he solved the problem of describing the
position of a point in a plane. His method was a development
of the older idea of latitude and longitude. In honour of
Déscartes, the system used for describing the position of a
René Déscartes (1596 -1650)
point in a plane is also known as the Cartesian system.
Fig. 3.4
EXERCISE 3.1
1. How will you describe the position of a table lamp on your study table to another person?
2. (Street Plan) : A city has two main roads which cross each other at the centre of the
city. These two roads are along the North-South direction and East-West direction. All
the other streets of the city run parallel to these roads and are 200 m apart. There are 5
streets in each direction. Using 1cm = 200 m, draw a model of the city on your notebook.
Represent the roads/streets by single lines.
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ C²«$TÜ 91

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kþ“jáÖ ‹\¢qT dŸÖºdŸT+ï ~

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1. MT dŸ&¼ ž fñ‹Týٙ|Õ fñ‹TýÙ ý²«+|t k͜H“• MTsÁT eTs=¿£e«¿ì¿ï ì mý² $e]kÍïsTÁ ?
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92 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

There are many cross- streets in your model. A particular cross-street is made by
two streets, one running in the North - South direction and another in the East - West
direction. Each cross street is referred to in the following manner : If the 2nd street
running in the North - South direction and 5th in the East - West direction meet at some
crossing, then we will call this cross-street (2, 5). Using this convention, find:
(i) how many cross - streets can be referred to as (4, 3).
(ii) how many cross - streets can be referred to as (3, 4).

3.2 Cartesian System

You have studied the number line in the chapter on ‘Number System’. On the number line,
distances from a fixed point are marked in equal units positively in one direction and negatively
in the other. The point from which the distances are marked is called the origin. We use the
number line to represent the numbers by marking points on a line at equal distances. If one unit
distance represents the number ‘1’, then 3 units distance represents the number ‘3’, ‘0’ being at
the origin. The point in the positive direction at a distance r from the origin represents the
number r. The point in the negative direction at a distance r from the origin represents the
number -r. Locations of different numbers on the number line are shown in Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.5
Descartes invented the idea of placing two such lines perpendicular to each other on a plane,
and locating points on the plane by referring them to these lines. The perpendicular lines may
be in any direction such as in Fig.3.6. But, when we choose

Fig. 3.6
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3.2 ¿±]¼›jáTHŽ e«edŸœ :

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|Ÿ³+. 3.6
94 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

these two lines to locate a point in a plane in this chapter, one line will be
horizontal and the other will be vertical, as in Fig. 3.6(c).
These lines are actually obtained as follows : Take two number lines, calling
them X¢X and Y¢Y. Place X¢X horizontal [as in Fig. 3.7(a)] and write the numbers
on it just as written on the number line. We do the same thing with Y¢Y except
that Y¢Y is vertical, not horizontal [Fig. 3.7(b)].

Fig. 3.7

Combine both the lines in such a way that the

two lines cross each other at their zeroes, or origins
(Fig. 3.8). The horizontal line X¢X is called the x -
axis and the vertical line YY¢ is called the y - axis.
The point where X¢X and Y¢Y cross is called the
origin, and is denoted by O. Since the positive
numbers lie on the directions OX and OY, OX and
OY are called the positive directions of the x -
axis and the y - axis, respectively. Similarly, OX¢
and OY¢ are called the negative directions of the
x - axis and the y - axis, respectively.
Fig. 3.8
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96 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

You observe that the axes (plural of the word ‘axis’) divide
the plane into four parts. These four parts are called the quadrants
(one fourth part), numbered I, II, III and IV anticlockwise from
OX (see Fig.3.9). So, the plane consists of the axes and these
quadrants. We call the plane, the Cartesian plane, or the
coordinate plane, or the xy-plane. The axes are called the
coordinate axes.

Fig. 3.9

Now, let us see why this system is so basic to mathematics, and how it is useful. Consider
the following diagram where the axes are drawn on graph paper. Let us see the distances of the
points P and Q from the axes. For this, we draw perpendiculars PM on the x - axis and PN on the
y - axis. Similarly, we draw perpendiculars QR and QS as shown in Fig. 3.10.

Fig.3.10
You find that
(i) The perpendicular distance of the point P from the y - axis measured along the positive
direction of the x - axis is PN = OM = 4 units.
(ii) The perpendicular distance of the point P from the x - axis measured along the positive
direction of the y - axis is PM = ON = 3 units.
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MTsÁT >·eT“kÍïsTÁ . ‡ H\T>·T uó²>±\qT bÍ<‘\T n+{²sÁT. (H\T>·T uó²>·+) OX ¿±]¼›jáTHŽ ¿±]¼›jáTHŽ
qT+& n|ŸdeŸ « ~XøýË I, II, III eT]jáTT IV >± dŸ+K«\Ôà >·T]ïkÍï+ (|Ÿ³+ 3.9“
#áÖ&ƒ+&). ¿±‹{ì¼ Ôá\+ n¿Œ±\qT eT]jáTT bÍ<‘\qT ¿£*Ð –+³T+~. eTq+
Ôáý²“• ¿±]¼›jáTHŽ Ôá\+, ýñ<‘ “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿Ô£ \á + ýñ<‘ xy Ôá\+ n“ n+{²+. n¿Œ±\qT ¿±]¼›jáTHŽ ¿±]¼›jáTHŽ
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ n¿Œ±\T n“ n+{²+.

|Ÿ³+. 3.9

‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, ‡ e«edŸ,œ >·DÔì Xá ækÍ çbÍ<¸$Š T¿£ uó²eq>± m+<ŠTÅ£”? eT]jáTT n~ mý²–|ŸjÖî >·|&Ÿ Tƒ ÔáT+<à #áÖ<‘Ý+.
ç¿ì+~ n¿Œ±\T ^ºq ç>±|˜t ¿±ÐÔá+™|Õ ç¿ì+~ |Ÿ{²“• |Ÿ]>·D+ì #á+&. n¿Œ±\ qT+& P eT]jáTT Q _+<ŠTeÚ\ <ŠÖs\qT
#áÖ<‘Ý+. B“ ¿ÃdŸ+, eTqeTT X- n¿£+Œ ™|Õ PM eT]jáTT Y - n¿£+Œ ™|Õ PN \+u²\qT ^kÍï+. n<û$<ó+Š >±, eTq+ |Ÿ³+
3.10ýË #áÖ|¾q $<óŠ+>± QR eT]jáTT QS \+u²\qT ^kÍï+.

|Ÿ³+. 3.10
™|Õ |Ÿ³eTT <‘Çs ç¿ì+~ $wŸjÖá \qT >·eT“+#áe#áTÌ:
(i) X- n¿£+Œ jîTT¿£Ø <óq
Š ~XøýË Y - n¿£+Œ qT+& ¿=\e‹&q P _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø\+‹<ŠÖsÁ+ PN=OM=4 jáT֓³T¢.
(ii) Y- n¿£+Œ jîTT¿£Ø <óŠq~XøýË X - n¿£+Œ qT+& ¿=\e‹&q P _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø\+‹<ŠÖsÁ+PM=ON=3 jáT֓³T¢
98 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

(iii) The perpendicular distance of the point Q from the y - axis measured along the negative
direction of the x - axis is OR = SQ = 6 units.
(iv) The perpendicular distance of the point Q from the x - axis measured along the negative
direction of the y - axis is OS = RQ = 2 units.
Now, using these distances, how can we describe the points so that there is no confusion?
We write the coordinates of a point, using the following conventions:
(i) The x - coordinate of a point is its perpendicular distance from the y - axis measured
along the x -axis (positive along the positive direction of the x - axis and negative along
the negative direction of the x - axis). For the point P, it is + 4 and for Q, it is – 6. The x
- coordinate is also called the abscissa.
(ii) The y - coordinate of a point is its perpendicular distance from the x - axis measured
along the y - axis (positive along the positive direction of the y - axis and negative along
the negative direction of the y - axis). For the point P, it is + 3 and for Q, it is –2. The y
- coordinate is also called the ordinate.
(iii) In stating the coordinates of a point in the coordinate plane, the x - coordinate comes
first, and then the y - coordinate. We place the coordinates in brackets.
Hence, the coordinates of P are (4, 3) and the coordinates of Q are (– 6, – 2).
Note that the coordinates describe a point in the plane uniquely. (3, 4) is not the same as
(4, 3).

Example 1 : See Fig. 3.11 and complete the following statements:

(i) The abscissa and the ordinate of the point B are _ _ _ and _ _ _, respectively.
Hence, the coordinates of B are (_ _, _ _).
(ii) The x-coordinate and the y-coordinate of the point M are _ _ _ and _ _ _, respectively.
Hence, the coordinates of M are (_ _, _ _).
(iii) The x-coordinate and the y-coordinate of the point L are _ _ _ and _ _ _, respectively.
Hence, the coordinates of L are (_ _, _ _).
(iv) The x-coordinate and the y-coordinate of the point S are _ _ _ and _ _ _, respectively.
Hence, the coordinates of S are (_ _, _ _).
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ C²«$TÜ 99

(iii) X- n¿£+Œ jîTT¿£Ø ‹TTD ~XøýË Y - n¿£Œ+ qT+& ¿=\e‹&q Q _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø \+‹<ŠÖsÁ+ OR = SQ = 6
jáT֓³T¢.
(iv) Y - n¿£+Œ jîTT¿£Ø ‹TTD ~XøýË X - n¿£Œ+ qT+& ¿=\e‹&q Q _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø \+‹<ŠÖsÁ+ OS = RQ = 2
jáT֓³T¢.
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, ‡ <ŠÖs\qT|ŸjîÖÐ+º, >·+<ŠsÁ>ÃÞø+ ýñÅ£”+&† _+<ŠTeÚ\qT mý² $e]+#áe#áTÌ?
eTqeTT ‡ ç¿ì+~ |Ÿ<ÔƊ Tá \qT –|ŸjÖî Ð+º ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\qT çykÍï+ :
(i) X - n¿£Œ+ ™|Õ eTÖ\ _+<ŠTeÚ qT+& \+‹bÍ<Š+ esÁŔ£ >·\ <ŠÖs“• (X n¿£+Œ jîTT¿£Ø <óq Š ~XøýË <óHŠ Ôሿ£+>±
eT]jáTT X n¿£+Œ jîTT¿£Ø ‹TTD~XøýË ‹TTD²Ôሿ£+>±) X-“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ n“ n+{²+. P _+<ŠTeÚÅ£” ‚~ + 4 eT]jáTT
QqÅ£” -6. X-“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±“•, ç|Ÿ<e ¸Š T “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ (Abscissa) n“ Å£L&† n+{²sÁT.
(ii )Y- n¿£Œ+ ™|Õ eTÖ\ _+<ŠTeÚ qT+& \+‹bÍ<Š+ esÁŔ£ >·\ <ŠÖs“• (Y n¿£+Œ jîTT¿£Ø <óq Š ~XøýË <óHŠ Ôሿ£+>±
eT]jáTT Y n¿£+Œ jîTT¿£Ø ‹TTD~XøýË ‹TTD²Ôሿ£+>±) Y-“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ n“ n+{²eTT. P _+<ŠTeÚÅ£” ‚~ + 3 eT]jáTT
QqÅ£” ‚~ -2. Y- “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±“• ~ÇrjáT “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+ £ (Ordinate) n“ Å£L&† n+{²sÁT.
(iii) ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\qT “sÁǺ+#áT³Å£” yîTT<Š³ X-“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿e £ TT, €™|Õ Y-“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿e£ TT \qT çykÍïeTT.
y{ì“ çu²Â¿{Ù\ýË çykÍï+.
¿±eÚq, P _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (4,3) eT]jáTT Q _+<ŠTeÚ “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (-6, -2) neÚԐsTT. ÿ¿£ Ôá\+™|Õ @
_+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±ýÉHÕ  @¿¿Õ +£ (unique)>± –+{²sTT.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 1: |Ÿ³+ 3.11 qT >·eT“+º ç¿ì+<Š U²°\qT |ŸP]ï#ûjáT+&:
(i) B _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø ç|Ÿ<eŠ¸ T “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ eT]jáTT ~ÇrjáT “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ esÁTdŸ>± _ _ _ eT]jáTT_ _ _. ×q, B jîTT¿£Ø
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T B (_ _, _ _).
(ii) M _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø X-- “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£+ eT]jáTT Y-- “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£+ esÁTdŸ>±_ _ _ eT]jáTT_ _ , nsTTq, M jîTT¿£Ø
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (_ _ , _ _ ).
_+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø X-- “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ eT]jáTT Y-- “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£+ esÁTdŸ>±
(iii) L ___ eT]jáTT __ , nsTTq, LjîTT¿£Ø
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (_ _ , _ _ ).
(iv) S_+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø X-- “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ eT]jáTT Y-- “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£+ esÁTdŸ>± ___ eT]jáTT __ , nsTTq, S jîTT¿£Ø
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (_ _ , _ _ )
100 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Fig. 3.11

Solution: (i) Since the distance of the point B from the y - axis is 4 units, the
x - coordinate or abscissa of the point B is 4. The distance of the point B from the
x - axis is 3 units; therefore, the y - coordinate, i.e., the ordinate, of the point B is 3. Hence, the
coordinates of the point B are (4, 3).
As in (i) above :
(ii) The x - coordinate and the y - coordinate of the point M are –3 and 4, respectively. Hence,
the coordinates of the point M are (–3, 4).

(iii) The x - coordinate and the y - coordinate of the point L are –5 and – 4, respectively. Hence,
the coordinates of the point L are (–5, – 4).

(iv) The x - coordinate and the y- coordinate of the point S are 3 and – 4, respectively. Hence,
the coordinates of the point S are (3, – 4).
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ C²«$TÜ 101

|Ÿ³+. 3.11
kÍ<óqŠ : (i) y - n¿£Œ+ qT+& B _+<ŠTeÚ <ŠÖsÁ+ 4 jáT֓³T¢, B _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø ç|Ÿ<e¸Š T “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ ýñ<‘ X “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£
4. X - n¿£+Œ qT+& B _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø <ŠÖsÁ+ 3 jáT֓³T¢ ; ¿±‹{ì,¼ B _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø ~ÇrjáT “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ , n+fñ
Y- “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+ £ 3.
n+<ŠTe\¢, B _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (4, 3).
™|qÕ (i) ýË Ôî*|¾q $<ó+Š >± :

(ii) M _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø x - “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£+ eT]jáTT y - “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£+ esÁTdŸ>± 3 eT]jáTT 4. n+<ŠTe\¢, M _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (3,4).
(iii) L _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø x - “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£+ eT]jáTT y - “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£+ esÁTdŸ>± 5 eT]jáTT-4. n+<ŠTe\¢, L _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (5,-4).
(iv) S _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø x - “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£+ eT]jáTT y - “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£+ esÁTdŸ>± 3 eT]jáTT 4. n+<ŠTe\¢, S _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (3, -4)
102 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Example 2 : Write the coordinates of the points marked

on the axes in Fig. 3.12.
Solution : You can see that :
(i) The point A is at a distance of + 4 units from the y -axis
and at a distance zero from the x - axis. Therefore, the
x - coordinate of A is 4 and the y - coordinate is 0.
Hence, the coordinates of A are (4, 0).
(ii) The coordinates of B are (0, 3). Why?
(iii) The coordinates of C are (– 5, 0). Why?
(iv) The coordinates of D are (0, – 4). Why?
æ2 ö Fig. 3.12
(v) The coordinates of E are ç , 0 ÷ . Why?
è3 ø
Since every point on the x - axis has no distance (zero distance) from the x - axis, therefore,
the y - coordinate of every point lying on the x - axis is always zero. Thus, the coordinates of any
point on the x - axis are of the form (x, 0), where x is the distance of the point from the y - axis.
Similarly, the coordinates of any point on the y - axis are of the form (0, y), where y is the
distance of the point from the x - axis. Why?
What are the coordinates of the origin O? It has zero distance from both the axes so that its
abscissa and ordinate are both zero. Therefore, the coordinates of the origin are (0, 0).
In the examples above, you may have observed the following relationship between the signs
of the coordinates of a point and the quadrant of a point in which it lies.
(i) If a point is in the 1st quadrant, then the point will be in the form (+, +), since the 1st
quadrant is enclosed by the positive x - axis and the positive y - axis.
(ii) If a point is in the 2nd quadrant, then the point will be in the form (–, +), since the 2nd
quadrant is enclosed by the negative x - axis and the positive y - axis.
(iii) If a point is in the 3rd quadrant, then the point will be in the form (–, –), since the 3rd
quadrant is enclosed by the negative x - axis and the negative y - axis.
(iv) If a point is in the 4th quadrant, then the point will be in the form (+, –), since the 4th
quadrant is enclosed by the positive x - axis and the negative y - axis
(see Fig. 3.13).
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ C²«$TÜ 103

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 2: |Ÿ³+ 3.12 ýË #áÖ|¾q _+<ŠTeÚ\Å£” “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T sjáT+&.

kÍ<óqŠ :
(i) A _+<ŠTeÚ Y - n¿£Œ+ qT+& + 4 jáT֓³¢ <ŠÖsÁ+ýË eT]jáTT
X- n¿£+
Œ qT+& dŸTH• <ŠÖsÁ+ýË –+³T+~. ¿±‹{ì,¼ A X
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ 4 eT]jáTT Y - “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£+ 0. n+<ŠTe\¢ A
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (4, 0).
(ii) B _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (0,3) m+<ŠTÅ£”?
(iii) C _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (-5, 0) m+<ŠTÅ£”?
(iv) D _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (0,- 4) m+<ŠTÅ£”?
æ2 ö |Ÿ³+. 3.12
(v) E _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T ç , 0 ÷ m+<ŠTÅ£”?
è3 ø
ç|ŸÜ _+<ŠTeÚ X n¿£eŒ TT qT+& dŸTH• <ŠÖsÁ+ýË ¿£\eÚ n“ #î|Ο e#áTÌ. ¿±eÚq, X- n¿£+Œ ™|Õ –q• ç|ŸÜ _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø
Y- “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ $\Te 0. n+<ŠTe\¢, Y- n¿£+Œ ™|Õ >·\ n“• _+<ŠTeÚ\T (x,0) >± dŸÖº+#á‹&ƒTԐsTT. ‚+<ŠTýË X nqTq~ Y
n¿£Œ+ qT+& >·\ <ŠÖsÁ+. ný²¹> Y n¿£Œ+ ™|Õ >·\ n“• _+<ŠTeÚ\T (0,y) sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË –+{²sTT. n+<ŠTýË y nqTq~ X- n¿£+Œ
qT+& >·\ <ŠÖsÁ+. m+<ŠTÅ£”?
eTÖ\_+<ŠTeÚ O jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T @$? ‚~ s +&ƒT n¿Œ±\ qT+& dŸTH• <ŠÖs“• ¿£*Ð –+³T+~ ¿±‹{ì¼ <‘“ ç|Ÿ<eŠ¸ T
eT]jáTT ~ÇrjáT “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T s +&ƒÖ dŸTH•>± –+{²sTT. ¿±‹{ì,¼ eTÖ\_+<ŠTeÚ “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (0, 0) n“ #î|Ο e#áTÌ.
™|Õ –<‘VŸ²sÁD\ýË, MTsÁT ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\ >·TsÁTï\T eT]jáTT _+<ŠTeÚ>·\ bÍ<ŠeTT\ eT<óŠ«
‡ ç¿ì+~ dŸ+‹+<󑓕 >·eT“+#áe#áTÌ.
(i) ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ yîTT<Š{ì bÍ<Š+ýË –q•³¢sTTÔû, _+<ŠTeÚ (G, G) sÁÖ|Ÿ+ý˖+³T+~, m+<ŠT¿£+fñ yîTT<Š{ì bÍ<Š+
X- n¿£|Œ ڟ <óqŠ ~XøýË eT]jáTT Y- n¿£|Œ ڟ <óqŠ ~XøýË –+³T+~.
(ii) ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ s +&ƒe bÍ<Š+ýË –q•³¢sTTÔû, _+<ŠTeÚ (-, G) sÁÖ|Ÿ+ý˖+³T+~, m+<ŠT¿£+fñ s +&ƒe bÍ<Š+
X- n¿£|
Œ ڟ ‹TTD ~XøýË eT]jáTT Y- n¿£|Œ ڟ <óqŠ ~XøýË –+³T+~.
(iii) ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ eTÖ&ƒe bÍ<Š+ýË –q•³¢sTTÔû, _+<ŠTeÚ (-, -) sÁÖ|Ÿ+ý˖+³T+~, m+<ŠT¿£+fñ eTÖ&ƒe bÍ<Š+
X- n¿£|
Œ ڟ ‹TTD ~XøýË eT]jáTT Y- n¿£|Œ ڟ ‹TTD ~XøýË –+³T+~.
(iv) ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ H\Ze bÍ<Š+ýË –q•³¢sTTÔû, _+<ŠTeÚ (G, -) sÁÖ|Ÿ+ý˖+³T+~, m+<ŠT¿£+fñ H\Ze bÍ<Š+
X- n¿£|
Œ ڟ <óqŠ ~XøýË eT]jáTT Y- n¿£|Œ ڟ ‹TTD ~XøýË –+³T+~. (3.13 |Ÿ{²“• #áÖ&ƒTeTT)
104 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Fig. 3.13
Remark : The system we have discussed above for describing a point in a plane is only a
convention, which is accepted all over the world. The system could also have been, for example,
the ordinate first, and the abscissa second. However, the whole world sticks to the system we
have described to avoid any confusion.

EXERCISE 3.2
1. Write the answer of each of the following questions:
(i) What is the name of horizontal and the vertical lines drawn to determine the position
of any point in the Cartesian plane?
(ii) What is the name of each part of the plane formed by these two lines?
(iii) Write the name of the point where these two lines intersect.
2. See Fig.3.14, and write the following:
(i) The coordinates of B.
(ii) The coordinates of C.
(iii) The point identified by the coordinates (–3, –5).
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ C²«$TÜ 105

|Ÿ³+. 3.13
>·eT“¿£ : ÿ¿£ Ôá\+ýË _+<ŠTeÚqT $e]+#á&†“¿ì ™|qÕ #á]Ì+ºq e«edŸœ ÿ¿£ $esÁD eÖçÔáyTû , ‚~ ç|Ÿ|+Ÿ #áy«|Ÿï+>±
€yîÖ~+#á‹&+~. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, €]¦H{û Ù (~ÇrjáT “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ ) yîTT<Š³>± eT]jáTT n_àkÍà (ç|Ÿ<eŠ¸ T “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿e£ TT) s +&ƒe~>±
>·\ e«edŸœ Å£L&† –+&jTá T+&ƒe#áTÌ. nsTTÔû, ‡ >·+<Šs>Á ÃÞ²\qT “y]+#á&†“¿ì ç|Ÿ|+Ÿ #á+ yîTTÔáï+ eTq+ $e]+ºq
¿±]¼›jáTHŽ e«edŸœqT nqTdŸ]kþï+~.
nuó²«dŸ+ 3.2
1. ç¿ì+~ ç|ŸX•ø \Å£” dŸeÖ<ó‘H\T sjáT+&.
(i) ÿ¿£ ¿±¯¼›jáTHŽ ÿ¿£ Ôá\+ýË ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ k͜H“• “sÁǺ+#á&†“¿ì ^d ¿ìŒÜÈ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ s¹ K eT]jáTT
¿ì܌ È \+‹¹sK\ |sÁ¢qT Ôî\|Ÿ+&.
(ii) ‡ Âs+&ƒT s¹ K\ <‘Çs Ôá\+ýË @sÁÎ&q ç|ŸÜ uó²>·+ |sÁT @$T{ì?
(iii) ‡ s +&ƒT s¹ K\T K+&+#áTÅ£”Hû _+<ŠTeÚ |sÁT sjáT+&.
2. 3.14 |Ÿ³+ #áÖd¾ ç¿ì+~ y{ì“ sjáT+&:
(i) B “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T
(ii) C “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T
(iii) (-3, -5) “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\ <‘Çs “sÁǺ+#á‹&q _+<ŠTeÚ
106 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

(iv) The point identified by the coordinates (2, – 4).

(v) The abscissa of the point D.
(vi) The ordinate of the point H.
(vii) The coordinates of the point L.
(viii) The coordinates of the point M.

Fig. 3.14

3.3 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. To locate the position of an object or a point in a plane, we require two perpendicular lines.
One of them is horizontal, and the other is vertical.
2. The plane is called the Cartesian, or coordinate plane and the lines are called the coordinate
axes.
3. The horizontal line is called the x -axis, and the vertical line is called the y - axis.
“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ C²«$TÜ 107

(iv) (2, -4) “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\ <‘Çs “sÁǺ+#á‹&q _+<ŠTeÚ

(v) D _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø ç|Ÿ<e
Š¸ T “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£
(vi) H _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø ~ÇrjáT “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£
(vii) L _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T
(viii) M _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T

|Ÿ³+. 3.14
3.3 kÍs+Xø+:
‡ n<ó‘«jáT+ýË, MTsÁT ‡ ç¿ì+~ n+Xæ\qT n<ó«Š jáTq+ #ûkÍsÁT :
1. ÿ¿£ Ôá\eTTýË ÿ¿£ edŸTeï Ú ýñ<‘ _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø k͜H“• >·T]ï+#á&†“¿ì, eTqÅ£” \+‹+>± s +&ƒT s¹ K\T nedŸs+Á .
y{ìýË ÿ¿£{ì ¿ì܌ È dŸeÖ+Ôás+Á >± –+³T+~, eTs=¿£{ì “\TeÚ>± –+³T+~.
2. ‡ Ôá\eTTqT ¿±¯¼›jáTHŽ ýñ<‘ “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ Ôá\+ n“ |¾\TkÍïsÁT eT]jáTT ¹sK\qT “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ n¿Œ±\T n+{²sÁT.
3. ¿ì܌ È dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ s¹ KqT X - n¿£+Œ n“ ¿ì܌ È \+‹ s¹ KqT Y - n¿£+Œ n“ n+{²eTT.
108 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

4. The coordinate axes divide the plane into four parts called quadrants.

5. The point of intersection of the axes is called the origin.

6. The distance of a point from the y - axis is called its x-coordinate, or abscissa, and the
distance of the point from the x-axis is called its y-coordinate, or ordinate.

7. If the abscissa of a point is x and the ordinate is y, then (x, y) are called the coordinates of
the point.

8. The coordinates of a point on the x-axis are of the form (x, 0) and that of the point on the y-
axis are (0, y).

9. The coordinates of the origin are (0, 0).

10. The coordinates of a point are of the form (+ , +) in the first quadrant, (–, +) in the second
quadrant, (–, –) in the third quadrant and (+, –) in the fourth quadrant, where + denotes a
positive real number and – denotes a negative real number.

11. If x ¹ y, then (x, y) ¹ (y, x), and (x, y) = (y, x), if x = y.

“sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ C²«$TÜ 109

4. “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿£ n¿Œ±\T ÿ¿£ Ôáý²“• H\T>·T uó²>±\T>± $uó›„ kÍïsTT. y{ì“ bÍ<‘\T n+{²sÁT.
5. n¿Œ±\ K+&ƒq _+<ŠTeÚqT eTÖ\ _+<ŠTeÚ n+{²sÁT.
6. Y - n¿£+
Œ qT+& ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚÅ£” >·\ <ŠÖs“• <‘“ x- “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ , ýñ<‘ ç|Ÿ<eŠ¸ T “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ ýñ<‘ n_àkÍà n+{²sÁT.
x -n¿£+
Œ qT+& _+<ŠTeÚŔ£ >·\ <ŠÖs“• <‘“ y - “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ , ýñ<‘ ~ÇrjáT “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ ýñ<‘ €]¦H{û Ù n+{²sÁT.
7. ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø ç|Ÿ<eŠ¸ T “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ x, ~ÇrjáT “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿+£ y nsTTq (x,y) € _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T n+{²eTT.
8. X - n¿£Œ+ ™|Õ >·\ _+<ŠTeÚ “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (x, 0) eT]jáTT Y - n¿£Œ+ ™|Õ >·\ _+<ŠTeÚ “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (0,y) sÁÖ|ŸeTTýË
–+{²sTT.
9. eTÖ\ _+<ŠTeÚ “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T (0, 0)
10. ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|Ÿ¿±\T yîTT<Š{ì bÍ<Š+ýË (+, +) sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË, s +&ƒe bÍ<Š+ýË (`, G) sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË, eTÖ&ƒe
bÍ<Š+ýË (`, `) eT]jáTT H\Ze sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË (G,`) sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýËqÖ –+{²sTT [+ nHû~ <óqŠ dŸ+K«, - nHû~ ‹TTD
dŸ+K«>± dŸÖºkÍï+].
11. x ¹ y nsTTÔû (x, y) ¹ (y, x), eT]jáTT x = y nsTTÔû (x, y) = (y, x)
110 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

CHAPTER 4

LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

The principal use of the Analytic Art is to bring Mathematical Problems to Equations
and to exhibit those Equations in the most simple terms that can be.
—Edmund Halley

4.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, you have studied linear equations in one variable. Can you write down a linear
equation in one variable? You may say that x + 1 = 0, x + 2 = 0 and 2 y + 3 = 0 are
examples of linear equations in one variable. You also know that such equations have a unique
(i.e., one and only one) solution. You may also remember how to represent the solution on a
number line. In this chapter, the knowledge of linear equations in one variable shall be recalled
and extended to that of two variables. You will be considering questions like: Does a linear
equation in two variables have a solution? If yes, is it unique? What does the solution look like
on the Cartesian plane? You shall also use the concepts you studied in Chapter 3 to answer these
questions.

4.2 Linear Equations

Let us first recall what you have studied so far. Consider the following equation:
2x + 5 = 0

Its solution, i.e., the root of the equation, is - 5 . This can be represented on the number line
2
as shown below:

Fig. 4.1
Âs+&ƒT #ásÁ sXø—\ýË ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T 111

n<ó‘«jáT+ 4

Âs+&ƒT #ássÁ Xø—\ýË s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²\T

$Xâw¢ DŸ ²Ôሿ£ ¿£Þø jîTT¿£Ø ç|Ÿ<‘ó q –|ŸjÖî >·+ >·DÔì á dŸeTdŸ«\qT dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²\ sÁÖ|Ÿ+ý˓¿ì rdŸTÅ£”se&ƒ+ eT]jáTT €
dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²\qT nÔá«+Ôá kÍ<ó‘sÁD |Ÿ<‘\ýË ç|Ÿ<]Š ô+#á&+ƒ .
- m&ƒˆ+&Ž VŸä©
4.1 |Ÿ]#ájáT+ :
MTsÁT ç¿ì+~ Ôás>Á Ô· Tá \ýË @¿£ #ássÁ ¥ýË s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²\qT n<ó«Š jáTq+ #ûkÍsÁT. MTsÁT @¿£ #ássÁ ¥ýË s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²\qT
sjáT>·\s? x + 1 = 0, x + 2 = 0 eT]jáTT 2 y + 3 = 0 nqTq$ @¿£ #ássÁ ¥ýË s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sD Á ²\Å£”
–<‘VŸ²sÁD>± |s=Ø+{²sÁT. ‚ý²+{ì ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD²\Å£” @¿տ£ ( unique) (ÿ¹¿ÿ¿£) $\Te kÍ<óŠq>±
–+³T+<ŠHû~ MTÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. kÍ<óqŠ qT dŸ+U²«¹sK™|Õ mý² dŸÖº+#ýË Å£”&† MTsÁT >·TsÁTï #ûdŸT¿Ãe#áTÌ. ‡ n<ó‘«jáT+ýË @¿£
#ásÁs¥ýË ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT Èã|￾ ì Ôî#áTÌ¿=“ y{ì“ Âs+&ƒT #ásÁsXø—\Å£” $dŸ]ï kÍï+. Âs+&ƒT #ásÁsXø—\ýË ¹sFjáT
dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²\Å£” kÍ<óqŠ –+³T+<‘? neÚqT nsTTÔû, ‚~ @¿¿Õ e£ Ö? ¿±]¼›jáTHŽ Ôá\+ýË kÍ<óqŠ mý² –+³T+~? e+{ì
ç|ŸX•ø \qT MTsÁT |Ÿ]o*kÍïsTÁ . ‡ ç|ŸX•ø \Å£” dŸeÖ<ó‘H\T ‚eÇ&†“¿ì 3e n<ó‘«jáT+ýË MTsÁT HûsTÁ ÌÅ£”q• uó²eq\T Å£L&†
–|ŸjÖî ÐkÍïsTÁ .

4.2 s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T:

MTsÁT ‚+ÔáesÁŔ£ HûsÁTÌÅ£”q• $wŸjÖá \qT >·TsÁTÅï ”£ Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&. ç¿ì+~ s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²“• |Ÿ]o*+#á+&.
2x + 5 = 0
5
B“¿ì kÍ<óqŠ nq>± dŸMT¿£sDÁ + jîTT¿£Ø eTÖ\+ - neÚÔáT+~. B““ dŸ+U²« s¹ K™|Õ ç¿ì+~ $<óŠ+>± #áÖ|¾+#áe#áTÌ.
2

eTÖ\eTT

|Ÿ³+. 4.1
112 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

While solving an equation, you must always keep the following points in mind:
The solution of a linear equation is not affected when:
(i) the same number is added to (or subtracted from) both the sides of the equation.
(ii) you multiply or divide both the sides of the equation by the same non-zero number.
Let us now consider the following situation:
In a One-day International Cricket match between India and Sri Lanka played in Nagpur, two
Indian batsmen together scored 176 runs. Express this information in the form of an equation.
Here, you can see that the score of neither of them is known, i.e., there are two unknown
quantities. Let us use x and y to denote them. So, the number of runs scored by one of the
batsmen is x, and the number of runs scored by the other is y. We know that
x + y = 176,
which is the required equation.
This is an example of a linear equation in two variables. It is customary to denote the variables
in such equations by x and y, but other letters may also be used. Some examples of linear
equations in two variables are:
1.2s + 3t = 5, p + 4q = 7, p u + 5v = 9 and 3 = 2 x – 7y.
Note that you can put these equations in the form 1.2s + 3t – 5 = 0, p + 4q – 7 = 0, p u + 5v
– 9 = 0 and 2 x – 7y – 3 = 0, respectively..
So, any equation which can be put in the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are real
numbers, and a and b are not both zero, is called a linear equation in two variables. This
means that you can think of many many such equations.

Example 1 : Write each of the following equations in the form ax + by + c = 0 and indicate the
values of a, b and c in each case:
(i) 2x + 3y = 4.37 (ii) x – 4 = 3 y (iii) 4 = 5x – 3y (iv) 2x = y

Solution : (i) 2x + 3y = 4.37 can be written as 2x + 3y – 4.37 = 0. Here a = 2, b = 3 and

c = – 4.37.

(ii) The equation x – 4 = 3 y can be written as x – 3 y – 4 = 0. Here a = 1,

b = – 3 and c = – 4.

(iii) The equation 4 = 5x – 3y can be written as 5x – 3y – 4 = 0. Here a = 5, b

= –3 and c = – 4. Do you agree that it can also be written as –5x + 3y + 4
= 0 ? In this case a = –5, b = 3 and c = 4.
Âs+&ƒT #ásÁ sXø—\ýË ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T 113

dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²“• kÍ~ó+#û³|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, eTq+ m\¢|ڟ Î&ƒÖ ‡ ç¿ì+~ n+Xæ\qT >·TsÁT+ï #áT¿Ãy*:
s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sD Á + kÍ<óqŠ ç|Ÿu²ó $Ôá+ ¿±<ŠT, m|Ÿð&ƒ+fñ
1. ÿ¹¿ dŸ+K«qT dŸMT¿£sDÁ + ‚sÁTyîÕ|ŸÚ\ Å£L&H (ýñ¿£ rd¾ydû H¾ ),
2. dŸTH•Å£” dŸeÖq+ ¿±“ ÿ¿£ dŸ+K«qT dŸMT¿£sD Á + s +&ƒTyî|Õ ÚŸ ý² ™V²ºÌ+ºH, ýñ¿£ uó²Ð+ºH.
‚|Ÿð&ƒT eTq+ ç¿ì+<Š Ôî*|¾q dŸ+<ŠsÒۓ• |Ÿ]o*<‘Ý+.
H>·|PŸ sYýË ‚+&jÖá ço\+¿£Å”£ eT<ó«Š È]Ðq ÿ¿£ sÃE n+Ôás¨rjáT ç¿ì¿Â {Ù eÖ«#YýË ‚<ŠsÝ TÁ €³>±Þø—ß ¿£*d¾
176 |ŸsÁT>·T\T #ûkÍsÁT. ‡ <ŠÔï+X擕 ÿ¿£ dŸMT¿£sÁD+>± e«¿£|ï sŸ Á#+á &.
‚#á̳, €³>±Þøß¿ì ‚sÁTeÚ] kþØsY Ôî*jáT<ŠT. nq>± Âs+&ƒT Ôî*jáT“ sXø—\T>·\eÚ. M{ì“ dŸÖº+#áT³Å£” x eT]jáTT
y \qT –|ŸjîÖÐ<‘Ý+. n+<ŠTýË ÿ¿£ €³>±&ƒT rd¾q |ŸsTÁ >·T\T x >±qT, eTs=¿£ €³>±&ƒT rd¾q |ŸsTÁ >·T\T y >±qT nqT¿=“q
™|Õ dŸeÖ#s“•
x + y = 176,
n“ sjáTe#áTÌ.
‚~ s +&ƒT #ássÁ Xø—\ýË s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sD Á ²“¿ì –<‘VŸ²sÁD. kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>± #ássÁ Xø—\qT x eT]jáTT y\#û dŸÖº+#á&ƒ+
kÍ+ç|Ÿ<‘jáTyîTq® |ŸÎ{ì¿,¡ ‚ÔásÁ n¿£sŒ \qT Å£L&† y&ƒe#áTÌ. s +&ƒT #ássÁ Xø—\ýË s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²\Å£” ¿=“• –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T:
1.2s + 3t = 5, p + 4q =7, p u + 5v = 9 eT]jáTT 3 = 2 x – 7y.
‚eú• Å£L&† Âs+&ƒT #ásÁsXø—\ýË ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T neÚԐsTT. M{ì“ esÁTdŸ>±, 1.2s + 3t – 5 = 0, p + 4q – 7
= 0, u + 5v – 9 = 0 eT]jáTT 2 x – 7y – 3 = 0 sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË Å£L&† sjáTe#á̓ >·eT“+#á+&.
p

¿±‹{ì,¼ @<û“ dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²“• ax + by + c = 0 sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáT>·*ÐÔû <‘““ s +&ƒT #ássÁ dŸT\ýË s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sD
Á +
n+{²sÁT. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ a, b eT]jáTT c \T ydŸeï dŸ+K«\T, eT]jáTT a, b \T ÿ¹¿kÍ] dŸTH• ¿±Å£L&ƒ<TŠ . B“ qT+& ‚ý²+{ì
nHû¿£ dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²\ >·T]+º MTsÁT €ý˺+#áe#áTÌ.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 1: ç¿ì+<Š ‚ºÌq dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²\qT ax + by + c = 0 sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sjáT+&. ç|ŸÜ dŸMT¿£sÁDeTT ýË a,b,c
$\Te\qT sjáT+&.
(i) 2x + 3y = 4.37 (ii) x – 4 = 3 y (iii) 4 = 5x – 3y (iv) 2x = y
kÍ<óqŠ :
(i) dŸMT¿£sDÁ + 2x + 3y = 4.37 qT 2x + 3y – 4.37 = 0 >± sjáTe#áTÌ. ‚+<ŠTýË a = 2, b = 3 eT]jáTT
c = – 4.37
(ii) dŸMT¿£sÁD+ x – 4 = 3 y qT x – 3 y – 4 = 0>± sjáTe#áTÌ. ‚+<ŠTýË a = 2, b = 3 eT]jáTT c = – 4.37
(iii) dŸMT¿£sÁD+ 4 = 5x – 3y qT 5x – 3y – 4 = 0>± sjáTe#áTÌ. ‚+<ŠTýË a = 5, b = –3 eT]jáTT c = – 4
B““ –5x + 3y + 4 = 0 n“ sjáTe#á̓ MTsÁT n+^¿£]kÍïs? ‡ dŸ+<ŠsÒÁ Û+ýË a = –5, b = 3 eT]jáTT
c=4
114 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

(iv) The equation 2x = y can be written as 2x – y + 0 = 0. Here a = 2, b = –1 and

c = 0.
Equations of the type ax + b = 0 are also examples of linear equations in two variables because
they can be expressed as
ax + 0.y + b = 0
For example, 4 – 3x = 0 can be written as –3x + 0.y + 4 = 0.

Example 2 : Write each of the following as an equation in two variables:

(i) x = –5 (ii) y = 2 (iii) 2x = 3 (iv) 5y = 2
Solution : (i) x = –5 can be written as 1.x + 0.y = –5, or 1.x + 0.y + 5 = 0.
(ii) y = 2 can be written as 0.x + 1.y = 2, or 0.x + 1.y – 2 = 0.
(iii) 2x = 3 can be written as 2x + 0.y – 3 = 0.
(iv) 5y = 2 can be written as 0.x + 5y – 2 = 0.

EXERCISE 4.1
1. The cost of a notebook is twice the cost of a pen. Write a linear equation in two variables
to represent this statement.
(Take the cost of a notebook to be ` x and that of a pen to be ` y).
2. Express the following linear equations in the form ax + by + c = 0 and indicate the
values of a, b and c in each case:
y
(i) 2x + 3y = 9.35 (ii) x– – 10 = 0 (iii) –2x + 3y = 6 (iv) x = 3y
5

(v) 2x = –5y (vi) 3x + 2 = 0 (vii) y–2=0 (viii) 5 = 2x

4.3 Solution of a Linear Equation

You have seen that every linear equation in one variable has a unique solution. What can you say
about the solution of a linear equation involving two variables? As there are two variables in the
equation, a solution means a pair of values, one for x and one for y which satisfy the given
equation. Let us consider the equation 2x + 3y = 12. Here, x = 3 and y = 2 is a solution because
when you substitute x = 3 and y = 2 in the equation above, you find that
2x + 3y = (2 × 3) + (3 × 2) = 12
This solution is written as an ordered pair (3, 2), first writing the value for x and then the
value for y. Similarly, (0, 4) is also a solution for the equation above.
Âs+&ƒT #ásÁ sXø—\ýË ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T 115

(iv) dŸMT¿£sÁD+ 2x = y qT 2x – y + 0 = 0 >± sjáTe#áTÌ. ‚+<ŠTýË a = 2, b = –1 eT]jáTT c = 0.

ax + b = 0 sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË dŸMT¿£sD
Á ²\qT ax + 0.y + b = 0 sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË e«¿£|ï sŸ Á#eá #áTÌ. ¿±eÚq M{ì“ Å£L&† Âs+&ƒT #ásÁsXø—
\ýË ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD²\Å£” –<‘VŸ²sÁD>± Ôî\|Ÿe#áTÌ.
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” 4– 3x = 0 qT –3x + 0.y + 4 = 0>± sjáT>·\+.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 2 : ç¿ì+~y{ì“ Âs+&ƒT #ásÁsXø—\ýË dŸMT¿£sÁD²“• sjáT+&.
(i) x = –5 (ii) y = 2 (iii) 2x = 3 (iv) 5y = 2

kÍ<óŠq : (i) x = –5 “ 1.x + 0.y = –5, ýñ<‘ 1.x + 0.y + 5 = 0 n“ sjáTe#áTÌ

(ii) y = 2 “ 0.x + 1.y = 2, ýñ<‘ 0.x + 1.y – 2 = 0 n“ sjáTe#áTÌ
(iii) 2x = 3 “ 2x + 0.y – 3 = 0 n“ sjáTe#áTÌ
(iv) 5y = 2 “ 0.x + 5y – 2 = 0 n“ sjáTe#áTÌ.

nuó²«dŸ+ 4.1
1. ÿ¿£ HóT |ŸÚd￟ +£ yî\ ™|qT• K¯<ŠT ¿£H• s +&ƒT s ³T¢. ‡ y¿±«“• s +&ƒT #ásÁsXø—\ýË ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sDÁ +ýË
sjáT+&.
(HóT |ŸÚdŸï¿£+ yî\ ` x eT]jáTT ™|qT• yî\ ` y nqT¿=qTeTT).

2. ç¿ì+~ ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD²\qT ax + by + c = 0 sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË sd¾, ç|ŸÜ dŸ+<ŠsÁÒ+Û ýË a, b, c $\Te\qT Ôî\|Ÿ+&.

y
(i) 2x + 3y = 9.35 (ii) x– – 10 = 0 (iii) –2x + 3y = 6 (iv) x = 3y
5
(v) 2x = –5y (vi) 3x + 2 = 0 (vii) y–2=0 (viii) 5 = 2x

4.3 s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sDÁ + kÍ<óqŠ

@¿£ #ássÁ ¥ s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sDÁ eTTqÅ£” @¿¿Õ £ kÍ<óqŠ –+<Š“ MTsÁT >·eT“++#sÁT. Âs+&ƒT #ásÁsXø—\T >·\ ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD+
jîTT¿£Ø kÍ<óŠq >·T]+º úeÚ @$T #î|Ο >·\eÚ? ‚#á̳ Âs+&ƒT #ássÁ Xø—\T –+&ƒT³ #ûÔá ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD+qT Ôá|¾ï|Ÿ]#û
x eT]jáTT y $\Te\ ÈÔáqT <‘“ kÍ<óq Š n+{²+. dŸMT¿£sDÁ + 2x + 3y = 12 qT rdŸTÅ£”+<‘+. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ x = 3 eT]jáTT
y = 2 <‘“ kÍ<óq Š neÚÔáT+~. m+<ŠT¿£q>± x = 3 eT]jáTT y = 2 \qT ™|Õ dŸMT¿£sÁD+ýË ç|ŸÜ¹¿Œ|¾+#á>±
2x + 3y = (2 × 3) + (3 × 2) = 12 n“ MTsÁT ¿£qTÅ£”Ø+{²sÁT.
‡ kÍ<óqŠ qT yîTT<Š³ x $\TeqT, Ôá<TŠ |Ÿ] y $\TeqT rdŸT¿=“ (3,2) nqT ç¿£eTjáTT>·ˆ+eTT>± sjáTe#áTÌ. n<û$<ó+Š >±
(0, 4) nqTq~ Å£L&† ™|Õ dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²“¿ì ÿ¿£ kÍ<óŠq neÚÔáT+~.
116 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

On the other hand, (1, 4) is not a solution of 2x + 3y = 12, because on putting

x = 1 and y = 4 we get 2x + 3y = 14, which is not 12. Note that (0, 4) is a solution but not (4, 0).
You have seen at least two solutions for 2x + 3y = 12, i.e., (3, 2) and (0, 4). Can you find any
other solution? Do you agree that (6, 0) is another solution? Verify the same. In fact, we can get
many many solutions in the following way. Pick a value of your choice for x (say x = 2) in 2x +
3y = 12. Then the equation reduces to 4 + 3y = 12, which is a linear equation in one variable. On
8
solving this, you get y = . So æç 2, 8 ö÷ is another solution of 2x + 3y = 12. Similarly, choosing
3 3ø 22
x = – 5, you find that the equation becomes –10 + 3y = 12. This gives y = . So, æç - 5, 22 ö÷ is
è

3 è 3 ø
another solution of 2x + 3y = 12. So there is no end to different solutions of a linear equation
in two variables. That is, a linear equation in two variables has infinitely many solutions.

Example 3 : Find four different solutions of the equation x + 2y = 6.

Solution : By inspection, x = 2, y = 2 is a solution because for x = 2, y = 2
x + 2y = 2 + 4 = 6
Now, let us choose x = 0. With this value of x, the given equation reduces to 2y = 6 which has
the unique solution y = 3. So x = 0, y = 3 is also a solution of x + 2y = 6. Similarly, taking y =
0, the given equation reduces to x = 6. So, x = 6, y = 0 is a solution of x + 2y = 6 as well. Finally,
let us take y = 1. The given equation now reduces to x + 2 = 6, whose solution is given by x = 4.
Therefore, (4, 1) is also a solution of the given equation. So four of the infinitely many solutions
of the given equation are:
(2, 2), (0, 3), (6, 0) and (4, 1).
Remark : Note that an easy way of getting a solution is to take x = 0 and get the corresponding
value of y. Similarly, we can put y = 0 and obtain the corresponding value of x.

Example 4 : Find two solutions for each of the following equations:

(i) 4x + 3y = 12
(ii) 2x + 5y = 0
(iii) 3y + 4 = 0
Solution : (i) Taking x = 0, we get 3y = 12, i.e., y = 4. So, (0, 4) is a solution of the given
equation. Similarly, by taking y = 0, we get x = 3. Thus, (3, 0) is also a solution.
Âs+&ƒT #ásÁ sXø—\ýË ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T 117

¿±ú, (1, 4) nqTq~ 2x + 3y = 12 qÅ£” kÍ<óqŠ ¿±<ŠT. x = 1 eT]jáTT y = 4 \qT ç|ŸÜ¹¿Œ|¾+ºq

2x + 3y = 14 bõ+<ŠTԐ+, n~ 12Å£” dŸeÖq+ ¿±<ŠT. (0, 4) nHû~ kÍ<óq
Š , ¿±ú (4, 0) ¿±<ŠT n“ >·eT“+#á+&.
2x + 3y = 12 qÅ£” ¿£údŸ+ Âs+&ƒT kÍ<óŠq\qT MTsÁT #áÖkÍsÁT. n$ (3,2) eT]jáTT (0,4). ‚+¿± @yîT®H kÍ<óŠq\T
¿£qT¿ÃØ>·\s? (6,0) eTsà kÍ<óqŠ neÚÔáT+<Š“ MTsÁT n+^¿£]kÍïs? ™|$Õ <ó+Š >± |Ÿ]o*+#á+&. “C²“¿ì, ‡ |Ÿ<ÜŠÆ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+
nHû¿£ kÍ<óŠq\T bõ+<ŠTԐeTT. 2x + 3y = 12 q+<ŠT x ¿=sÁŔ£ @<û“ ÿ¿£ $\TeqT rdŸT¿Ã+&. (x = 2 nqT¿=“q),
8
n|Ÿð&ƒT dŸMT¿£sÁD+ 4 + 3y = 12 >± @¿£ #ássÁ ¥ s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sD Á +>± eÖsÁTÔáT+~. B“• kÍ~ó+ºq y = 3 e#áTÌqT.
¿±eÚq 2, 8 nqTq~ 2x + 3y = 12 qÅ£” ‚+¿=¿£ kÍ<óŠq neÚÔáT+~. n<û$<óŠ+>± x = – 5 nsTTq, dŸMT¿£sDÁ +
æ
ç
ö
÷
3 22
neÚÔTá +~. ¿±eÚq 5, 22 nqTq~ 2x + 3y = 12qÅ£” ‚+¿=¿£
è ø
–10 + 3y = 12 >± eÖsÁTÔáT+~. n~ y = æ
-
ö

3 ç
è 3
÷
ø
kÍ<óqŠ . ¿±eÚq, s +&ƒT #ássÁ Xø—\T >·\ ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sDÁ + $_óq• kÍ<óŠq\Å£” n+Ôá+ –+&ƒ<TŠ . nq>± Âs+&ƒT #ásÁsXø—\T >·\
ÿ¿£ s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²“¿ì nq+ÔáyTî q® kÍ<óqŠ \T –+{²sTT.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 3 : x + 2y = 6 dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²“¿ì H\T>·T $_óq• kÍ<óqŠ \qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
kÍ<óqŠ : ‚ºÌq dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²“• |Ÿ]o*+ºq ÔásÇÔá x = 2 eT]jáTT y = 2 nHû~ ÿ¿£ kÍ<óqŠ neÚÔáT+~.
m+<ŠT¿£q>± x = 2, y = 2 \Å£”
x + 2y = 2 + 4 = 6 neÚÔáT+~.

‚|ŸÚð&ƒT eTq+ x = 0 >± rdŸTÅ£”+<‘+. n|Ÿð&ƒT ‚ºÌq dŸMT¿£sDÁ + 2y = 6>± eÖsÁT³ e\q y = 3 nHû~ @¿տ£ kÍ<óŠq
neÚÔTá +~. ¿±eÚq x = 0, y = 3 nqTq~ x + 2y = 6 qÅ£” Å£L&† ÿ¿£ kÍ<óqŠ . n<û$<ó+Š >± y = 0 nsTTq x = 6
n>·TqT. ¿±eÚq x = 6, y = 0 nqTq~ x + 2y = 6 qÅ£” ÿ¿£ kÍ<óqŠ . ºe]>± y = 1 rdŸTÅ£”+<‘+. ‚ºÌq dŸMT¿£sDÁ +
x + 2 = 6, >± eÖsÁ&ƒ+ e\q x = 4 edŸTï+~. (4, 1) Å£L&† ‚ºÌq dŸMT¿£sD Á ²“¿ì ÿ¿£ kÍ<óqŠ .
¿±‹{ì¼, (2, 2), (0, 3), (6, 0) eT]jáTT (4, 1) ™|Õ dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²“¿ì nq+Ôá kÍ<óHŠ \ýË H\T>·T kÍ<óŠq\T neÚԐsTT.
dŸÖº¿£: ‚ºÌq dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²“¿ì dŸT\uó„+>± kÍ<óHŠ  $\Te\ ÈÔáqT bõ+<ŠT³Å£” x = 0 >± rdŸT¿=“ dŸ+‹+~ó+Ôá y $\TeqT,
ný²¹> y = 0 >± rdŸT¿=“ dŸ+‹+~óÔá x $\TeqT dŸT\uó+„ >± ¿£qT¿ÃØe#áTÌ.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 4 : ç¿ì+<Š ‚ºÌq dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²“¿ì s +&ûd¾ kÍ<óqŠ \qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
(i) 4x + 3y = 12
(ii) 2x + 5y = 0
(iii) 3y + 4 = 0

kÍ<óqŠ : (i) x = 0 >± rdŸT¿=“q eTqÅ£” 3y = 12 edŸT+ï ~. ¿±eÚq y = 4 dŸMT¿£sDÁ +Å£” (0, 4) ÿ¿£ kÍ<óqŠ . n<û$<ó+Š >±
y = 0 n“ rdŸT¿=“q eTqÅ£” x = 3 edŸTï+~. n+<ŠTe\q (3, 0) Å£L&† ÿ¿£ kÍ<óqŠ .
118 LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

(ii) Taking x = 0, we get 5y = 0, i.e., y = 0. So (0, 0) is a solution of the given equation. Now, if
you take y = 0, you again get (0, 0) as a solution, which is the same as the earlier one. To get
2.
another solution, take x = 1, say. Then you can check that the corresponding value of y is -
5
2ö
So æç 1, - ÷
is another solution of 2x + 5y = 0.
è 5ø
4
(iii) Writing the equation 3y + 4 = 0 as 0.x + 3y + 4 = 0, you will find that y = – for any value
3

of x. Thus, two solutions can be given as æç 0, – 4 ö÷ and æç 1, – 4 ö÷ .

è 3ø è 3ø

EXERCISE 4.2
1. Which one of the following options is true, and why?
y = 3x + 5 has
(i) a unique solution, (ii) only two solutions, (iii) infinitely many solutions
2. Write four solutions for each of the following equations:
(i) 2x + y = 7 (ii) p x + y = 9 (iii) x = 4y
3. Check which of the following are solutions of the equation x – 2y = 4 and which are not:
(i) (0, 2) (ii) (2, 0) (iii) (4, 0)
(iv) ( 2 , 4 2) (v) (1, 1)
4. Find the value of k, if x = 2, y = 1 is a solution of the equation 2x + 3y = k.

4.4 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. An equation of the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are real numbers, such that a and b
are not both zero, is called a linear equation in two variables.
2. A linear equation in two variables has infinitely many solutions.
3. Every point on the graph of a linear equation in two variables is a solution of the linear
equation. Moreover, every solution of the linear equation is a point on the graph of the linear
equation.
Âs+&ƒT #ásÁ sXø—\ýË ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD²\T 119

(ii) x = 0>± rdŸT¿=“q eTqÅ£” 5y = 0 edŸT+ï ~. n+fñ y = 0 ¿±eÚq ‚ºÌq dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²“¿ì (0, 0) ÿ¿£ kÍ<óŠq
neÚÔáT+~. n<û$<óŠ+>± y = 0 n“ rdŸT¿=“q eTqÅ£” x = 0 edŸTï+~. eTsÁ\ dŸMT¿£sDÁ +Å£” (0,0) ÿ¿£ kÍ<óŠq neÚÔáT+~.
2.
‚~ eTTqT|Ÿ{ì eÖ~]>±Hû –+~. eTs=¿£ kÍ<óqŠ ¿ÃdŸ+ x = 1“ rdŸT¿Ã+&. n|ŸÚ&ƒT y jîTT¿£Ø $\Te -
5
n“
æ 2ö
dŸ]#áÖ&ƒe#áTÌ. n+<ŠTe\q ç
1, - ÷
dŸMT¿£sDÁ +Å£” eTs=¿£ kÍ<óŠq neÚÔáT+~.
è 5ø
4
(iii) ‚ºÌq dŸMT¿£sÁD+ 3y + 4 = 0 qT 0.x + 3y + 4 = 0 >± sd¾q x jîTT¿£Ø @<îHÕ  $\TeÅ£” y = – n“
3
é 4ù é 4ù
¿£qT>=qe#áTÌ. €$<óŠ+>± 0,- eT]jáTT 1,- nHû s +&ƒT kÍ<óqŠ \T ‚eÇe#áTÌ
ê
ë 3 úû ê
ë 3 úû

nuó²«dŸ+ 4.2
1. ç¿ì+~ y“ýË dŸ]jîT® q~ @~? m+<ŠTÅ£”?
¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sÁD+ y = 3x + 5 qÅ£”
(i) @¿¿Õ £ kÍ<óq
Š –+³T+~ (ii) Âs+&ƒT kÍ<óq
Š \T eÖçÔáyTû –+{²sTT (iii) nq+Ôá kÍ<óŠq\T –+{²sTT
2. ç¿ì+~ dŸMT¿£sD
Á ²\Å£” ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø <‘“¿ì H\T¹>d¾ kÍ<óqŠ \T sjáT+&.
(i) 2x + y = 7 (ii) p x + y = 9 (iii) x = 4y
3. ç¿ì+~ y“ýË x – 2y = 4 dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²“¿ì kÍ<óqŠ \T @$? @$ ¿±eÚ?
(i) (0, 2) (ii) (2, 0) (iii) (4, 0)
(iv) ( 2 , 4 2) (v) (1, 1)
4. x = 2, y = 1 nHû$ 2x + 3y = k qÅ£” kÍ<óqŠ nsTTÔû k $\Te ¿£qT>=q+&.
4.4 kÍs+Xø+ :
‡ n<ó‘«jáT+ýË ç¿ì+<Š ‚eNj&q n+Xæ\ >·T]+º HûsÁTÌÅ£”H•+.
1. Âs+&ƒT #ássÁ Xø—\ýË s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sD
Á + kÍ<ó‘sÁD sÁÖ|Ÿ+ ax + by + c = 0, a, b eT]jáTT c ydŸeï dŸ+K«\T eT]jáTT
a, b \T s +&ƒÖ ÿ¹¿kÍ] dŸTH•\T ¿±eÚ.
2. Âs+&ƒT #ássÁ Xø—\ýË ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sD Á ²“¿ì nq+Ôá kÍ<óqŠ \T –+{²sTT.
3. ¹sU² ºçÔá+™|Õ >·\ ç|ŸÜ _+<ŠTeÚ s +&ƒT #ásÁsXø—\ýË ¹sFjáT dŸMT¿£sD
Á ²“¿ì ÿ¿£ kÍ<óŠq neÚÔáT+~. n+Ôû¿±Å£”+&† s +&ƒT
#ássÁ Xø—\ýË s¹ FjáT dŸMT¿£sDÁ ²“¿ì ç|Ÿr kÍ<óŠq ¹sU² ºçÔá+ ™|Õ ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ neÚÔáT+~.
120 INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY

CHAPTER 5
INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY

5.1 Introduction
The word ‘geometry’ comes form the Greek words ‘geo’, meaning the ‘earth’, and ‘metrein’,
meaning ‘to measure’. Geometry appears to have originated from the need for measuring
land. This branch of mathematics was studied in various forms in every ancient civilisation,
be it in Egypt, Babylonia, China, India, Greece, the Incas, etc. The people of these civilisations
faced several practical problems which required the development of geometry in various
ways.
For example, whenever the river Nile overflowed, it wiped
out the boundaries between the adjoining fields of different
land owners. After such flooding, these boundaries had to be
redrawn. For this purpose, the Egyptians developed a number
of geometric techniques and rules for calculating simple areas
and also for doing simple constructions. The knowledge of
geometry was also used by them for computing volumes of
granaries, and for constructing canals and pyramids. They also
knew the correct formula to find the volume of a truncated
pyramid (see Fig. 5.1).You know that a pyramid is a solid
figure, the base of which is a triangle, or square, or some other
polygon, and its side faces are triangles converging to a point
at the top. Fig. 5.1 : A Truncated Pyramid
jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž C²«$TÜ |Ÿ]#ájTá + 121

n<ó‘«jáT+ 5
jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž C²«$TÜ |Ÿ]#ájTá +
5.1 |Ÿ]#ájTá +

»C²«yîTç{¡µ (geometry) nqT €+>·|¢ <Ÿ +Š »»›jîÖµµ (geo) nq>± uóք $T eT]jáTT »»yîTç{²HŽµµ (metrein) nq>±
¿=\T#áT³ nHû ç^Å£” |Ÿ<‘\ qT+& ç>·V²¾ +#á‹&+~. C²«$TÜ nHû~ uóք ¿=\Ôá\T ¿=\T#áT³Å£” –<óҊ $Û +º+~>± uó²$+#áe#áTÌ.
‡›|ŸÚ,¼ u²_ý˓jáÖ, #îHÕ , uó²sÁÔ,Y ç^dŸT jîTT¿£Ø çbÍNq H>·]¿£Ô\á ýË >·DÔì Xá æd+ïŸ ý˓ ÿ¿£ XæK nsTTq C²«$TÜ nHû¿£
sÁÖbÍ\ýË n<ó«Š jáTq+ #ûjTá ‹&+~. C²«$TÜ $$<óŠ eÖsZ\ <‘Çs n_óe~Æ #î+<ŠT³Å£” €eXø«¿£yTî q® nHû¿£ €#ásD Á ²Ôሿ£
dŸeTdŸ«\qT ‡ H>·]Ôá\Å£” #î+~q ç|ŸÈ\T m<ŠTs=ØH•sÁT.
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” Hî\Õ Tq~ bõ+Ðq|ŸÚð&ƒý²¢ uóք jáTÈeÖqT\ ç|Ÿ¿Ø£ ç|Ÿ¿Ø£ bõý²\
VŸ²<ŠTÝ\T ÔáT&º™|³T¼Å£”bþjûT$. € esÁ<Š\ ÔásÇÔá eTsÁý² y{ì“ |ŸÚq:“]ˆ+#á
e\d¾ e#ûÌ~. ‚³Te+{ì dŸeTdŸ«\qT n~ó>$· T+#áT³Å£”, kÍ<ó‘sÁD yîXÕ æý²«\qT
ýÉ¿Øì +#áT³Å£”, kÍ<ó‘sÁD “sˆD²\qT “]ˆ+#áT³Å£” ‡›|¾üjTá qT¢ nHû¿£ sÁ¿±ýÉqÕ
s¹ U²>·DÔì á |Ÿ<ÔƊ Tá \T, “jáTeÖ\qT n_óe~Æ #ûXæsÁT. <ó‘H«>±s\ |Ÿ]eÖD+
ýÉ¿Øì +#áT³Å£”, ¿±\Te\T, |¾s$Á T&ƒT¢ “]ˆ+#áT³Å£” ‡›|¾üjTá q¢Å”£ ‡ s¹ U²>·DÔì á C²ãq+
–|ŸjÖî >·|&Ÿ + ~. n+Ôû¿±Å£”+&† dŸÂsqÕ dŸÖçÔá+ €<ó‘sÁ+>± ç³Hûس&Ž |¾s$Á T&Ž (|Ÿ³+
5.1 #áÖ&ƒ+&) |˜TŸ q|Ÿ]eÖD+ ¿£qT>=qT³ Å£L&† M]¿ì Ôî\TdŸT. |¾sÁ$T&Ž nqTq~
ÿ¿£ |˜TŸ H¿£Ü n“ MTÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. B“ uóք $T çÜuóT„ C²¿±sÁ+ýË >±“ ýñ<‘
#áÔáTsÁçkÍ¿±sÁ+ýË >±“ ýñ<‘ @<îÕH ÿ¿£ ‹VŸQuó„T› €¿±sÁ+ýË –+³Ö <‘“ ç|Ÿ¿£Ø
Ôáý²\T çÜuó„TC²¿±sÁ+ýË –+& ™|Õq ÿ¿£ osÁü+ e<ŠÝ ¿£\TkÍïsTT .
|Ÿ³+.5.1: ç³Hûس&Ž |¾sÁ$T&Ž
122 INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY

In the Indian subcontinent, the excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, etc. show that the
Indus Valley Civilisation (about 3000 BCE) made extensive use of geometry. It was a highly
organised society. The cities were highly developed and very well planned. For example, the
roads were parallel to each other and there was an underground drainage system. The houses
had many rooms of different types. This shows that the town dwellers were skilled in mensuration
and practical arithmetic. The bricks used for constructions were kiln fired and the ratio length
: breadth : thickness, of the bricks was found to be 4 : 2 : 1.
In ancient India, the Sulbasutras (800 BCE to 500 BCE) were the manuals of geometrical
constructions. The geometry of the Vedic period originated with the construction of altars (or
vedis) and fireplaces for performing Vedic rites. The location of the sacred fires had to be in
accordance to the clearly laid down instructions about their shapes and areas, if they were to be
effective instruments. Square and circular altars were used for household rituals, while altars
whose shapes were combinations of rectangles, triangles and trapeziums were required for
public worship. The sriyantra (given in the Atharvaveda) consists of nine interwoven isosceles
triangles. These triangles are arranged in such a way that they produce 43 subsidiary triangles.
Though accurate geometric methods were used for the constructions of altars, the principles
behind them were not discussed.
These examples show that geometry was being developed and applied everywhere in the
world. But this was happening in an unsystematic manner. What is interesting about these
developments of geometry in the ancient world is that they were passed on from one generation
to the next, either orally or through palm leaf messages, or by other ways. Also, we find that in
some civilisations like Babylonia, geometry remained a very practical oriented discipline, as
was the case in India and Rome. The geometry developed by Egyptians mainly consisted of the
statements of results. There were no general rules of the procedure. In fact, Babylonians and
Egyptians used geometry mostly for practical purposes and did very little to develop it as a
systematic science. But in civilisations like Greece, the emphasis was on the reasoning behind
why certain constructions work. The Greeks were interested in establishing the truth of the
statements they discovered using deductive reasoning (see Appendix 1).
A Greek mathematician, Thales is credited with giving the first known
proof. This proof was of the statement that a circle is bisected (i.e., cut into
two equal parts) by its diameter. One of Thales’ most famous pupils was
Pythagoras (572 BCE), whom you have heard about. Pythagoras and his group
discovered many geometric properties and developed the theory of geometry
to a great extent. This process continued till 300 BCE. At that time Euclid, a
teacher of mathematics at Alexandria in Egypt, collected
Thales
all the known work and arranged it in his famous treatise (640 BCE – 546 BCE)
Fig. 5.2
jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž C²«$TÜ |Ÿ]#ájTá + 123

uó²sÁÔá –|ŸK+&ƒ+ý˓ VŸ²sÁbÍÎ, yîTTVŸ²+È<‘sà yîTT<Š\>·T çbÍ+Ԑ\ýË ÈsÁT|Ÿ‹&q çÔáeÇ¿±\ýË ‹jáT\Î&q H{ì
qT+& d¾+<óŠTýËjáT H>·]¿£Ôá ç|ŸÈ\T (ç¿¡.|ŸP.3000) C²«$Tܓ $dŸïÔá+>± –|ŸjîÖÐ+ºq³T¢ Ôî*dŸTïq•~. n~ ÿ¿£
–q•ÔáyTî ®q e«edÓ¿œ £ Ôá dŸeÖÈ+. n¿£Ø&ƒ |Ÿ³D¼ ²\T ç|ŸD²[¿±‹<Š+Æ >±, u²>± n_óe~Æ #î+~q$. ÿ¿£<‘“¿=¿£{ì dŸeÖ+Ôás+Á >±
–q• sÁVŸ²<‘sÁT\T, uó„Ö>·sÁÒÛ eTTsÁT>·Tú{ì e«edŸœ B“¿ì –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T>± #î|ŸÎe#áTÌ. $$<óŠ sÁ¿±\T>± –q• nHû¿£ >·<ŠT\ÔÃ
Å£L&q >·VŸ² “sˆD²\T ¿£\eÚ. ‚~ n¿£Ø& |Ÿ³D ¼ ç|ŸÈ\ ¿¹ çŒ Ôá$TÜ, €#ásD
Á ²Ôሿ£ n+¿£>D · Ôì eá TT\ýË >·\ Hî|Õ ÚŸ D²«\qT
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¿£³&¼ †\T “]ˆ+ºq³T¢ ¿£qT>=q‹&+~.
çbÍNq uó²sÁÔ<á ûX+ø ýË Xø—\ÒÛ dŸÖçԐ\T (ç¿¡.|ŸP. 300 qT+& ç¿¡.|ŸP.500) €<ó‘sÁ+>± C²«$TrjáT “sˆD²\T ¿£\eÚ.
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124 INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY

called ‘Elements’. He divided the ‘Elements’ into thirteen chapters,

each called a book. These books influenced the whole world’s
understanding of geometry for generations to come.
In this chapter, we shall discuss Euclid’s approach to geometry
and shall try to link it with the present day geometry.
Euclid (325 BCE – 265 BCE)
5.2 Euclid’s Definitions, Axioms and Postulates Fig. 5.3

The Greek mathematicians of Euclid’s time thought of geometry as an abstract model of the
world in which they lived. The notions of point, line, plane (or surface) and so on were derived
from what was seen around them. From studies of the space and solids in the space around
them, an abstract geometrical notion of a solid object was developed. A solid has shape, size,
position, and can be moved from one place to another. Its boundaries are called surfaces. They
separate one part of the space from another, and are said to have no thickness. The boundaries
of the surfaces are curves or straight lines. These lines end in points.
Consider the three steps from solids to points (solids-surfaces-lines-points). In each step
we lose one extension, also called a dimension. So, a solid has three dimensions, a surface has
two, a line has one and a point has none. Euclid summarised these statements as definitions. He
began his exposition by listing 23 definitions in Book 1 of the ‘Elements’. A few of them are
given below :
1. A point is that which has no part.
2. A line is breadthless length.
3. The ends of a line are points.
4. A straight line is a line which lies evenly with the points on itself.
5. A surface is that which has length and breadth only.
6. The edges of a surface are lines.
7. A plane surface is a surface which lies evenly with the straight lines on itself.
If you carefully study these definitions, you find that some of the terms like part, breadth,
length, evenly, etc. need to be further explained clearly. For example, consider his definition of
a point. In this definition, ‘a part’ needs to be defined. Suppose if you define ‘a part’ to be that
which occupies ‘area’, again ‘an area’ needs to be defined. So, to define one thing, you need to
define many other things, and you may get a long chain of definitions without an end. For such
reasons, mathematicians agree to leave
jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž C²«$TÜ |Ÿ]#ájTá + 125

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126 INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY

some geometric terms undefined. However, we do have a intuitive feeling for the geometric
concept of a point than what the ‘definition’ above gives us. So, we represent a point as a dot,
even though a dot has some dimension.
A similar problem arises in Definition 2 above, since it refers to breadth and length, neither
of which has been defined. Because of this, a few terms are kept undefined while developing
any course of study. So, in geometry, we take a point, a line and a plane (in Euclid‘s words a
plane surface) as undefined terms. The only thing is that we can represent them intuitively, or
explain them with the help of ‘physical models’.
Starting with his definitions, Euclid assumed certain properties, which were not to be proved.
These assumptions are actually ‘obvious universal truths’. He divided them into two types: axioms
and postulates. He used the term ‘postulate’ for the assumptions that were specific to geometry.
Common notions (often called axioms), on the other hand, were assumptions used throughout
mathematics and not specifically linked to geometry. For details about axioms and postulates,
refer to Appendix 1. Some of Euclid’s axioms, not in his order, are given below :
(1) Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.
(2) If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.
(3) If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.
(4) Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another.
(5) The whole is greater than the part.
(6) Things which are double of the same things are equal to one another.
(7) Things which are halves of the same things are equal to one another.
These ‘common notions’ refer to magnitudes of some kind. The first common notion could
be applied to plane figures. For example, if an area of a triangle equals the area of a rectangle
and the area of the rectangle equals that of a square, then the area of the triangle also equals the
area of the square.
Magnitudes of the same kind can be compared and added, but magnitudes of different kinds
cannot be compared. For example, a line cannot be compared to a rectangle, nor can an angle be
compared to a pentagon.
The 4th axiom given above seems to say that if two things are identical (that is, they are the
same), then they are equal. In other words, everything equals itself. It is the justification of the
principle of superposition. Axiom (5) gives us the definition of ‘greater than’. For example, if
a quantity B is a part of another quantity A, then A can be written as the sum of B and some third
quantity C. Symbolically, A > B means that there is some C such that A = B + C.
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™|Õq Ôî\T|Ÿ‹&q 4e kÍeÖq« uó²eqqT |Ÿ]o*dï Âs+&ƒT sXø—\T ÿ¹¿ý² –+fñ (nq>± € Âs+&ƒÖ ÿ¿£ý²+{ì$)
n|Ÿð&ƒT n$ dŸeÖH\T. nq>± »ç|Ÿr s¥ <‘“¿£<û dŸeÖqeTTµ n“ #î|ŸÎe#áTÌ. ‚~ € kÍeÖq« uó²eqqT
–q•ÔáyTî q® ~>± –+#û dŸeTsÁqÆ . »n+Ôá¿£H• mÅ£”Øeµ |Ÿ<‘“¿ì 5e kÍeÖq« uó²eqýË “sÁÇ#áq+ ‚eNj&+~. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”
B nqT s¥ A nqT s¥ýË uó²>·+. n|ŸÚ&ƒT A s¥“ B s¥ eT]jáTT 3e s¥ C \ yîTTÔáï+>± sjáTe#áTÌ. >·DìÔá sÁÖ|Ÿ+
A > B nq>± A = B + C n>·Tq³T¢ C nqT yûs=¿£s¥ ¿£\<ŠT.
128 INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY

Now let us discuss Euclid’s five postulates. They are :

Postulate 1 : A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other point.
Note that this postulate tells us that at least one straight line passes through two distinct
points, but it does not say that there cannot be more than one such line. However, in his work,
Euclid has frequently assumed, without mentioning, that there is a unique line joining two
distinct points. We state this result in the form of an axiom as follows:
Axiom 5.1 : Given two distinct points, there is a unique line that passes through them.
How many lines passing through P also pass through Q (see Fig. 5.4)? Only one, that is, the
line PQ. How many lines passing through Q also pass through P? Only one, that is, the line PQ.
Thus, the statement above is self-evident, and so is taken as an axiom.

Fig. 5.4

Postulate 2 : A terminated line can be produced indefinitely.

Note that what we call a line segment now-a-days is what Euclid called a terminated line. So,
according to the present day terms, the second postulate says that a line segment can be extended
on either side to form a line (see Fig. 5.5).

Fig. 5.5
Postulate 3 : A circle can be drawn with any centre and any radius.
Postulate 4 : All right angles are equal to one another.
Postulate 5 : If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles on
the same side of it taken together less than two right angles, then the two straight lines, if
produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which the sum of angles is less than two right
angles.
jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž C²«$TÜ |Ÿ]#ájTá + 129

jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž jîTT¿£Ø 5 dÓÇ¿£Ô\ >·Ö]Ì #á]Ì<‘Ý+. n$:

dÓÇ¿£Ôá+`1 : @<îÕH ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ qT+& yûs=¿£ _+<ŠTeÚqÅ£” ÿ¿£ dŸsÁÞø¹sK ^jáTe#áTÌ.
Âs+&ƒT yûs¹ ÇsÁT _+<ŠTeÚ\ >·T+&† ¿£údŸ+ ÿ¿£ dŸsÞÁ sø¹ K ç|ŸjÖá Dì+#áTqT nHû $wŸjÖá “• ‡ dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ eTqÅ£” Ôî\T|ŸÚÔáT+~.
¿±ú ÿ¿£{ì ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe ¹sK\T ç|ŸjáÖDì+#áýeñ Ú n“ Å£L&† ‚~ Ôî\|Ÿ³+ ýñ<TŠ . nsTTÔû jáTÖ¿ì¢&Ž n<óŠ«jáTq+ýË Ôás#Á áT>±
uó²$+ºq »»Âs+&ƒT yû¹sÇsÁT _+<ŠTeÚ\qT ¿£\T|ŸÚÔáÖbþjûT. ¹sK @¿տ£+ >± –+³T+~. ‡ |˜Ÿ*Ԑ“• eTq+ kÍeÖq«uó²eq
sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË ç¿ì+~$<óŠ+>± Ôî\T|Ÿe#áTÌ.
kÍeÖq« uó²eq 5.1: Âs+&ƒT yû¹sÇsÁT _+<ŠTeÚ\ >·T+&† bþjûT¹sK @¿տ£+>± –+³T+~.
P _+<ŠTeÚ >·T+&† bþjûT m“• s ¹ K\T Q _+<ŠTeÚ >·T+&† Å£L&† bþԐsTT? ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£Ø{ì, n~ PQ ¹sK eÖçÔáyTû .
Q _+<ŠTeÚ >·T+&† bþjûT m“• s ¹ K\T P _+<ŠTeÚ >·T+&† bþԐsTT? ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£Ø{ì, n~ PQ ¹sK eÖçÔáyûT. ‡$<óŠ+>± ™|Õq
Ôî\΋&q ç|Ÿe#áq+ dŸÇjáT+ “¹s¥œ ÔáyTî +® ~ eT]jáTT kÍeÖq« uó²eq>± rdŸT¿Ã‹&+~.

|Ÿ³+.5.4

dÓÇ¿£Ôá+`2: ÿ¿£ K+&Ôá s¹ KqT “sÁe~ó¿+£ >± bõ&Ð+#áe#áTÌ.

‚|ŸÚ&ƒT eTq+ –|ŸjîÖÐdŸTïq• ¹sU²K+&ƒ+ |Ÿ<‘“¿ì ‹<ŠT\T>± jáTÖ¿ì¢&Ž |Ÿ]$TÔá ¹sK nHû |Ÿ<‘“• y&†sÁT. ç|ŸdŸTïÔá
|Ÿ<ŠC²\+ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ 2e dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ @eTq>± ÿ¿£ ¹sU²K+&†“• ‚sÁTyîÕ|ŸÚý² bõ&Ð+ºq n~ dŸsÁÞø¹sK neÚÔáT+~
(|Ÿ³+ 5.5 #áÖ&ƒ+&).

|Ÿ³+.5.5

dÓÇ¿£Ôá+`3: ‚ºÌq y«kÍsÁ+œ eT]jáTT ¿¹ +ç<ŠeTT\Ôà eÔï“• ^jáTe#áTÌ.

dÓÇ¿£Ôá+`4: n“• \+‹¿ÃD²\T |ŸsÁdŸÎsÁ+ dŸeÖq+.
dÓÇ¿£Ôá+`5: Âs+&ƒT <ŠÔáï dŸsÁÞsø¹ K\qT K+&+#áT dŸsÁÞø¹sK <‘“¿ì ÿ¹¿yîÕ|ڟ q –q• n+ÔásÁ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+ Âs+&ƒT \+‹¿ÃD²\
¿£H• ÔáÅ£”Øe>± –+&ƒTq³T¢ #ûdï n|Ÿð&ƒT <ŠÔáï dŸsÁÞø¹sK\qT “sÁ+ÔásÁ+ bõ&Ðdï n$ Âs+&ƒT \+‹¿ÃD²\ ¿£H• ÔáÅ£”ØyîÕq
yîTTÔáï+ >·\ ¿ÃD²\ yîÕ|ŸÚq ¿£\TdŸT¿=+{²sTT.
130 INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY

For example, the line PQ in Fig. 5.6 falls on lines AB and CD

such that the sum of the interior angles 1 and 2 is less than 180° on
the left side of PQ. Therefore, the lines AB and CD will eventually
intersect on the left side of PQ.

Fig. 5.6

A brief look at the five postulates brings to your notice that Postulate 5 is far more complex
than any other postulate. On the other hand, Postulates 1 through 4 are so simple and obvious
that these are taken as ‘self-evident truths’. However, it is not possible to prove them. So, these
statements are accepted without any proof (see Appendix 1). Because of its complexity, the
fifth postulate will be given more attention in the next section.
Now-a-days, ‘postulates’ and ‘axioms’ are terms that are used interchangeably and in the
same sense. ‘Postulate’ is actually a verb. When we say “let us postulate”, we mean, “let us make
some statement based on the observed phenomenon in the Universe”. Its truth/validity is checked
afterwards. If it is true, then it is accepted as a ‘Postulate’.
A system of axioms is called consistent (see Appendix 1), if it is impossible to deduce
from these axioms a statement that contradicts any axiom or previously proved statement. So,
when any system of axioms is given, it needs to be ensured that the system is consistent.
After Euclid stated his postulates and axioms, he used them to prove other results. Then
using these results, he proved some more results by applying deductive reasoning. The statements
that were proved are called propositions or theorems. Euclid deduced 465 propositions in a
logical chain using his axioms, postulates, definitions and theorems proved earlier in the chain.
In the next few chapters on geometry, you will be using these axioms to prove some theorems.
Now, let us see in the following examples how Euclid used his axioms and postulates for
proving some of the results:
Example 1 : If A, B and C are three points on a line, and B lies between A and C
(see Fig. 5.7), then prove that AB + BC = AC.

Fig. 5.7
jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž C²«$TÜ |Ÿ]#ájTá + 131

–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” |Ÿ³+ 5.6ýË PQ nHû ¹sK AB eT]jáTT CD ¹sK\™|Õ ÔáqÅ£”

m&ƒeTyî|Õ ÚŸ q >·\ 1 eT]jáTT 2 n+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+ 180° (Âs+&ƒT \+‹¿ÃD²\T)
¿£H• ÔáÅ£”Øe>·Tq³T¢>± K+&dŸTï+~. n+<ŠTe\¢ PQ Å£” m&ƒeTyîÕ|ŸÚ AB eT]jáTT CD
¹sK\T ºe]¿ì K+&+#áT¿=+{²sTT.

|Ÿ³+. 5.6

‡ 5 dÓÇ¿£Ô\ dŸ+¿ìŒ|sŸï ÁÖ|Ÿ+ qT+& 5e dÓÇ¿£ÔáeTT $TÐ*q dÓÇ¿£Ô\ ¿£+fñ #ý² ¿ì¢w¼yŸ Tî q® <Š“ MTsÁT >·eT“+#á>\· sÁT.
ÿ¿£{ì qT+& H\T>·T esÁŔ£ >·\ dÓÇ¿£Ô\T #ý² kÍ<ó‘sÁDyîTq® $ eT]jáTT dŸÎwŸy¼ Tî q® $. n+<ŠTe\q M{ì“ »dŸÇjáT+
“¹s¥Ý Ôá dŸÔ«\Tµ>± rdŸT¿=q‹&†¦sTT. nsTTÔû M{ì“ “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjTá ³+ kÍ<ó«Š + ¿±<ŠT. ¿±eÚq m³Te+{ì “sÁÖ|ŸD
ýñÅ£”+&† ‡ ç|Ÿ|Ÿ#áH\T €yîÖ~+#á‹&†¦sTT. (nqT‹+<óŠ+`1 #áÖ&ƒ+&) 5e dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ jîTT¿£Ø dŸ+¿ìŒwԟ¼ á ¿±sÁD+>± Ôá<TŠ |Ÿ]
$uó²>·+ýË eT]+Ôá <Šw¾¼ kÍ]+#á‹&+~.
‡sÃEýË¢ »dÓÇ¿£Ô\Tµ eT]jáTT »kÍeÖq« uó²eq\Tµ nqT |Ÿ<‘\T ÿ¿£<‘“¿=¿£{ì |ŸsÁdŸÎsÁ+ –|ŸjîÖ>·+ýË –+&
dŸeÖHsÁ¿œ £ |Ÿ<‘\T>± y&ƒT¿£ýË ¿£\eÚ. “C²“¿ì »dÓÇ¿£Ôá+µ nqTq~ ÿ¿£ ç¿ìjTá . »» $XøÇ+ýË @<îHÕ  ÿ¿£ ~ÐÇwŸjÖá “•
|Ÿ]o*+º <‘“ €<ó‘sÁ+>± ¿=“• ç|Ÿe#áH\qT ÔájáÖsÁT#ûjTá e#áT̵µ. eTq+ »dÓÇ¿£Ôá+µ nqT |Ÿ<‘“• y&ƒÔ+. <‘“
$XøÇdŸújáTÔá ÔásÇÔá dŸ]#áÖd¾ n~ “ÈyîT®Ôû n|ŸÚ&ƒT ‡ <ŠÐÇwŸjáT+ dÓÇ¿£Ôá sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË €yîÖ~+|Ÿ‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
‡ kÍeÖq« uó²eq\ e«edŸqœ T dŸ+>·Ôá e«edŸœ n+{²sÁT. (nqT‹+<óŠ+`1 #áÖ&ƒ+&) ‡ kÍeÖq« uó²eq\ qT+&
@<îHÕ  kÍeÖq« uó²eq ýñ<‘ >·Ô+á ýË “sÁÖ|¾+#á‹&q ç|ŸÜbÍ<Šq\Å£” $sÁT<ŠyÆ Tî q® ç|ŸÜbÍ<Šq e«Ü¹s¿ì+#á&+ƒ nkÍ<ó«Š +
nsTT+~. ¿±eÚq kÍeÖq« uó²eq\ e«edŸœ ‚ºÌq|ŸÚ&ƒT n~ dŸ+>·Ôyá Tî q® <à ¿±<à dŸ]#áÖdŸT¿Ãy*àq nedŸs+Á –+~.
jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž kÍeÖq« uó²eq\T eT]jáTT dÓÇ¿£Ô\qT ç|ŸÜbÍ~+ºq ÔásTÁ yÔá M{ì“ ‚ÔásÁ |˜*Ÿ Ԑ\qT “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjáT&ƒ+ýË
–|ŸjÖî Ð+#&ƒT. ‡ |˜*Ÿ Ԑ\qT|ŸjÖî ÐdŸÖï nÔá&Tƒ eT]“• |˜*Ÿ Ԑ\qT “>·eTq ÔásØÁ + nqÇsTTdŸÖï ‹TTEeÚ #ûkÍ&ƒT. ný²
#ûjáT‹&q ç|Ÿe#áH\qT »ç|ŸÜbÍ<Šq\Tµ ýñ<‘ »d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\Tµ n+{²sÁT. jáTÖ¿ì¢&Ž ÿ¿£ Ԑ]Ø¿£ dŸeÖVŸäsÁ+ qT+& nÔá“#û
“sÁÖ|¾+#á‹&q kÍeÖq« uó²eq\T, dÓÇ¿£Ô\T, “sÁÇ#áH\T eT]jáTT d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\qT –|ŸjÖî Ð+º 465 ç|ŸÜbÍ<Šq\qT
ÔáÐZ+#&ƒT. C²«$TÜ¿ì dŸ+‹+~ó+ºq ÔásÁTyÔá n<ó‘«jáÖýË¢ ¿=“• d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\qT “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjáT&†“¿ì ‡ kÍeÖq«
uó²eq\qT –|ŸjÖî ÐkÍï+.
jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž ¿=“• |˜Ÿ*Ԑ\qT “sÁÖ|¾+#á&†“¿ì kÍeÖq« uó²eq\qT eT]jáTT dÓÇ¿£Ô\qT @$<ó+Š >± –|ŸjÖî Ð+#&Ã
¿ì+<Š ‚eNj&q –<‘VŸ²sÁD <‘Çs |Ÿ]o*<‘Ý+.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 1 : A, B eT]jáTT C nqTq$ ÿ¹¿ ¹sK MT<Š >·\ eTÖ&ƒT _+<ŠTeÚ\T eT]jáTT B nqTq~ A eT]jáTT C
\ eT<ó«Š –+fñ (|Ÿ³+ 5.7 #áÖ&ƒ+&) n|ŸÚ&ƒT AB + BC = AC n“ #áÖ|Ÿ+&.

|Ÿ³+.5.7
132 INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY

Solution : In the figure given above, AC coincides with AB + BC.

Also, Euclid’s Axiom (4) says that things which coincide with one another are equal to one
another. So, it can be deduced that
AB + BC = AC
Note that in this solution, it has been assumed that there is a unique line passing through two
points.
Example 2 : Prove that an equilateral triangle can be constructed on any given line segment.
Solution : In the statement above, a line segment of any length is given, say AB
[see Fig. 5.8(i)]

Fig. 5.8
Here, you need to do some construction. Using Euclid’s Postulate 3, you can draw a circle with
point A as the centre and AB as the radius [see Fig. 5.8(ii)]. Similarly, draw another circle with
point B as the centre and BA as the radius. The two circles meet at a point, say C. Now, draw the
line segments AC and BC to form D ABC [see Fig. 5.8 (iii)]

So, you have to prove that this triangle is equilateral, i.e., AB = AC = BC.
Now, AB = AC, since they are the radii of the same circle (1)
Similarly, AB = BC (Radii of the same circle) (2)
From these two facts, and Euclid’s axiom that things which are equal to the same thing are equal
to one another, you can conclude that AB = BC = AC.
So, D ABC is an equilateral triangle.
Note that here Euclid has assumed, without mentioning anywhere, that the two circles drawn
with centres A and B will meet each other at a point.
Now we prove a theorem, which is frequently used in different results:
jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž C²«$TÜ |Ÿ]#ájTá + 133

kÍ<óŠq : ™|Õq ‚eNj&q |Ÿ³+ qT+& AC eT]jáTT AB + BC \T @¿¡uó„$+#áTqT.

jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž 4e kÍeÖq« uó²eq <‘Çs »»ÿ¿£ <‘“Ôà eTs=¿£{ì @¿¡u$„ó +#áTq$ dŸeÖH\T. ¿±eÚq AB + BC = AC n“
#î|Ο e#áTÌ.
‚¿£Ø&ƒ eTq+ s +&ƒT _+<ŠTeÚ\ >·T+&† ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ s¹ K bþeÚqT n“ rdŸT¿=q&†“• >·eT“+#á+&.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 2 : ‚ºÌq @ ¹sU²K+&ƒ+ ™|Õq nsTTH ÿ¿£ dŸeTu²VŸQ çÜuó„TÈ+ “]ˆ+#áe#áTÌ n“ “sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.
kÍ<óŠq : ™|Õ ç|Ÿe#áq+ýË @<û“ bõ&ƒeÚ >·\ ÿ¿£ s¹ U²K+&ƒeTT AB ‚eNj&+~. (|Ÿ³+ 5.8 (i) #áÖ&ƒ+&)

|Ÿ³+.5.8

‚¿£Ø&ƒ MTsÁT ¿=+Ôá “sˆD+ #ûjáTe\d¾ –+~. jáTÖ¿ì¢&Ž 3e dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ qT+& ‚ºÌq ¹¿+ç<Š+, y«kÍsœ\Ôà eÔï“•
“]ˆ+#á>\· +. ¿±eÚq A ¹¿+ç<Š+>± eT]jáTT AB y«kÍsÁ+œ >± ÿ¿£ eÔï“• ^jáT+& [|Ÿ³+ 5.8(ii) #áÖ&ƒ+&]. n<û$<ó+Š >±
B¿ ¹ +ç<Š+>± BA y«kÍsÁœ+Ôà eTs=¿£ eÔï“• ^jáT+&. ‡ s +&ƒT eÔï\T C e<ŠÝ K+&+#áTÅ£”+{²sTT. C qT A eT]jáTT
B \Ôà ¿£\T|Ÿ>± D ABC @sÁÎ&ƒTÔáT+~ [|Ÿ³+ýË 5.8 (iii) #áÖ&ƒ+&].

‚|ŸÚ&ƒT ‡$<ó+Š >± @sÁÎ&q çÜuóT„ È+ dŸeTu²VŸQ çÜuóT„ ÈeT“ “sÁÖ|¾+#*. n+fñ AB = AC = BC n“ #áÖbÍ*.
‚|ŸÚ&ƒT AB = AC, n$ n<û eÔáï+ jîTT¿£Ø y«kÍsœ\T ¿£qT¿£ (1)

n<û$<óŠ+>± AB = BC (n<û eÔáï+ jîTT¿£Ø y«kÍsœ\T) (2)

™|Õ s +&ƒT ¿±sÁD²\T eT]jáTT jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž kÍeÖq« uó²eq\ qT+& »»ÿ¹¿ sXø—\Å£” dŸeÖqyîTq® sXø—\T ÿ¿£<‘“¿ì eTs=¿£{ì
dŸeÖH\Tµµ ¿±eÚq AB = BC = AC.
n+<ŠTe\q D ABC ÿ¿£ dŸeTu²VŸQ çÜuóT„ ÈeTT.
A eT]jáTT B ¹¿+ç<‘\T>± >·\ eÔï\T ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ e<ŠÝ K+&+#áTÅ£”+{²sTT nHû $wŸjá֓• ç|ŸkÍï$+#áÅ£”+&† jáTÖ¿ì¢&Ž
Ôáq “sÁÖ|ŸDýË $“jîÖÐ+#á&ƒ+ >·eT“+#á+&.
ÔásÁ#áT>± yû¹sÇsÁT |˜Ÿ*ԐýË¢ –|ŸjîÖÐ+ºq ‚+¿=¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá “sÁÖ|ŸDqT >·eT“<‘Ý+.
134 INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY

Theorem 5.1 : Two distinct lines cannot have more than one point in common.
Proof : Here we are given two lines l and m. We need to prove that they have only one point in
common.
For the time being, let us suppose that the two lines intersect in two distinct points, say P
and Q. So, you have two lines passing through two distinct points P and Q. But this assumption
clashes with the axiom that only one line can pass through two distinct points. So, the assumption
that we started with, that two lines can pass through two distinct points is wrong.
From this, what can we conclude? We are forced to conclude that two distinct lines cannot
have more than one point in common.

EXERCISE 5.1
1. Which of the following statements are true and which are false? Give reasons for your
answers.
(i) Only one line can pass through a single point.
(ii) There are an infinite number of lines which pass through two distinct points.
(iii) A terminated line can be produced indefinitely on both the sides.
(iv) If two circles are equal, then their radii are equal.
(v) In Fig. 5.9, if AB = PQ and PQ = XY, then AB = XY.

Fig. 5.9
2. Give a definition for each of the following terms. Are there other terms that need to be
defined first? What are they, and how might you define them?
(i) parallel lines (ii) perpendicular lines (iii) line segment
(iv) radius of a circle (v) square
3. Consider two ‘postulates’ given below:
(i) Given any two distinct points A and B, there exists a third point C which is in between
A and B.
(ii) There exist at least three points that are not on the same line.
Do these postulates contain any undefined terms? Are these postulates consistent?
Do they follow from Euclid’s postulates? Explain.
jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž C²«$TÜ |Ÿ]#ájTá + 135

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 5.1: Âs+&ƒT yû¹sÇsÁT ¹sK\T ÿ¿£{ì¿£H• mÅ£”Øe –eTˆ& _+<ŠTeÚ\qT ¿£*Ð –+&ƒeÚ.
“sÁÖ|ŸD : <ŠÔs¹ïá K\T l eT]jáTT m M{ì¿ì ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ –eTˆ& _+<ŠTeÚ –+³T+<Š“ eTq+ “sÁÖ|¾+#*.
€ s +&ƒT s¹ K\T s +&ƒT yûs¹ ÇsÁT _+<ŠTeÚ\T P eT]jáTT Q \ e<ŠÝ K+&+#áT¿=+{²jáT“ nqT¿Ã+&. ‚|ŸÚ&ƒT eTqÅ£” P
eT]jáTT Q _+<ŠTeÚ\ >·T+&† bþjûT ¹sK\T Âs+&ƒT ¿£\eÚ. ‚$ dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ » s +&ƒT yûs¹ ÇsÁT _+<ŠTeÚ\ >·T+&†bþjûT dŸsÞÁ ø¹sK
ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£{ì –+³T+~µ ¿ì $sÁT<ŠÆ+>± –+~. Âs+&ƒT ¹sK\T Âs+&ƒT yû¹sÇsÁT _+<ŠTeÚ\ >·T+&† bþ>·\eHû eTq }VŸ² Ôá|Ÿð.
B“qT+& eTq+ @$T “sÆ]+#á>·\+? Âs+&ƒT yû¹sÇsÁT ¹sK\T ÿ¿£{ì¿£H• mÅ£”Øe –eTˆ& _+<ŠTeÚ\qT ¿£*Ð
–+&ƒe“ eTq+ “sÆ]+#áe#áTÌ.

nuó²«dŸ+ 5.1
1. ç¿ì+~ ç|Ÿe#áH\T @$ dŸÔá«yîÖ @$ ndŸÔá«yîÖ Ôî\Î+&. ¿±sÁD²\T Ôî\Î+&.
(i) ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ >·T+&† ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ s ¹ K bþeÚqT.
(ii) Âs+&ƒT yû¹sÇsÁT _+<ŠTeÚ\qT ¿£\T|ŸÚÔáÖ nq+ÔáyîT®q ¹sK\T ç|ŸjáÖDì+#áTqT.

(iii) n+ÔáeTjûT« ¹sKqT s  +&ƒTyîÕ|ŸÚý² “sÁe~ó¿+£ >± bõ&Ð+#áe#áTÌ.

(iv) Âs+&ƒT eÔï\T dŸeÖqyîT®Ôû n|ŸÚ&ƒT y{ì y«kÍsœ\T dŸeÖqeT>·TqT.

(v) |Ÿ³+ 5.9 qT+& AB = PQ eT]jáTT PQ = XY nsTTq|ŸÚ&ƒT AB = XY n>·TqT.

|Ÿ³+.5.9
2. ç¿ì+<Š ‚eNj&q |Ÿ<‘\qT “sÁǺ+#á+&. ‚+¿± “sÁǺ+#*àq |Ÿ<‘\T @yîHÕ  –H•jáÖ? n$ @$T{ì? y{ì“
úeÚ @$<ó+Š >± “sÁǺkÍïeÚ?
(i) dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ ¹sK\T (ii) \+‹¹sK\T (iii) ¹sU²K+&ƒ+

(iv) ÿ¿£ eÔáï+ jîTT¿£Ø y«kÍsÁœ+ (v) #áÔáTsÁçdŸ+

3. ç¿ì+<Š ‚eNj&q Âs+&ƒT dÓÇ¿£Ô\qT >·eT“+#á+&.

(i) A eT]jáTT B nHû$ s  +&ƒT <ŠÔïá _+<ŠTeÚ\T, y“ eT<ó«Š C nHû _+<ŠTeÚ –+³T+~.
(ii) ÿ¹¿ ¹sK MT<Š ýñÅ£”+&† ¿£údŸ+ eTÖ&ƒT _+<ŠTeÚýÉÕH –+{²sTT.

‚~ jáTÖ¿ì¢&Ž dÓÇ¿£Ô\qT nqTdŸ]+º –H•jáÖ? $e]+#á+&.

136 INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY

4. If a point C lies between two points A and B such that AC = BC, then prove that
1
AC = AB. Explain by drawing the figure.
2
5. In Question 4, point C is called a mid-point of line segment AB. Prove that every line
segment has one and only one mid-point.
6. In Fig. 5.10, if AC = BD, then prove that AB = CD.

Fig. 5.10

7. Why is Axiom 5, in the list of Euclid’s axioms, considered a ‘universal truth’? (Note
that the question is not about the fifth postulate.)

5.3 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. Though Euclid defined a point, a line, and a plane, the definitions are not accepted by
mathematicians. Therefore, these terms are now taken as undefined.
2. Axioms or postulates are the assumptions which are obvious universal truths. They are not
proved.
3. Theorems are statements which are proved, using definitions, axioms, previously proved
statements and deductive reasoning.
4. Some of Euclid’s axioms were :
(1) Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.
(2) If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.
(3) If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.
(4) Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another.
(5) The whole is greater than the part.
(6) Things which are double of the same things are equal to one another.
(7) Things which are halves of the same things are equal to one another.
5. Euclid’s postulates were :
Postulate 1 : A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other point.
Postulate 2 : A terminated line can be produced indefinitely.
Postulate 3 : A circle can be drawn with any centre and any radius.
Postulate 4 : All right angles are equal to one another.
jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž C²«$TÜ |Ÿ]#ájTá + 137

4. AC = BC n>·Tq³T¢ C nqT _+<ŠTeÚ A eT]jáTT B _+<ŠTeÚ\ eT<ó«Š >·\<ŠT. nsTTq AC = 12 AB n“

#áÖ|Ÿ+&. |Ÿ³+ ^d¾ $e]+#á+&.
5. dŸeTdŸ« 4 ýË C _+<ŠTeÚ AB ¹sU²K+&†“¿ì eT<óŠ« _+<ŠTeÚ. ç|Ÿr ¹sU²K+&ƒeTT ÿ¹¿ÿ¿£ eT<óŠ« _+<ŠTeÚqT ¿£*Ð
–+³T+<Š“ #áÖ|Ÿ+&.
6. |Ÿ³+ 5.10 ýË AC = BD nsTTq AB = CD n“ #áÖ|Ÿ+&.

|Ÿ³+.5.10

7. jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž jîTT¿£Ø kÍeÖq« uó²eq\ C²_ԐýË 5e kÍeÖq« uó²eq m+<ŠTÅ£” kÍsÁÇçÜ¿£ dŸÔ«á +>± |Ÿ]>·Dì+|Ÿ‹&+~?
(™|Õ dŸeTdŸ« 5e dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ >·Ö]Ì ¿±<Š“ >·eT“+#á+&)
5.3 kÍs+Xø+
‡ n<ó‘«jáT+ýË, ç¿ì+~ n+Xæ\qT MTsÁT n<óŠ«jáTq+ #ûkÍsÁT.
1. _+<ŠTeÚ, s ¹ K eT]jáTT Ôáý²\qT jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž “sÁÇV¾²+ºq|ŸÎ{ì¿,¡ ‡ “sÁÇ#áH\T >·DÔì Xá ædE
ïŸ \ã #û €yîÖ~+|Ÿ‹&ƒý<ñ TŠ .
n+<ŠT#û ‡ |Ÿ<‘\T n“sÁǺÔá |Ÿ<‘\T>± |Ÿ]>·DìkÍï+.
2. dÓÇ¿£Ô\Hû$ kÍsÁÇçÜ¿£ dŸÔ«ýÉq Õ |Ÿ]¿£\Îq\T. M{ì¿ì “sÁÖ|ŸD\T –+&ƒeÚ.
3. “sÁÇ#áH\T, dÓÇ¿£Ô\T, “sÁÖ|¾+#á‹&q ç|Ÿe#áH\T eT]jáTT “>·eTq ÔásØ“• –|ŸjÖ î Ð+º “sÁÖ|¾+#á‹&q
ç|Ÿe#áH\qT d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\T n+{²sÁT.
4. jáTÖ¿ì& ¢ Ž dÓÇ¿£Ô\ýË kÍeÖq« uó²eq\T ¿=“•
(1) ÿ¹¿s¥ dŸeÖqyîTq ® sXø—\T ÿ¿£<‘“¿=¿£{ì dŸeÖq+.
(2) dŸeÖq sXø—\Å£”, dŸeÖq sXø—\qT Å£L&q#à y{ì yîTTԐï\T dŸeÖq+.
(3) dŸeÖq sXø—\ qT+& dŸeÖq sXø—\qT rd¾yd û q¾ #à $TÐ*q$ dŸeÖq+.
(4) ÿ¿£ <‘“Ôà eTs=¿£{ì @¿¡u$ „ó +#áT sXø—\T |ŸsdÁ Ο sÁ+ dŸeÖH\T.
(5) yîTTÔáï+ <‘“ýË uó²>·+ ¿£+fñ ™|<ŠÝ~.
(6) dŸeÖq sXø—\ s  {ì+¼ |ŸÚ\T ÿ¿£<‘“¿=¿£{ì dŸeÖH\T.
(7) dŸeÖq sXø—\ýË dŸ>±\T ÿ¿£<‘“¿=¿£{ì dŸeÖq+.
5. jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž dÓÇ¿£Ô\T :
dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ 1 : @<û“ _+<ŠTeÚ qT+& @<û“ _+<ŠTeÚqÅ£” ÿ¿£ dŸsÞÁ s¹ø K ^jáTe#áTÌ.
dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ 2 : ^jáT‹&q “]Ýw¼Ÿ s¹ KqT “sÁe~ó¿+£ >± bõ&Ð+#áe#áTÌ.
dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ 3 : ‚ºÌq ¹¿+ç<Š+ eT]jáTT y«kÍsœ\Ôà eÔáï+ “]ˆ+#áe#áTÌ.
dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ 4 : n“• \+‹¿ÃD²\T |ŸsdÁ Ο sÁ+ dŸeÖH\T.
138 LINES AND ANGLES

CHAPTER 6

LINES AND ANGLES

6.1 Introduction
In Chapter 5, you have studied that a minimum of two points are required to draw a line. You
have also studied some axioms and, with the help of these axioms, you proved some other
statements. In this chapter, you will study the properties of the angles formed when two lines
intersect each other, and also the properties of the angles formed when a line intersects two or
more parallel lines at distinct points. Further you will use these properties to prove some
statements using deductive reasoning (see Appendix 1). You have already verified these statements
through some activities in the earlier classes.
In your daily life, you see different types of angles formed between the edges of plane
surfaces. For making a similar kind of model using the plane surfaces, you need to have a
thorough knowledge of angles. For instance, suppose you want to make a model of a hut to keep
in the school exhibition using bamboo sticks. Imagine how you would make it? You would keep
some of the sticks parallel to each other, and some sticks would be kept slanted. Whenever an
architect has to draw a plan for a multistoried building, she has to draw intersecting lines and
parallel lines at different angles. Without the knowledge of the properties of these lines and
angles, do you think she can draw the layout of the building?
In science, you study the properties of light by drawing the ray diagrams.
For example, to study the refraction property of light when it enters from one medium to the
other medium, you use the properties of intersecting lines and parallel lines. When two or
more forces act on a body, you draw the diagram in which forces are represented by directed
line segments to study the net effect of the forces on the body. At that time, you need to know
the relation between the angles when the rays (or line segments) are parallel to or intersect
each other. To find the height of a tower or to find the distance of a ship from the light house,
one needs to know the angle formed between the horizontal and the line of sight. Plenty of
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 139

n<ó‘«jáT+ 6
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T

6.1 |Ÿ]#ájáT+
ÿ¿£ ¹sKqT ^jáT&†“¿ì ¿£údŸ+ s +&ƒT _+<ŠTeÚ\T nedŸsÁeT“ MTsÁT n<ó‘«jáT+ 5 ýË HûsTÁ ÌÅ£”H•sÁT. MTsÁT ¿=“• dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\qT
Å£L&† HûsTÁ ÌÅ£”H•sÁT eT]jáTT € dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\ dŸVäŸ jáT+Ôà ¿=“• ç|Ÿe#áH\qT Å£L&† “sÁÖ|¾+#sÁT. ‡ n<ó‘«jáT+ýË s +&ƒT
¹sK\T ÿ¿£<‘“¿=¿£{ì K+&+º¿=q•|ŸÚ&ƒT @sÁÎ&q ¿ÃD²\ <ósŠ ˆ\T eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ s¹ K s +&ƒT ýñ<‘ n+Ôá ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ
¹sK\qT $_óq• _+<ŠTeÚ\ e<ŠÝ K+&+ºq|Ÿð&ƒT @sÁÎ&û ¿ÃD²\ <ósŠ ˆ\qT Å£L&† HûsTÁ ÌÅ£”+{²sÁT. ‚+¿± MTsÁT “>·eTq Ԑ]Ø¿£+
<‘Çs ¿=“• ç|Ÿe#áH\qT “sÁÖ|¾+#á&†“¿ì eTT+<ŠT eTT+<ŠT ‡ <óŠsˆ\qT –|ŸjÖî ÐkÍïsÁT (nqT‹+<ó+Š -1 #áÖ&ƒ+&). ç¿ì+~
Ôás>Á Ô· Tá \ýË MTsÁT ‚|ŸÎ{칿 ‡ ç|Ÿe#áH\qT ¿=“• ¿£Ԑ«\ <‘Çs “sÁÖ|¾+#sÁT.
MT “Ôá« J$Ôá+ýË dŸeTÔáý²\ n+#áT\ eT<ó«Š @sÁÎ&û $$<óŠ sÁ¿±\ ¿ÃD²\qT #áÖdŸTï+{²sÁT. dŸeTÔáý²\qT|ŸjîÖÐ+º
‚<û $<óyŠ îTq® qeTÖHqT ÔájáÖsÁT #ûjáT&†“¿ì MTsÁT ¿ÃD²\ >·T]+º |ŸP]ï ne>±VŸ²q ¿£*Ð –+&†*. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, MTsÁT
MT bÍsÄÁXæ\ mШ_wŸHŽýË yî<ŠTsÁT |ŸÚ\¢\Ôà ÿ¿£ >·T&™d qeTÖHqT ÔájÖá sÁT #ûjáÖ\qTÅ£”+<‘+. MTsÁT B““ mý² ÔájÖá sÁT
#ûkÍïsà }V¾²+#á+&? MTsÁT ¿=“• |ŸÚ\\¢ qT ÿ¿£<‘“¿=¿£{ì dŸeÖ+Ôás+Á >± –+º eT]jáTT ¿=“• |ŸÚ\¢\qT @³y\T>±
–+#áTԐsÁT. ‹VŸQÞøn+ÔádŸTœ\ uó„eq+ qeTÖH ^jáT&†“¿ì ÿ¿£ ydŸTï¥*Î K+&ƒq ¹sK\T eT]jáTT $_óq• ¿ÃD²\ e<ŠÝ
dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ s¹ K\qT ^jáTe\d¾ edŸT+ï ~. ¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\ <óŠsˆ\ ne>±VŸ²q ýñÅ£”+&† €yîT uóe„ q+ jîTT¿£Ø qeTÖH
^jáT>·\sÁ“ MTsÁT nqTÅ£”+³TH•s?
MTsÁT $C²ãqXæçdŸ+ï ýË ¿±+Ü s¹ U² ºçԐ\qT ^jáT&ƒ+ <‘Çs ¿±+Ü <ósŠ ˆ\qT n<ó«Š jáTq+ #ûkÍïsÁT. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, ¿±+Ü
ÿ¿£ jáÖq¿£+ qT+& eTs=¿£ jáÖq¿£+ý˓¿ì ç|Ÿy¥û +ºq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT eç¿¡ue„ó q <ósŠ ˆ“• n<ó«Š jáTq+ #ûjTá &†“¿ì MTsÁT K+&ƒq s¹ K\T,
dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ s¹ K\ <ósŠ ˆ\qT –|ŸjÖî ÐkÍïsTÁ . ÿ¿£ edŸTeï ڙ|Õ s +&ƒT ýñ<‘ n+Ôá¿+£ fñ mÅ£”Øe ‹ý²\T |Ÿ“#ûdq¾ |ŸÚÎ&ƒT
|˜*Ÿ Ôá ‹ý²“• n<ó«Š jáTq+ #ûjáT&†“¿ì MTsÁT ‹ý²\qT ~XæÔሿ£ s¹ U²U+&†\Ôà dŸÖº+#û ºçԐ“• ^kÍïsTÁ . n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ¿ìsÁD²\T
(¹sU² K+&†\T) ÿ¿£<‘“¿=¿£{ì dŸeÖ+Ôás+Á >± ýñ¿£ |ŸsdÁ Ο sÁ+ K+&#Tá Å£”q•|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ¿ÃD²\ eT<ó«Š dŸ+‹+<󑓕 MTsÁT Ôî\TdŸT¿Ãy*àq
nedŸs+Á –+~. ³esY jîTT¿£Ø mÔáTqï T ¿£qT>=q&†“¿ì ýñ<‘ ýÉ{Õ Ù VŸ²…dt qT+& z&ƒ jîTT¿£Ø <ŠÖs“• ¿£qT>=q&†“¿ì ¿ì܌ È
140 LINES AND ANGLES

other examples can be given where lines and angles are used. In the subsequent chapters of
geometry, you will be using these properties of lines and angles to deduce more and more
useful properties.
Let us first revise the terms and definitions related to lines and angles learnt in earlier
classes.

6.2 Basic Terms and Definitions

Recall that a part (or portion) of a line with two end points is called a line-segment and a part
of a line with one end point is called a ray. Note that the line segment AB is denoted by AB , and
uuur suur
its length is denoted by AB. The ray AB is denoted by AB , and a line is denoted by AB . However,,
we will not use these symbols, and will denote the line segment AB, ray AB, length AB and
line AB by the same symbol, AB. The meaning will be clear from the context. Sometimes small
letters l, m, n, etc. will be used to denote lines.
If three or more points lie on the same line, they are called collinear points; otherwise
they are called non-collinear points.
Recall that an angle is formed when two rays originate from the same end point. The rays
making an angle are called the arms of the angle and the end point is called the vertex of the
angle. You have studied different types of angles, such as acute angle, right angle, obtuse angle,
straight angle and reflex angle in earlier classes (see Fig. 6.1).

(i) acute angle : 0° < x < 90° (ii) right angle : y = 90° (iii) obtuse angle : 90° < z < 180°

(iv) straight angle : s = 180° (v) reflex angle : 180° < t < 360°
Fig. 6.1 : Types of Angles
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 141

dŸeÖ+Ôás,Á <Šw¾s¹¼ K\ eT<ó«Š @sÁÎ&û ¿ÃD²“• Ôî\TdŸT¿Ãy*. dŸsÁÞø s¹ K\T, ¿ÃD²\qT –|ŸjÖî Ð+#û nHû¿£ –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T eTq+
‚eÇe#áTÌ. C²«$TÜ jîTT¿£Ø Ôá<TŠ |Ÿ] n<ó«Š jáÖ\ýË MTsÁT eT]“• –|ŸjîÖ>·¿£sÁyîTq® <óŠsˆ\qT s‹³T¼³Å£” ¹sK\T, ¿ÃD²\
<óŠsˆ\qT –|ŸjîÖÐkÍïsTÁ .
eTT+<ŠT>± ¿ì+~ Ôás>Á Ô· Tá \ýË HûsTÁ ÌÅ£”q• s¹ K\T, ¿ÃD²\Å£” dŸ+‹+~ó+ºq |Ÿ<‘\T, “sÁÇ#áH\qT |ŸÚq]ÇeTsÁô
#ûdTŸ Å£”+<‘+.
6.2 eTò[¿£ |Ÿ<‘\T eT]jáTT “sÁÇ#áH\T
s +&ƒT ºe] _+<ŠTeÚ\T >·\ ÿ¿£ s¹ K jîTT¿£Ø ¿=+Ôá uó²>±“• s¹ U²K+&ƒ+ nú eT]jáTT ÿ¹¿ ºe] _+<ŠTeÚ >·\ s¹ K jîTT¿£Ø
¿=+Ôá uó²>±“• ¿ìsÁD+ n+{²sÁ“ >·TsÁTï Ôî#Tá Ì¿Ã+&. AB ¹sU²K+&†“• AB Ôà dŸÖºkÍï+ eT]jáTT <‘“ bõ&ƒeړ AB ÔÃ
suur
dŸÖºkÍï+. ¿ìsÁD+ AB “ uuu r
AB >±qT eT]jáTT ¹sKqT AB >±qÖ dŸÖºkÍï +. nsTTq|ŸÎ{ì¿ ¡ eTq+ ‡ >·TsÁT\ ï qT
–|ŸjÖî Ð+#áeTT eT]jáTT s¹ U² K+&ƒ+ AB “, ¿ìsD Á + AB“, AB ¹sK bõ&ƒeÚ eT]jáTT AB s¹ K\qT dŸÖº+#á&†“¿ì ÿ¹¿
sÁ¿y£ Tî q® >·TsÁTï AB Ôà dŸÖºkÍï+. dŸ+<ŠsÒÛqTkÍsÁ+>± nsÁ+œ eÖsÁTÔáT+~. ¿=“• kÍsÁT¢ ¹sK\qT dŸÖº+#á&†“¿ì l, m, n...
yîTT<ŠýÕqÉ ºq• n¿£Œs\qT –|ŸjîÖÐkÍï+.
eTÖ&ƒT ýñ<‘ n+Ôá ¿£H• mÅ£”Øe _+<ŠTeÚ\T ÿ¹¿ dŸsÞÁ s¹ø K™|Õ –+fñ € _+<ŠTeÚ\qT dŸs¹ FjáT _+<ŠTeÚ\“, ¿±“#à y{ì“
dŸs¹ FjáÖ\T ¿±“ _+<ŠTeÚ\T n“ n+{²sÁT.
ÿ¹¿ n+Ôá« _+<ŠTeÚ qT+& s +&ƒT ¿ìsDÁ ²\T yî\Te&q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ¿ÃDeTT @sÁÎ&ƒTÔáT+<Š“ >·TsÁTï Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&. ‡ ¿ÃD²“•
@sÁÎ]#û ¿ìsDÁ ²\T ¿ÃD uóT„ C²\T n“, € n+Ôá« _+<ŠTeÚqT ¿ÃD osÁüeTT n“ n+{²sÁT. n\οÃD+, \+‹¿ÃD+, n~ó¿¿£ ÃD+,
dŸsÞÁ ¿ø ÃD+ eT]jáTT |ŸsesÁqï ¿ÃD+ e+{ì $$<óŠ sÁ¿±\ ¿ÃD²\ >·T]+º ¿ì+~ ÔásÁ>·ÔáT\ýË HûsÁTÌ¿=H•sÁT.
(|Ÿ³+ 6.1 #áÖ&ƒ+&)

(i) n\οÃD+ : 0° < x < 90° (ii) \+‹¿ÃD+ : y = 90° (iii) n~ó¿¿£ ÃD+ : 90° < z < 180°

(iv) dŸsÞ
Á ø ¿ÃD+ : s = 180° (v) |ŸsesÁq
ï ¿ÃD+ : 180° < t < 360°
|Ÿ³+ 6.1 : ¿ÃD²\ sÁ¿±\T
142 LINES AND ANGLES

An acute angle measures between 0° and 90°, whereas a right angle is exactly equal to
90°. An angle greater than 90° but less than 180° is called an obtuse angle. Also, recall that a
straight angle is equal to 180°. An angle which is greater than 180° but less than 360° is called
a reflex angle. Further, two angles whose sum is 90° are called complementary angles, and
two angles whose sum is 180° are called supplementary angles.

You have also studied about adjacent angles in the

earlier classes (see Fig. 6.2). Two angles are adjacent, if
they have a common vertex, a common arm and their non-
common arms are on different sides of the common arm.
In Fig. 6.2, Ð ABD and Ð DBC are adjacent angles. Ray
BD is their common arm and point B is their common
vertex. Ray BA and ray BC are non common arms.
Moreover, when two angles are adjacent, then their sum is
Fig. 6.2 : Adjacent angles
always equal to the angle formed by the two non-common
arms. So, we can write

Ð ABC = Ð ABD + Ð DBC.

Note that Ð ABC and Ð ABD are not adjacent angles.

Why? Because their non-common arms BD and BC lie on
the same side of the common arm BA.

If the non-common arms BA and BC in

Fig. 6.2, form a line then it will look like Fig. 6.3. In this Fig. 6.3 : Linear pair of angles
case, Ð ABD and Ð DBC are called linear pair of angles.

You may also recall the vertically opposite angles

formed when two lines, say AB and CD, intersect each
other, say at the point O (see Fig. 6.4). There are two pairs
of vertically opposite angles.

One pair is ÐAOD and ÐBOC. Can you find the other
pair? Fig. 6.4 : Vertically opposite
angles
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 143

n\οÃD+ 0° eT]jáTT 90° &ç^\ eT<ó«Š –+³T+~. nsTTÔû \+‹¿ÃD+ KºÌÔá+>± 90° ¿ì dŸeÖq+>± –+³T+~. 90°
¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe 180° ¿£+fñ ÔáŔ£ Øe>± –q• ¿ÃD²“• n~ó¿£ ¿ÃD+ n+{²sÁT. ný²¹> dŸsÞÁ ø ¿ÃD+ 180° ¿ì dŸeÖq+ n“
>·TsÁTï+#áT+¿Ã+&. 180° ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe>± –+&, 360° ¿£+fñ ÔáŔ£ Øe>± –q• ¿ÃD²“• |ŸsesÁqï ¿ÃD+ n+{²sÁT. ‚+¿± s +&ƒT
¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+ 90° >± –q• ¿ÃD²\qT |ŸPsÁ¿£ ¿ÃD²\T n+{²sÁT. Âs+&ƒT ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔá+ï 180° >± –q• ¿ÃD²\qT dŸ+|ŸPsÁ¿£
¿ÃD²\T n+{²sÁT.

MTsÁT ç¿ì+~ Ôás>Á Ô· Tá \ýË €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\ >·T]+º Å£L&† n<ó«Š jáTq+
#ûXæsÁT (|Ÿ³+ 6.2 #áÖ&ƒ+&) s +&ƒT ¿ÃD²\T –eTˆ& osÁü+, –eTˆ& uóT„ C²\qT
¿£*Ð eT]jáTT –eTˆ&>± ýñ“ uóT„ C²\T –eTˆ& uóT„ C²“¿ì ‚sÁTyî|Õ ÚŸ ý² –+fñ
y{ì“ €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\T n+{²sÁT. |Ÿ³+ 6.2 ýË ÐABD eT]jáTT ÐDBC\T
€dŸq• ¿ÃD²\T BD ¿ìsDÁ + y{ì –eTˆ& uóT„ È+ eT]jáTT B _+<ŠTeÚ y{ì
–eTˆ& osÁü+. BA ¿ìsDÁ + eT]jáTT BC ¿ìsDÁ eTT\T –eTˆ&>± ýñ“ uóT„ C²\T.
n+Ôû ¿±¿£ s +&ƒT ¿ÃD²\T €dŸq• ¿ÃD²ýÉÔÕ û y{ì yîTTÔá+ï –eTˆ& ¿±“ |Ÿ³+ 6.2 : €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\T
uóT„ C²\Ôà @sÁÎ&q ¿ÃD²“¿ì dŸeÖq+. n+<ŠTe\q

Ð ABC = Ð ABD + Ð DBC n“ sjáTe#áTÌ.

Ð ABC eT]jáTT Ð ABD \T €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\T ¿±<Š“ >·eT“+#á+&.

m+<ŠTÅ£”? –eTˆ&>± ýñ“ uóT„ C²\T BD eT]jáTT BC ¿ìsDÁ ²\T –eTˆ& uóT„ È+
BA ¿ì ÿ¹¿yî|
Õ ÚŸ q –H•sTT.

|Ÿ³+. 6.2 ýË –eTˆ&>± ýñ“ uóT„ C²\T BA eT]jáTT BC \T ÿ¿£ |Ÿ³+ 6.3 : s¹ FjáT <ŠÇjáT+
dŸsÞÁ s¹ø KqT @sÁÎsÁºq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT n~ |Ÿ³+ 6.3 eýÉ –+³T+~. ‡ dŸ+<ŠsÁÒ+Û ýË
Ð ABD eT]jáTT Ð DBC \qT ¹sFjáT <ŠÇjáT+ n+{²eTT.

Âs+&ƒT ¹sK\T AB eT]jáTT CD \T |ŸsÁdŸÎsÁ+ O _+<ŠTeÚ e<ŠÝ

K+&+#áTÅ£”q|ŸÚÎ&ƒT @sÁÎ&ƒT osü_eó TTK ¿ÃD²\qT >·TsÁTï Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+& (|Ÿ³+
6.4 #áÖ&ƒ+&). ‚¿£Ø&ƒ s +&ƒT ÈÔá\ osü_eó TTK ¿ÃD²\T –H•sTT.

ÿ¿£ ÈÔá ÐAOD eT]jáTT ÐBOC. eTs=¿£ ÈÔáqT úeÚ ¿£qT>=q>·\y?

|Ÿ³+ 6.4 : osü_óeTTK ¿ÃD²\T
144 LINES AND ANGLES

6.3 Intersecting Lines and Non-intersecting Lines

Draw two different lines PQ and RS on a paper. You will see that you can draw them in two
different ways as shown in Fig. 6.5 (i) and Fig. 6.5 (ii).

(i) Intersecting lines (ii) Non-intersecting (parallel) lines

Fig. 6.5 : Different ways of drawing two lines
Recall the notion of a line, that it extends indefinitely in both directions. Lines PQ and RS
in Fig. 6.5 (i) are intersecting lines and in Fig. 6.5 (ii) are parallel lines. Note that the lengths of
the common perpendiculars at different points on these parallel lines is the same. This equal
length is called the distance between two parallel lines.

6.4 Pairs of Angles

In Section 6.2, you have learnt the definitions of some of the
pairs of angles such as complementary angles, supplementary
angles, adjacent angles, linear pair of angles, etc. Can you think
of some relations between these angles? Now, let us find out
the relation between the angles formed when a ray stands on a
line. Draw a figure in which a ray stands on a line as shown in
Fig. 6.6. Name the line as AB and the ray as OC. What are the Fig. 6.6 : Linear pair of angles
angles formed at the point O? They are Ð AOC, Ð BOC and Ð
AOB.
Can we write Ð AOC + Ð BOC = Ð AOB? (1)
Yes! (Why? Refer to adjacent angles in Section 6.2)
What is the measure of Ð AOB? It is 180°. (Why?) (2)
From (1) and (2), can you say that Ð AOC + Ð BOC = 180°? Yes! (Why?)
From the above discussion, we can state the following Axiom:
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 145

6.3 K+&ƒq ¹sK\T eT]jáTT K+&+#áT¿=q“ s¹ K\T

ÿ¿£ ¿±ÐÔá+ ™|Õ PQ eT]jáTT RS nqT Âs+&ƒT $_óq• ¹sK\qT ^jáT+&. |Ÿ³+ 6.5 (i) eT]jáTT |Ÿ³+ 6.5 (ii) \ýË #áÖ|¾q
$<ó+Š >± y{ì“ Âs+&ƒT yû¹sÇsÁT $<ó‘\T>± ^jáTe#áTÌq“ MTsÁT >·eT“+#áe#áTÌ.

(i) K+&ƒq s
¹ K\T (ii) K+&+#áT¿=q“ (dŸeÖ+Ôás)Á s
¹ K\T
|Ÿ³+ 6.5 : s +&ƒT s¹ K\qT yûs¹ ÇsÁT $<ó‘\T>± ^jáT&ƒ+.
ÿ¿£ dŸsÞÁ s¹ø K dŸ+¿¹ Ԑ“• ‹{ì¼ ‚sÁTyî|Õ ÚŸ ý² nq+Ôá+>± bõ&ƒÐ+#áe#á̓ >·TsÁTï #ûdTŸ ¿Ã+&. 6.5 (i) ýË PQ eT]jáTT RS
\T K+&ƒq s¹ K\T eT]jáTT |Ÿ³+ 6.5 (ii) ýË n$ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ ¹sK\T. ‡ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ ¹sK\ MT<Š $_óq• _+<ŠTeÚ\ e<ŠÝ
–eTˆ& \+‹¹sK\ bõ&ƒeÚ\T dŸeÖqeT“ >·eT“+#á+&. ‡ dŸeÖq bõ&ƒeÚqT Âs+&ƒT dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ ¹sK\ eT<ó«Š <ŠÖsÁeT“
n+{²sÁT.
6.4 ¿ÃD²\ ÈÔá\T
6.2 $uó²>·+ýË |ŸPsÁ¿£ ¿ÃD²\T, dŸ+|ŸPsÁ¿£ ¿ÃD²\T, €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\T,
¹sFjáT <ŠÇjáT+ yîTT<Š\>·T ¿ÃD²\ ÈÔá\ “sÁÇ#áH\T MTsÁT HûsTÁ ÌÅ£”H•sÁT.
‡ ¿ÃD²\ eT<Š« dŸ+‹+<óeŠ TTqT €ý˺+#s? ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ÿ¿£ ¿ìsDÁ eTT,
ÿ¿£ dŸsÁÞ¹sø K MT<Š –q•|ŸÚÎ&ƒT @sÁÎ&û ¿ÃD²\ eT<ó«Š dŸ+‹+<óŠeTTqT
¿£qT>=+<‘+. |Ÿ³+ 6.6 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<ó+Š >± ÿ¿£ ¿ìsDÁ + s¹ K MT<Š
–+&ƒTq³T¢>± |Ÿ{²“• ^jáT+&. dŸsÞÁ sø¹ KqT AB n“, ¿ìsDÁ +qT OC n“ |Ÿ³+ 6.6 : s¹ FjáT <ŠÇjáT+
|sÁT ™|³¼+&. O _+<ŠTeÚ e<ŠÝ @sÁÎ&q ¿ÃD²\T @$? n$
ÐAOC, ÐBOC eT]jáTT ÐAOB.

ÐAOC + ÐBOC = ÐAOB n“ eTq+ sjáT>·\eÖ? (1)

neÚqT! (m+<ŠTÅ£”? 6.2 $uó²>·+ý˓ €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\qT #áÖ&ƒ+&).

Ð AOB ¿ÃD+ m+Ôá? n~ 180° –+³T+~. (m+<ŠTÅ£”?) (2)

(1) eT]jáTT (2) \ qT+& Ð AOC + Ð BOC = 180° n“ #î|Ο e#Ì? neÚqT! (m+<ŠTÅ£”?)
™|Õ #ásÌÁ qT+& eTqeTT ‡ dÓÇ¿£ÔáeTTqT ç|Ÿeº+#áe#áTÌ
146 LINES AND ANGLES

Axiom 6.1 : If a ray stands on a line, then the sum of two adjacent angles so formed is 180°.
Recall that when the sum of two adjacent angles is 180°, then they are called a linear pair
of angles.
In Axiom 6.1, it is given that ‘a ray stands on a line’. From this ‘given’, we have concluded
that ‘the sum of two adjacent angles so formed is 180°’. Can we write Axiom 6.1 the other way?
That is, take the ‘conclusion’ of Axiom 6.1 as ‘given’ and the ‘given’ as the ‘conclusion’. So it
becomes:
(A) If the sum of two adjacent angles is 180°, then a ray stands on a line (that is, the non-
common arms form a line).
Now you see that the Axiom 6.1 and statement (A) are in a sense the reverse of each others.
We call each as converse of the other. We do not know whether the statement (A) is true or not.
Let us check. Draw adjacent angles of different measures as shown in Fig. 6.7. Keep the ruler
along one of the non-common arms in each case. Does the other non-common arm also lie
along the ruler?

Fig. 6.7 : Adjacent angles with different measures

¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 147

Á eTT ÿ¿£ dŸsÞÁ ¹sø K™|Õ –q•#Ã, n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT @sÁÎ&q €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔá+ï 180°.
dÓÇ¿£ÔáeTT 6.1 : ÿ¿£ ¿ìsD
Âs+&ƒT €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+ 180° nsTTq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT y{ìq ¹sFjáT <ŠÇjáT+ n+{²eT“ >·TsÁTï Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&.
dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ 6.1ýË »ÿ¿£ dŸsÞÁ ¹sø K MT<Š ÿ¿£ ¿ìsDÁ +µ –+³T+<Š“ ‚eNj&+~. B“ qT+& @sÁÎ&q s +&ƒT €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\
yîTTÔá+ï 180°n“ eTq+ “sÆ]+#áe#áTÌ. dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ 6.1qT eTq+ eTs=¿£ sÁ¿+£ >± sjáTe#Ì? n+fñ dÓÇ¿£ÔáeTT 6.1 jîTT¿£Ø
»kÍs+X擕µ »<ŠÔï+Xø+>±qTµ eT]jáTT »<ŠÔï+X擕µ »kÍs+Xø+>±µ rdŸTÅ£”q•³¢sTTÔû n~ ç¿ì+~ $<ó+Š >± –+³T+~.:
(A) s +&ƒT €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔá+ï 180° nsTTÔû ÿ¿£ ¿ìsD Á + ÿ¿£ dŸsÞÁ s¹ø K MT<Š –+³T+~. (n+fñ –eTˆ&>± ýñ“
uóT„ C²\T dŸsÁÞs¹ø KqT @sÁÎsÁ#áTqT)
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT MTsÁT dÓÇ¿£ÔáeTT 6.1 eT]jáTT ç|Ÿe#áq+ (A) \T ÿ¿£ $<óŠ+>± |ŸsdÁ Ο sÁ+ $|Ÿs«Á +>± ¿£“|¾dŸTHï •sTT. eTqeTT
y{ì“ ÿ¿£<‘“¿=¿£{ì $|Ÿs«Á jáT+ n+{²sÁT. ç|Ÿe#áq+ (A) dŸÔá«eÖ? ¿±<‘? nHû~ Ôî*jáT<ŠT. ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT eTq+ <‘““
dŸ]#áÖ<‘Ý+. |Ÿ³+ 6.7ýË #áÖ|Ÿ‹&q $<óŠ+>± $_óq• ¿=\Ôá\Ôà €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\qT ^jáT+&. ç|ŸÜ dŸ+<ŠsÁÒÛ+ýË dØ\TqT
–eTˆ&>± ýñ“ uó„TC²\ýË ÿ¿£ <‘“ yî+‹& –+#á+&. eTs=¿£ –eTˆ&>± ýñ“ uóT„ È+ dØ\T yî+‹& –+³T+<‘?

|Ÿ³+ 6.7 : $_óq• ¿=\Ôá\T >·\ €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\T

148 LINES AND ANGLES

You will find that only in Fig. 6.7 (iii), both the non-common arms lie along the ruler, that is,
points A, O and B lie on the same line and ray OC stands on it. Also see that Ð AOC + Ð COB =
125° + 55° = 180°. From this, you may conclude that statement (A) is true. So, you can state in
the form of an axiom as follows:

Axiom 6.2 : If the sum of two adjacent angles is 180°, then the non-common arms of the
angles form a line.
For obvious reasons, the two axioms above together is called the Linear Pair Axiom.
Let us now examine the case when two lines intersect each other.
Recall, from earlier classes, that when two lines intersect, the vertically opposite angles
are equal. Let us prove this result now. See Appendix 1 for the ingredients of a proof, and keep
those in mind while studying the proof given below.
Theorem 6.1 : If two lines intersect each other, then the vertically opposite angles are equal.
Proof : In the statement above, it is given that ‘two lines
intersect each other’. So, let AB and CD be two lines
intersecting at O as shown in Fig. 6.8. They lead to two
pairs of vertically opposite angles, namely,
(i) Ð AOC and Ð BOD (ii) Ð AOD and
Fig. 6.8 : Vertically opposite angles
Ð BOC.
We need to prove that Ð AOC = Ð BOD and Ð AOD = Ð
BOC.
Now, ray OA stands on line CD.
Therefore, Ð AOC + Ð AOD = 180° (Linear pair axiom) (1)
Can we write Ð AOD + Ð BOD = 180°? Yes! (Why?) (2)
From (1) and (2), we can write
Ð AOC + Ð AOD = Ð AOD + Ð BOD
This implies that Ð AOC = Ð BOD (Refer Section 5.2, Axiom 3)
Similarly, it can be proved that ÐAOD = ÐBOC
Now, let us do some examples based on Linear Pair Axiom and Theorem 6.1.
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 149

|Ÿ³+ 6.7 (iii) ýË eÖçÔáyTû –eTˆ&>± ýñ“ uó„TC²\T s +&ƒÖ dØ\T yî+‹& –H•jáT“ MTsÁT Ôî\TdŸT¿Ãe#áTÌ. n+fñ
A, O eT]jáTT B _+<ŠTeÚ\T ÿ¹¿ s¹ K MT<Š –+& ¿ìsDÁ + OC <‘“ MT<Š –+~. n+Ôû¿±¿£ ÐAOC+Ð COB = 125°+55°=180°
neÚÔáT+~. B“ qT+& ç|Ÿe#áq+ (A) dŸ]jîT® q<Š“ “sÆ]+#áe#áTÌ. ¿±‹{ì¼ <‘““ ÿ¿£ dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË ¿ì+~ $<óŠ+>±
#î|Ο e#áTÌ:
dÓÇ¿£ÔáeTT 6.2 : Âs+&ƒT €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+ 180° nsTTq € s +&ƒT ¿ÃD²\ýË –eTˆ&>± ýñ“ uóT„ C²\T ÿ¿£ dŸsÁÞsø¹ KqT
@sÁÎsÁTkÍïsTT.
dŸÎwŸy¼ Tî q® ¿±sÁD²\ e\q ™|Õq |s=Øq• Âs+&ƒT dÓÇ¿£Ô\qT ¿£*|¾ s¹ FjáT <ŠÇjáT+ dÓÇ¿£ÔáeTT n+{²sÁT.
Âs+&ƒT dŸsÞÁ ¹sø K\T |ŸsÁdŸÎsÁ+ K+&+ºq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ‚~ @ $<óŠ+>± –+³T+<à |Ÿ¯¿ì<Œ ‘Ý+.
ç¿ì+~ Ôás>Á Ô· Tá \ýË HûsTÁ ÌÅ£”q• <‘“ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ Âs+&ƒT dŸsÁÞ¹sø K\T K+&+#áT¿=q•|ŸÚÎ&ƒT osü_óeTTK ¿ÃD²\T dŸeÖqeT“
>·TsÁTï Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&. ‡ |˜*Ÿ Ԑ“• eTq+ ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT “sÁÖ|¾<‘Ý+. “sÁÖ|ŸDÅ£” ¿±e\d¾q n+Xæ\qT nqT‹+<ó+Š ` 1ýË #áÖd¾ ¿ì+~
‚eNj&q “sÁÖ|ŸDqT n<óŠ«jáTq+ #ûd³|ŸÚÎ&ƒT y{ì“ >·TsÁT+ï #áT¿Ã+&.
d¾<‘Ý+Ôá+ 6.1 : Âs+&ƒT dŸsÞÁ ¹sø K\T |ŸsÁdŸÎsÁ+ K+&+#áTÅ£”+fñ @sÁÎ&q osü_óeTTK ¿ÃD²\T dŸeÖq+.
“sÁÖ|ŸD : ™|Õ y¿£«+ýË Âs+&ƒT dŸsÁÞø¹sK\T |ŸsÁdΟ sÁ+ K+&+#áT¿=qTq“
‚eNj&+~. ¿±‹{ì¼ |Ÿ³+ 6.8ýË #áÖ|Ÿ‹&q $<ó+Š >± AB eT]jáTT CD
¹sK\T O e<ŠÝ K+&+#áTÅ£”H•sTT nqT¿=qTeTT. n$ s +&ƒT ÈÔá\ osü_eó TTK
¿ÃD²\qT @sÁÎsÁ#Tá qT.
(i) Ð AOC eT]jáTT Ð BOD (ii) Ð AOD eT]jáTT Ð BOC. |Ÿ³+ 6.8 : osü_óeTTK ¿ÃD²\T
ÐAOC = ÐBOD eT]jáTT ÐAOD = ÐBOC n“ “sÁÖ|¾+#áT¿Ãy*
.‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, ¿ìsDÁ + OA, dŸsÞÁ ¹sø K CD ™|Õ –q•~.
n+<ŠTe\q, Ð AOC + Ð AOD = 180° (¹sFjáT <ŠÇjáT dÓÇ¿£Ôá+) (1)

ný²¹> Ð AOD + Ð BOD = 180°? neÚqT! (m+<ŠTÅ£”?) (2)

(1) eT]jáTT (2) esÁŔ£ eTq+ çyjáTe#áTÌ.

Ð AOC + Ð AOD = Ð AOD + Ð BOD

‚~ <‘““ Ôî*jáTCñdTŸ +ï ~ Ð AOC = Ð BOD ($uó²>·+ 5.2 |Ÿ]o*+#á+& 5.2, dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ 3)

‚<û $<ó+Š >± <‘““ “sÁÖ|¾+#áe#áTÌ ÐAOD = ÐBOC
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, eTq+ s¹ FjáT <ŠÇjáT dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ eT]jáTT d¾<‘Ý+Ôá+ 6.1 €<ó‘sÁ+>± ¿=“• –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T #û<‘Ý+.
150 LINES AND ANGLES

Example 1 : In Fig. 6.9, lines PQ and RS intersect each other at

point O. If Ð POR : Ð ROQ = 5 : 7, find all the angles.
Solution : Ð POR +Ð ROQ = 180°
(Linear pair of angles)
But Ð POR : Ð ROQ = 5 : 7
(Given)

5
Therefore, Ð POR = × 180° = 75°
12
Fig. 6.9
7
Similarly, Ð ROQ = × 180° = 105°
12

Now, Ð POS = ÐROQ = 105° (Vertically opposite angles)

and Ð SOQ = ÐPOR = 75° (Vertically opposite angles)
Example 2 : In Fig. 6.10, ray OS stands on a line POQ. Ray OR and ray OT are angle bisectors of Ð POS
and Ð SOQ, respectively. If Ð POS = x, find Ð ROT.
Solution : Ray OS stands on the line POQ.
Therefore, Ð POS + Ð SOQ = 180°
But, Ð POS = x
Therefore, x + Ð SOQ = 180°
Fig. 6.10
So, Ð SOQ = 180° – x
Now, ray OR bisects Ð POS, therefore,

1
Ð ROS = × Ð POS
2

1 x
= ×x=
2 2

1
Similarly, Ð SOT = × Ð SOQ
2
1
= × (180° – x)
2

x
= 90° -
2
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 151

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 1 : |Ÿ³+ 6.9 ýË PQ eT]jáTT RS dŸsÞÁ ¹sø K\T, _+<ŠTeÚ O e<ŠÝ

K+&+#áTÅ£”+³TH•sTT. ÐPOR: Ð ROQ = 5 : 7 nsTTq n“• ¿ÃD²\
¿=\Ôá\T ¿£qT>=q+&?
kÍ<óqŠ : Ð POR +Ð ROQ = 180°
(¿ÃD²\ s
¹ FjáT <ŠÇjáT+)
¿±ú Ð POR : Ð ROQ = 5 : 7
(<ŠÔï+XøeTT )
5
¿±eÚq, Ð POR = × 180° = 75°
12 |Ÿ³+ 6.9
7
n<û $<ó+Š >±, Ð ROQ = × 180° = 105°
12
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, Ð POS = ÐROQ = 105° (osü_e
ó TTK ¿ÃD²\T)
eT]jáTT Ð SOQ = ÐPOR = 75° (osü_e
ó TTK ¿ÃD²\T)
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 2 : |Ÿ³+ 6.10ýË ¿ìsDÁ + OS ÿ¿£ dŸsÞÁ ¹sø K POQ ™|Õ –q•~. ¿ìsDÁ + OR eT]jáTT ¿ìsDÁ + OT \T esÁTdŸ>± Ð
POS eT]jáTT Ð SOQ \ ¿ÃDdŸeT~ÇK+&ƒq s ¹ K\T Ð POS = x nsTTq Ð ROT ¿=\ÔáqT ¿£qT>=q+&.
kÍ<óqŠ : ¿ìsÁD+ OS dŸsÞÁ ¹sø K POQ ™|Õ –+~.
¿±eÚq, Ð POS + Ð SOQ = 180°

¿±“, Ð POS = x

¿±eÚq, x + Ð SOQ = 180°

|Ÿ³+ 6.10
¿±‹{ì,¼ Ð SOQ = 180° – x

‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, ¿ìsÁD+ OR, Ð POS “ dŸeT~ÇK+&ƒq #ûdTŸ +ï ~. ¿±‹{ì,¼

1
Ð ROS = × Ð POS
2
1 x
= ×x=
2 2
1
n<û$<ó+Š >±, Ð SOT = × Ð SOQ
2
1
= × (180° – x)
2
x
= 90° -
2
152 LINES AND ANGLES

Now, Ð ROT = Ð ROS + Ð SOT

x x
= + 90° –
2 2
= 90°
Example 3 : In Fig. 6.11, OP, OQ, OR and OS are four rays.
Prove that Ð POQ + Ð QOR + Ð SOR + Ð POS = 360°.
Solution : In Fig. 6.11, you need to produce any of the rays
OP, OQ, OR or OS backwards to a point. Let us produce ray
OQ backwards to a point T so that TOQ is a line (see Fig. Fig. 6.11
6.12).
Now, ray OP stands on line TOQ.
Therefore, Ð TOP + Ð POQ = 180° (1)
(Linear pair axiom)
Similarly, ray OS stands on line TOQ.
Therefore, Ð TOS + Ð SOQ = 180° (2)
Fig. 6.12
But Ð SOQ = Ð SOR + Ð QOR
So, (2) becomes
Ð TOS + Ð SOR + Ð QOR = 180° (3)
Now, adding (1) and (3), you get
Ð TOP + Ð POQ + Ð TOS + Ð SOR + Ð QOR = 360° (4)
But Ð TOP + Ð TOS = Ð POS
Therefore, (4) becomes
Ð POQ + Ð QOR + Ð SOR + Ð POS = 360°

EXERCISE 6.1
1.In Fig. 6.13, lines AB and CD intersect at O. If
Ð AOC + Ð BOE = 70° and Ð BOD = 40°, find
Ð BOE and reflex Ð COE.

Fig. 6.13
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 153

‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, Ð ROT = Ð ROS + Ð SOT

x x
= + 90° –
2 2
= 90°

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 3: |Ÿ³+ 6.11ýË OP, OQ, OR eT]jáTT OS \T H\T>·T ¿ìsDÁ ²\T ÐPOQ
+ Ð QOR + Ð SOR + Ð POS = 360° n“ “sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.

kÍ<óqŠ : |Ÿ³+ 6.11ýË OP, OQ, OR ýñ<‘ OS ¿ìsDÁ ²\ýË @<îHÕ  ÿ¿£ <‘““ ÿ¿£
_+<ŠTeÚ esÁŔ£ yîqT¿£Å”£ bõ&Ð+#*. OQ ¿ìsDÁ ²“• T esÁÅ£” yîqT¿£Å£” bõ&Ð<‘Ý+.
n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT TOQ ÿ¿£ ¹sK neÚÔáT+~ (|Ÿ³+ 6.12 #áÖ&ƒ+&).
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, OP ¿ìsDÁ eTT TOQ ¹sK™|Õ –+&ƒTqT.
|Ÿ³+ 6.11
¿±‹{ì,¼ Ð TOP + Ð POQ = 180° (1)

(¹sFjáT <ŠÇjáT dÓÇ¿£ÔáeTT)

n<û$<óŠ+>±, ¿ìsDÁ + OS, ¹sK TOQ ™|Õ –+&ƒTqT.
¿±‹{ì,¼ Ð TOS + Ð SOQ = 180° (2)

¿±“ Ð SOQ = Ð SOR + Ð QOR

|Ÿ³+ 6.12
¿±eÚq (2) qT+&
Ð TOS + Ð SOR + Ð QOR = 180° (3)

‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, (1) eT]jáTT (3) ¿£\|Ÿ>±

Ð TOP + Ð POQ + Ð TOS + Ð SOR + Ð QOR = 360° (4)

¿±“ Ð TOP + Ð TOS = Ð POS

¿±eÚq, (4) qT+&

Ð POQ + Ð QOR + Ð SOR + Ð POS = 360°

nuó²«dŸ+ 6.1
1. |Ÿ³+ 6.13 ýË AB eT]jáTT CD dŸsÞÁ s¹ø K\T O _+<ŠTeÚ e<ŠÝ K+&+#áT¿=+{²sTT.
Ð AOC + Ð BOE = 70° eT]jáTT Ð BOD = 40° nsTTq Ð BOE eT]jáTT
|ŸsesÁqï ¿ÃD+ Ð COE \qT ¿£qT>=q+&. |Ÿ³+ 6.13
154 LINES AND ANGLES

2. In Fig. 6.14, lines XY and MN intersect at O. If

Ð POY = 90° and a : b = 2 : 3, find c.

Fig. 6.14

3. In Fig. 6.15, Ð PQR = Ð PRQ, then prove that

Ð PQS = Ð PRT.

Fig. 6.15

4. In Fig. 6.16, if x + y = w + z, then prove that AOB

is a line.

Fig. 6.16

5. In Fig. 6.17, POQ is a line. Ray OR is perpendicular

to line PQ. OS is another ray lying between rays
OP and OR. Prove that
1
Ð ROS = (Ð QOS – Ð POS).
2
6. It is given that Ð XYZ = 64° and XY is produced
to point P. Draw a figure from the given
information. If ray YQ bisects Ð ZYP, find Ð XYQ Fig. 6.17
and reflex Ð QYP.
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 155

2. |Ÿ³+ 6.14 ýË dŸsÁÞø ¹sK\T XY eT]jáT T MN \T O e<Š Ý

K+&+#áTÅ£”+³TH•sTT. Ð POY = 90° eT]jáTT a : b = 2 : 3 nsTTq c qT
¿£qT>=q+&.

|Ÿ³+. 6.14

3. |Ÿ³+ 6.15 ýË Ð PQR = Ð PRQ nsTTq

Ð PQS = Ð PRT n“ “sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.

|Ÿ³+. 6.15

4. |Ÿ³+ 6.16 ýË x + y = w + z nsTTq AOB ÿ¿£ dŸsÞÁ s¹ø K n“ “sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.

|Ÿ³+. 6.16

5. |Ÿ³+ 6.17ýË POQ ÿ¿£ dŸsÞÁ s¹ø K. ¿ìsDÁ + OR , dŸsÞÁ s¹ø K PQ Å£” \+‹+>±
–q•~. OP eT]jáTT OR ¿ìsÁD²\ eT<ó«Š OS nHû~ eTs=¿£ ¿ìsDÁ + nsTTq
1
Ð ROS = (Ð QOS – Ð POS) n“ “sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.
2
6. ÐXYZ = 64° eT]jáTT XY “ P _+<ŠTeÚ esÁŔ£ bõ&ƒÐ+#sÁT. ÐZYP “ |Ÿ³+. 6.17
YQ ¿ìsÁD+ dŸeT~ÇK+&ƒq #ûdTŸ + ï ~. ‡ dŸeÖ#s“• |Ÿ³ sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË
#áÖ|Ÿ+&. n<û $<ó+Š >± Ð XYQ eT]jáTT |ŸsesÁqï ¿ÃDeTT Ð QYP \qT
¿£qT>=q+&.
156 LINES AND ANGLES

6.5 Lines Parallel to the Same Line

If two lines are parallel to the same line, will they be parallel to each other? Let us check it. See
Fig. 6.18 in which line m || line l and line n || line l.
Let us draw a line t transversal for the lines, l, m and n. It is given that
line m || line l and line n || line l.
Therefore, Ð 1 = Ð 2 and Ð 1 = Ð 3
(Corresponding angles axiom)
So, Ð 2 = Ð 3 (Why?)
But Ð 2 and Ð 3 are corresponding angles and they are equal.
Therefore, you can say that
Line m || Line n
(Converse of corresponding angles axiom)
Fig. 6.18
This result can be stated in the form of the following theorem:

Theorem 6.6 : Lines which are parallel to the same line are parallel to each other.
Note : The property above can be extended to more than two lines also.
Now, let us solve some examples related to parallel lines.

Example 4 : In Fig. 6.19, if PQ || RS, Ð MXQ = 135° and Ð MYR = 40°, find Ð XMY.

Fig. 6.19 Fig. 6.20

Solution : Here, we need to draw a line AB parallel to line PQ, through point M as shown in
Fig. 6.20. Now, AB || PQ and PQ || RS.
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 157

6.5 ÿ¹¿ s¹ KÅ£” dŸeÖ+Ôás+Á >± –q• s¹ K\T

Âs+&ƒT dŸsÞÁ ¹sø K\T ÿ¹¿ s¹ KÅ£” dŸeÖ+Ôás+Á >± –+fñ € s +&ƒT s¹ K\T dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ s¹ K\T neÚԐjáÖ? B““ |Ÿ]o*<‘Ý+. |Ÿ³+
6.18 #áÖ&ƒ+&. n$ m s¹ K || l s¹ K eT]jáTT n s¹ K || l s¹ K.
l, m eT]jáTT n ¹sK\Å£” t nHû ÜsÁ«ç¹>K “ ^<‘Ý+. m s ¹ K || l s¹ K eT]jáTT n s¹ K || l s¹ K n“ ‚eNj&+~.
n+<ŠTe\q, Ð 1 = Ð 2 eT]jáTT Ð 1 = Ð 3
(dŸ<Š Xø¿ÃD²\ dÓÇ¿£Ôá+)

¿±eÚq, Ð 2 = Ð 3 (m+<ŠTÅ£”?)

¿±“ Ð 2 eT]jáTT Ð 3 dŸ<Š Xø ¿ÃD²\T eT]jáTT n$ dŸeÖq+.

¿±‹{ì,¼
ms
¹ K || n s¹ K n“ MTsÁT #î|Ο e#áTÌ.
(dŸ<Š Xø ¿ÃD²\ dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ jîTT¿£Ø $|ŸsÁ«+) |Ÿ³+. 6.18
‡ |˜*Ÿ Ԑ“• ¿ì+~ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË #î|Ο e#áTÌ:
d¾<‘Ý+Ôá+ 6.6 : ÿ¿£ ¹sKÅ£” dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± –+&û ¹sK\T ÿ¿£<‘“¿=¿£{ì dŸeÖ+Ôás+Á >± –+{²sTT.
>·eT“¿£ : ™|Õq #î|ŸÎ‹&q <óŠsÁˆ+ Âs+&ƒT ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe ¹sK\Å£” Å£L&† nqÇsTT+#áe#áTÌ.
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ ¹sK\Å£” dŸ+‹+~ó+ºq ¿=“• –<‘VŸ²sÁD\qT kÍ~ó<‘Ý+.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 4 : |Ÿ³+ 6.19 ýË PQ || RS, Ð MXQ = 135° eT]jáTT Ð MYR = 40°, nsTTq Ð XMY qT
¿£qT>=q+&.

|Ÿ³+. 6.19 |Ÿ³+. 6.20

kÍ<óqŠ : ‚¿£Ø&ƒ, |Ÿ³+ 6.20 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<óŠ+>± M >·T+&† PQ ¹sK¿ì dŸeÖ+Ôás+Á >± AB s¹ KqT eTq+ ^jáÖ*à eÚ+~.
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT AB || PQ eT]jáTT PQ || RS.
158 LINES AND ANGLES

Therefore, AB || RS (Why?)
Now, Ð QXM + Ð XMB = 180°
(AB || PQ, Interior angles on the same side of the transversal XM)
But Ð QXM = 135°
So, 135° + Ð XMB = 180°
Therefore, Ð XMB = 45° (1)
Now, Ð BMY = Ð MYR (AB || RS, Alternate angles)
Therefore, Ð BMY = 40° (2)
Adding (1) and (2), you get
Ð XMB + Ð BMY = 45° + 40°
That is, Ð XMY = 85°

Example 5 : If a transversal intersects two lines such that the bisectors of a pair of corresponding
angles are parallel, then prove that the two lines are parallel.
Solution : In Fig. 6.21, a transversal AD intersects two lines PQ and RS at points B and C
respectively. Ray BE is the bisector of Ð ABQ and ray CG is the bisector of Ð BCS;
and BE || CG.
We are to prove that PQ || RS.
It is given that ray BE is the bisector of Ð ABQ.
1
Therefore, Ð ABE = Ð ABQ (1)
2
Similarly, ray CG is the bisector of Ð BCS.
1
Therefore, Ð BCG = Ð BCS (2)
2
Fig. 6.21
But BE || CG and AD is the transversal.
Therefore, Ð ABE = Ð BCG
(Corresponding angles axiom) (3)

Substituting (1) and (2) in (3), you get

1 1
Ð ABQ = Ð BCS
2 2
That is, Ð ABQ = Ð BCS
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 159

¿±‹{ì,¼ AB || RS (m+<ŠTÅ£”?)

‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, Ð QXM + Ð XMB = 180°

(AB || PQ, ÜsÁ«ç¹>K XM ¿ì ÿ¹¿ yî|Õ ÚŸ q >·\ n+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\T)

¿±ú Ð QXM = 135°

¿±eÚq, 135° + Ð XMB = 180°

¿±‹{ì,¼ Ð XMB = 45° (1)

‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, Ð BMY = Ð MYR (AB || RS, @¿±+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\T)
¿±‹{ì,¼ Ð BMY = 40° (2)
(1) eT]jáTT (2) ¿£\T|Ÿ>±
Ð XMB + Ð BMY = 45° + 40°
nq>±, Ð XMY = 85°

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 5 : Âs+&ƒT s¹ K\qT ÿ¿£ ÜsÁ«ç¹>K K+&+ºq|ŸÚ&ƒT dŸ<ŠXø ¿ÃD dŸeT~ÇK+&ƒq s¹ K\ ÈÔá dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± –+fñ
€ s +&ƒT s¹ K\T dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± –+{²jáT“ “sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.
kÍ<óqŠ : |Ÿ³+ 6.21ýË AD ÜsÁ«ç¹>K PQ eT]jáTT RS nHû Âs+&ƒT s¹ K\qT esÁTdŸ>± B eT]jáTT C _+<ŠTeÚ\ e<ŠÝ
K+&dTŸ +ï ~. BE ¿ìsÁD+ Ð ABQ jîTT¿£Ø ¿ÃD dŸeT~ÇK+&ƒq s¹ K eT]jáTT CG ¿ìsDÁ + Ð BCS jîTT¿£Ø ¿ÃD dŸeT~ÇK+&ƒq
s¹ K eT]jáTT BE || CG.
eTq+ PQ || RS n“ “sÁÖ|¾+#*.
BE ¿ìsÁD+ Ð ABQ ¿ÃDdŸeT~ÇK+&ƒq s ¹ K n“ ‚eNj&+~.
1
¿±‹{ì,¼ Ð ABE = Ð ABQ (1)
2
n<û $<ó+Š >± CG ¿ìsDÁ +, Ð BCS jîTT¿£Ø ¿ÃD dŸeT~ÇK+&ƒq s¹ K
1
¿±‹{ì,¼ Ð BCG = Ð BCS (2)
2
¿±ú BE || CG eT]jáTT AD ÜsÁ«ç¹>K. |Ÿ³+. 6.21
¿±‹{ì,¼ Ð ABE = Ð BCG
(dŸ<Š Xø ¿ÃD²\ dÓÇ¿£Ôá+) (3)
(1) eT]jáTT (2) \qT (3) ýË ç|ŸÜ¿ ¹ |Œ +¾ #á>±,
1 1
Ð ABQ = Ð BCS
2 2
n+fñ, Ð ABQ = Ð BCS
160 LINES AND ANGLES

But, they are the corresponding angles formed by transversal AD with PQ and RS; and are equal.
Therefore, PQ || RS
(Converse of corresponding angles axiom)

Example 6 : In Fig. 6.22, AB || CD and CD || EF. Also EA ^ AB. If Ð BEF = 55°, find the values
of x, y and z.
Solution :y + 55° = 180°
(Interior angles on the same side of the
transversal ED)
Therefore, y = 180º – 55º = 125º
Again x =y
(AB || CD, Corresponding angles axiom) Fig. 6.22

Therefore x = 125º
Now, since AB || CD and CD || EF, therefore, AB || EF.
So, Ð EAB + Ð FEA = 180° (Interior angles on the same
side of the transversal EA)
Therefore, 90° + z + 55° = 180°
Which gives z = 35°

EXERCISE 6.2
1. In Fig. 6.23, if AB || CD, CD || EF and y : z = 3 : 7, find x.

Fig. 6.23
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 161

¿±“ n$ AD ÜsÁ«ç¹>K PQ eT]jáTT RS ¹sK\Ôà @sÁÎsÁºq dŸ<Š Xø ¿ÃD²\T eT]jáTT n$ dŸeÖq+.

¿±‹{ì,¼ PQ || RS

(dŸ<Š Xø ¿ÃD²\ dÓÇ¿£Ôá $|Ÿs«Á jáT+)

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 6 : |Ÿ³+ 6.22 ýË AB || CD eT]jáTT CD || EF, EA ^ AB nsTTÔû Ð BEF = 55° nsTTq|Ÿð&ƒT x, y eT]jáTT
z $\Te\T ¿£qT>=q+&.

kÍ<óŠq : y + 55° = 180°

(ED ÜsÁ«ç¹>KÅ£” ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ yîÕ|ŸÚ

>·\ n+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\T)
¿±‹{ì,¼ y = 180º – 55º = 125º

eT]jáTT x=y

(AB || CD, dŸ<Š Xø ¿ÃD²\ dÓÇ¿£Ôá+)

|Ÿ³+. 6.22
¿±‹{ì¼ x = 125º

‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, AB || CD eT]jáTT CD || EF, ¿±‹{ì,¼ AB || EF.

¿±eÚq, Ð EAB + Ð FEA = 180° (ÜsÁ«ç¹>K EA Å£” ÿ¹¿ yî|
Õ ÚŸ q >·\
n+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\T)
¿±‹{ì,¼ 90° + z + 55° = 180°

B“ qT+& z = 35°

nuó²«dŸ+ 6.2
1. |Ÿ³+ 6.23ýË AB || CD, CD || EF eT]jáTT y : z = 3 : 7 nsTTq x $\TeqT ¿£qT>=q+&.

|Ÿ³+. 6.23
162 LINES AND ANGLES

2. In Fig. 6.24, if AB || CD, EF ^ CD and Ð GED = 126°, find Ð AGE, Ð GEF and Ð FGE.

Fig. 6.24
3. In Fig. 6.25, if PQ || ST, Ð PQR = 110° and Ð RST = 130°, find Ð QRS.
[Hint : Draw a line parallel to ST through point R.]

Fig. 6.25
4. In Fig. 6.26, if AB || CD, Ð APQ = 50° and Ð PRD = 127°, find x and y.

Fig. 6.26
5. In Fig. 6.27, PQ and RS are two mirrors placed parallel to each other. An incident ray AB
strikes the mirror PQ at B, the reflected ray moves along the path BC and strikes the
mirror RS at C and again reflects back along CD. Prove that AB || CD.

Fig. 6.27
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 163

2. |Ÿ³+. 6.24 ýË, AB || CD, EF ^ CD eT]jáTT Ð GED = 126°, nsTTq Ð AGE, Ð GEF eT]jáTT
ÐFGE \qT ¿£qT>=q+&.

|Ÿ³+ 6.24
3. |Ÿ³+ 6.25ýË PQ || ST, Ð PQR = 110° eT]jáTT Ð RST = 130° nsTTq Ð QRS ¿£qT>=q+&.
[dŸÖ#áq : _+<ŠTeÚ R <‘Çs ST dŸeÖ+Ôás+Á >± ÿ¿£ s¹ KqT ^jáT+&.]

|Ÿ³+. 6.25
4. |Ÿ³+ 6.26ýË AB || CD, Ð APQ = 50° eT]jáTT Ð PRD = 127° nsTTq x eT]jáTT y \qT ¿£qT>=q+&.

|Ÿ³+. 6.26

5. |Ÿ³+ 6.27ýË PQ eT]jáTT RS \T ÿ¿£<‘“¿=¿£{ì dŸeÖ+Ôás+Á >± –+#á‹&q <ŠsÎÁ D²\T. |ŸÔqá ¿ìsDÁ + AB,
<ŠsÎÁ D+ PQ qT B e<ŠÝ Ԑ¿ì |ŸsesÁïq+ #î+~+~. |ŸsesÁqï ¿ìsÁD+ BC eÖsÁZ+ >·T+&† ç|ŸjáÖDìdŸÖï eTs=¿£
<ŠsÎÁ D+ RS qT C e<ŠÝ Ԑ¿ì |ŸsesÁqï + #î+~+~ eT]jáTT € |ŸsesÁqï ¿ìsÁD+ CD >·T+&† ç|ŸjÖá Dì+º+~.
nsTTq AB || CD n“ “sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.

|Ÿ³+. 6.27
164 LINES AND ANGLES

6.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. If a ray stands on a line, then the sum of the two adjacent angles so formed is 180° and vice-versa. This property is
called as the Linear pair axiom.
2. If two lines intersect each other, then the vertically opposite angles are equal.
3. Lines which are parallel to a given line are parallel to each other.
¹sK\T eT]jáTT ¿ÃD²\T 165

6.6 kÍs+Xø+
‡ n<ó‘«jáT+ýË MTsÁT ç¿ì+~ n+Xæ\qT n<ó«Š jáTq+ #ûkÍsÁT:
1. ÿ¿£ ¿ìsD Á +, s¹ K™|Õ –q•³¢sTTÔû, s +&ƒT €dŸq• ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔá+ï 180° eT]jáTT <‘“ $|Ÿs«Á + Å£L&† “È+. ‡ <ósŠ ˆ“•
¹sFjáT <ŠÇjáT dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ n“ n+{²sÁT.
2. Âs+&ƒT s
¹ K\T ÿ¿£ <‘“¿=¿£{ì K+&+#áTÅ£”q•³¢sTTÔû, n|Ÿð&ƒT @sÁÎ&û osü_óeTTK ¿ÃD²\T dŸeÖq+.
3. ‚ºÌq s ¹ KÅ£” dŸeÖ+Ôás+Á >± –q• ¹sK\T, ÿ¿£ <‘“¿=¿£{ì dŸeÖ+Ôás+Á >± –+{²sTT.
166 Proofs in Mathematics

APPENDIX 1

PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS

A1.1 Introduction
Suppose your family owns a plot of land and there is
no fencing around it. Your neighbour decides one day
to fence off his land. After he has fenced his land, you
discover that a part of your family’s land has been
enclosed by his fence. How will you prove to your
neighbour that he has tried to encroach on your land?
Your first step may be to seek the help of the village
elders to sort out the difference in boundaries. But,
suppose opinion
is divided among the elders. Some feel you are right and others feel your neighbour is right.
What can you do? Your only option is to find a way of establishing your claim for the boundaries
of your land that is acceptable to all. For example, a government approved survey map of your
village can be used, if necessary in a court of law, to prove (claim) that you are correct and your
neighbour is wrong.
Let us look at another situation. Suppose your mother has paid the electricity bill of your
house for the month of August, 2005. The bill for September, 2005, however, claims that the
bill for August has not been paid. How will you disprove the claim made by the electricity
department? You will have to produce a receipt proving that your August bill has been paid.
You have just seen some examples that show that in our daily life we are often called upon
to prove that a certain statement or claim is true or false. However, we also accept many
statements without bothering to prove them. But, in mathematics we only accept a statement as
true or false (except for some axioms) if it has been proved to be so, according to the logic of
mathematics.
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 167

nqT‹+<ó+Š 1
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T

A1.1 |Ÿ]#ájáT+
MT Å£”³T+u²“¿ì ÿ¿£ kõ+Ôá “ydŸ uóք $T –+<ŠqT¿Ã+& eT]jáTT <‘“
#áT³Ö¼ mý²+{ì ™|“˜ à+>´ ýñ<ŠT. MT bõsÁT>·Ty&ƒT ÿ¿£ sÃE Ôáq uó„Ö$T¿ì
¿£+#î yûjÖá \“ “sÁs’ TT+#áTÅ£”H•&ƒT. nÔáqT Ôáq uóք $T¿ì ¿£+#î yûdq¾
ÔásÁTyÔá, MT Å£”³T+‹+ jîTT¿£Ø uó„Ö$TýË ¿=+Ôá uó²>·+ nÔᓠ¿£+#î
<‘Çs €ç¿£$T+#á‹&+<Š“ MTsÁT ¿£qT>=H•sÁT. nÔáqT MT uóք $T“
€ç¿£$T+#á&†“¿ì ç|ŸjTá ܕ+#&ƒ“, MT bõsÁT>·Ty]¿ì MTsÁT mý² sÁTEeÚ
#ûkÍïsTÁ ? dŸ]VŸ²<ŠT\Ý ýË e«Ô«k͓• |Ÿ]wŸØ]+#á&†“¿ì ç>±eT ™|<Š\Ý
dŸVäŸ jáT+ ¿ÃsÁ&+ƒ MT yîTT<Š{ì <ŠXø ¿±e#áTÌ. ¿±“, }] ™|<Š\Ý
_óH•_óçbÍjáÖ\Ôà ¿=+Ôá eT+~ MTsÁT #î|¾Î+~ dŸÂsÕq<Š“ eT]jáTT eT]¿=+<ŠsÁT MT bõsÁT>·Ty&ƒT dŸÂsÕqy&ƒ“ uó²$kÍïsTÁ .
MTsÁT @$T #ûjáT>·\sÁT? n+<Š]¿¡ €yîÖ<ŠjîÖ>·«yîT®q, MT uó„Ö$T jîTT¿£Ø dŸ]VŸ²<ŠTÝ\ ¿ÃdŸ+ MT VŸ²Å£”ØqT sÁTEeÚ|Ÿ]#û
eÖsZ“• ¿£qT>=q&ƒ+ MTÅ£”q• @¿տ£eÖsÁZ+ . –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, ÿ¿£yûÞø nedŸsÁ+ nsTTÔû, MTsÁT dŸÂsÕqysÁ“ eT]jáTT MT
bõsÁT>·TysÁT dŸs qÕ ysÁT ¿±<Š“ n“ sÁTEeÚ #ûjTá &ƒ+ ¿=sÁŔ£ , ç|ŸuT„ó ÔáÇ+#û €yîÖ~+ºq MT ç>±eT+ jîTT¿£Ø dŸs¹ Ç eÖ«|t“,
¿ÃsÁTý¼ Ë –|ŸjÖî Ð+#áe#áTÌ.
eTq+ ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT eTsà |Ÿ]d¾Üœ “ #áÖ<‘Ý+. MT neTˆ>±sÁT 2005 €>·dTŸ ¼ Hî\Å£” MT ‚+{ì $<ŠT«ÔY _\T¢qT #î*+¢ º+<ŠqT¿Ã+&.
nsTTÔû, ysÁT ™d™|+¼ ‹sY 2005 H{ì _\T¢ýË €>·dTŸ ¼Å£” dŸ+‹+~ó+ºq _\T¢ #î*¢+#á‹&ƒýñ<Š“ ‚#ÌsÁT. $<ŠT«ÔY XæK <‘Çs
‚ºÌq ‡ _\T¢qT MTsÁT @$<óŠ+>± Ôá|ŸÚÎ n“ “sÁÖ|¾kÍïsÁT? MT €>·dŸT¼ Hî\ _\T¢ #î*¢+#á‹&+<Š“ “sÁÖ|¾+#û sÁdÓ<ŠTqT
MTsÁT dŸeT]Î+#*à –+³T+~.
eTq “Ôá«J$Ôá+ýË ÿ¿£ “]Ýw¼Ÿ ç|Ÿe#áq+ ýñ<‘ ç|Ÿ¿³ £ q dŸÔ«á yîÖ, ndŸÔ«á yîÖ n“ sÁTEeÚ #ûjTá eT“ eTq*• Ôás#Á Tá >±
¿Ã¹s ¿=“• –<‘VŸ²sÁD\qT MTsÁT ‚|ŸÚÎ&û #áÖXæsÁT. nsTTq|ŸÚÎ{ì¿ì, eTq+ nHû¿£ ç|Ÿe#áH\qT “sÁÖ|¾+#áÅ£”+&†Hû
n+^¿£]kÍï+. ¿±ú, >·DìÔXá æçdŸ+ï jîTT¿£Ø ÔásÁØ+ ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+, >·DìÔá+ýË ÿ¿£ y¿±«“• dŸÔ«á + ýñ<‘ ndŸÔá«+ n“ eÖçÔáyûT eTq+
n+^¿£]kÍï+ (¿=“• dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\ýË Ôá|ŸÎ).
168 Proofs in Mathematics

In fact, proofs in mathematics have been in existence for thousands of years, and they are
central to any branch of mathematics. The first known proof is believed to have been given by
the Greek philosopher and mathematician Thales. While mathematics was central to many ancient
civilisations like Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and India, there is no clear evidence that they used
proofs the way we do today.
In this chapter, we will look at what a statement is, what kind of reasoning is involved in
mathematics, and what a mathematical proof consists of.

A1.2 Mathematically Acceptable Statements

In this section, we shall try to explain the meaning of a mathematically acceptable statement. A
‘statement’ is a sentence which is not an order or an exclamatory sentence. And, of course,
a statement is not a question! For example,
“What is the colour of your hair?” is not a statement, it is a question.
“Please go and bring me some water.” is a request or an order, not a statement.
“What a marvellous sunset!” is an exclamatory remark, not a statement.
However, “The colour of your hair is black” is a statement.
In general, statements can be one of the following:
· always true
· always false
· ambiguous
The word ‘ambiguous’ needs some explanation. There are two situations which make a
statement ambiguous. The first situation is when we cannot decide if the statement is always
true or always false. For example, “Tomorrow is Thursday” is ambiguous, since enough of a
context is not given to us to decide if the statement is true or false.
The second situation leading to ambiguity is when the statement is subjective, that is, it is
true for some people and not true for others. For example, “Dogs are intelligent” is ambiguous
because some people believe this is true and others do not.
Example 1 : State whether the following statements are always true, always false or ambiguous.
Justify your answers.
(i) There are 8 days in a week.
(ii) It is raining here.
(iii) The sun sets in the west.
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 169

ydŸyï “¿ì, yû\ dŸ+eÔáàs\T>± >·DÔì +á ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T –“¿ìýË –H•sTT eT]jáTT n$ >·DÔì +á jîTT¿£Ø @ XæKÅ£”
nsTTq ¿¹ +ç<Š_+<ŠTeÚ>± –H•sTT. yîTT<Š³>± yî\T>·TýË¿ì eºÌq “sÁÖ|ŸD »»ç^Å£” ÔáÔÇá yûÔïá eT]jáTT >·DÔì á XæçdŸE
ï &ã Tƒ <û̧ýÙà
#û ‚eNj&+<Š“ uó²$dŸTHï •sÁTµµ. yîTkõbõfñ$TjáÖ, ‡›|ŸÚ,¼ #îHÕ , ‚+&jÖá e+{ì nHû¿£ çbÍNq H>·]¿£Ô\á Å£” >·DÔì Xá æçdŸ+ï
¹¿+ç<Š+>± –+&ƒ>±, Hû&ƒT eTq+ #ûd $<óŠ+>±, ysÁT “sÁÖ|ŸD\qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+#sÁq&†“¿ì dŸÎwŸ¼yîT®q €<ó‘s\T ýñeÚ.
‡ n<ó‘«jáT+ýË, ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ n+fñ @$T{ì, >·DìÔá+ýË m³Te+{ì ÔásÁØ+ –+~ eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ >·DìÔá “sÁÖ|ŸDýË
@yûT$T eÚ+{²sTT nHû $wŸjáÖ\qT #áÖ<‘Ý+.
A1.2 >·DÔ
ì |á sŸ +Á >± €yîÖ<ŠjÖî >·«yîTq® ç|Ÿe#áH\T
‡ $uó²>·+ýË, >·DÔì |á sŸ +Á >± €yîÖ<ŠjÖî >·«yîTq® ç|Ÿe#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø nsœ“• $e]+#á&†“¿ì eTq+ ç|ŸjTá ܕkÍï+. »ç|Ÿe#áq+
»nHû~ ÿ¿£ €<ûX+ø ýñ<‘ €XøÌsÁ«¿£syÁ Tî q® y¿£«+ ¿±<ŠT eT]jáTT ydŸyï “¿ì ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ ÿ¿£ ç|ŸX•ø Å£L&† ¿±<ŠT !
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”,
»»MT E³T¼ sÁ+>·T @$T{ì?µµ ‚~ ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ ¿±<ŠT, ‚~ ÿ¿£ ç|ŸX•ø .
»»<ŠjTá #ûd¾ yî[¢ HÅ£” ¿=+#î+ úsÁT rdŸTÅ£”sÁ+&.µµ ‚~ ÿ¿£ nuó«„ sÁqœ ýñ<‘ ÿ¿£ €<ûX+ø , ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ ¿±<ŠT.
»»m+Ôá n<ŠTÒÛÔáyîT®q dŸÖs«dŸïeTjáT+!µµ ‚~ ÿ¿£ €XøÌsÁ«¿£sÁyîT®q y«K«, ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ ¿±<ŠT.
nsTTÔû, »»MT E³T¼ jîTT¿£Ø sÁ+>·T q\T|ŸÚ>± –+~µµ nHû~ ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+.
kÍ<ó‘sÁD+>±, ç|Ÿe#áH\T ~>·Te |s=Øq•y{ìýË @<à ÿ¿£{¿ì ì #î+<Še#áTÌ.
· m\¢|ڟ Î&ƒÖ dŸÔ«á +
· m\¢|ڟ Î&ƒÖ ndŸÔ«á +
· ndŸÎwŸy ¼ Tî q®
»ndŸÎwŸ¼yîT®qµ nHû |Ÿ<‘“¿ì ¿=+Ôá $esÁD nedŸsÁ+. ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ ndŸÎwŸ¼+>± eÚ+&û Âs+&ƒT dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\T –H•sTT.
ç|Ÿe#áq+ m\¢|ڟ Î&ƒÖ dŸÔ«á eÖ ýñ<‘ m\¢|ڟ Î&ƒÖ ndŸÔ«á eÖ n“ eTq+ “sÁs’ TT+#áý¿ñ b£ þe&ƒ+ yîTT<Š{ì |Ÿ]d¾Üœ . –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”,
»»¹s|ŸÚ >·TsÁTysÁ+µµ ndŸÎwŸ¼+>± –+~, m+<ŠT¿£+fñ € ç|Ÿe#áq+ dŸÔá«eÖ ýñ<‘ ndŸÔá«eÖ n“ “sÁs’ TT+#áT¿Ãe&†“¿ì eTqÅ£”
ÔáÐq dŸ+<ŠsÒÁ +Û ‚eNj&ƒý<ñ TŠ .
ndŸÎwŸ¼ÔáÅ£” <‘]rd s +&ƒe |Ÿ]d¾œÜ @$T³+fñ, ç|Ÿe#áq+ e«¿ìï>·Ôá n_óçbÍjáT+Ôà eTT&|Ÿ& –+~. n+fñ, ‚~
¿=+ÔáeT+~ e«Å£”\ï Å£” dŸÔ«á +>±qT eT]jáTT ‚ÔásTÁ \Å£” ndŸÔ«á +>±qT –+³T+~. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, »»Å£”¿£Ø\T Ôî*yîqÕ $µµ nHû~
ndŸÎwŸ¼+>± –+~. m+<ŠT¿£+fñ, ‚~ ¿=+ÔáeT+~ dŸÔá«eT“ qeTTˆÔsÁT eT]jáTT ‚ÔásÁT\T qeTˆsÁT.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 1 : ‡ ç¿ì+~ y¿±«\T m\¢|ڟ Î&ƒÖ dŸÔ«á eÖ, m\¢|ڟ Î&ƒÖ ndŸÔ«á eÖ ýñ<‘ ndŸÎwŸy¼ Tî q® y |s=Øq+&. MT
dŸeÖ<ó‘H\qT dŸeT]œ+#áT¿Ã+&.
(i) ysÁ+ýË 8 sÃE\T –+{²sTT.
(ii) ‚¿£Ø&ƒ esÁü+ |Ÿ&ƒTÔáÖ –+~.
(iii) |Ÿ¥ÌeÖq dŸÖsÁT«&ƒT ndŸï$TkÍï&ƒT.
170 Proofs in Mathematics

(iv) Gauri is a kind girl.

(v) The product of two odd integers is even.
(vi) The product of two even natural numbers is even.
Solution :
(i) This statement is always false, since there are 7 days in a week.
(ii) This statement is ambiguous, since it is not clear where ‘here’ is.
(iii) This statement is always true. The sun sets in the west no matter where we live.
(iv) This statement is ambiguous, since it is subjective–Gauri may be kind to some and not to
others.
(v) This statement is always false. The product of two odd integers is always odd.
(vi) This statement is always true. However, to justify that it is true we need to do some work.
It will be proved in Section A1.4.
As mentioned before, in our daily life, we are not so careful about the validity of statements.
For example, suppose your friend tells you that in July it rains everyday in Manantavadi, Kerala.
In all probability, you will believe her, even though it may not have rained for a day or two in
July. Unless you are a lawyer, you will not argue with her!
As another example, consider statements we often
make to each other like “it is very hot today”. We easily
accept such statements because we know the context even
though these statements are ambiguous. ‘It is very hot
today’ can mean different things to different people
because what is very hot for a person from Kumaon may
not be hot for a person from Chennai.
But a mathematical statement cannot be ambiguous. In mathematics, a statement is only
acceptable or valid, if it is either true or false. We say that a statement is true, if it is always
true otherwise it is called a false statement.
For example, 5 + 2 = 7 is always true, so ‘5 + 2 = 7’ is a true statement and
5 + 3 = 7 is a false statement.
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 171

(iv) >š] <ŠjTá >·\ neֈsTT.

(v) Âs+&ƒT uñd¾ |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\ \‹Æ+ ÿ¿£ dŸ]dŸ+K«.
(vi) s +&ƒT dŸ] dŸV²Ÿ È dŸ+K«\ \‹Æ+ ÿ¿£ dŸ]dŸ+K«.
kÍ<óŠq:
(i) ysÁ+ýË 7 sÃEýñ –+{²sTT. ¿£qT¿£, ‡ ç|Ÿe#áq+ m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ ndŸÔá«+.
(ii) ‡ ç|Ÿe#áq+ ndŸÎwŸ¼+>± –+~, m+<ŠT¿£+fñ »‚¿£Ø&ƒµ n+fñ m¿£Ø&à nHû~ dŸÎwŸ¼Ôáýñ“ ¿±sÁD+>±.
(iii) ‡ ç|Ÿe#áq+ m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ dŸÔá«+. eTq+ m¿£Ø&ƒ “ed¾dŸTïH• |Ÿ¥ÌeT+ýË dŸÖsÁT«&ƒT ndŸï$TkÍï&ƒT.
(iv) ‡ ç|Ÿe#áq+ ndŸÎwŸ¼+>± –+~. m+<ŠT¿£+fñ ‚~ e«¿ìï>·Ôá n_óçbÍjáT+Ôà eTT&|Ÿ& –+~. >š] ¿=+ÔáeT+~ |Ÿ³¢
<ŠjáT>± –+&ƒe#áTÌ eT]jáTT ¿=+ÔáeT+~ |Ÿ³¢ <ŠjáT>± –+&ƒ¿£bþe#áTÌ.
(v) ‡ ç|Ÿe#áq+ m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ ndŸÔá«+. Âs+&ƒT uñd¾ |ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«\ \‹Æ+ m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ uñd¾ dŸ+K«.
(vi) ‡ ç|Ÿe#áq+ m\¢|ڟ Î&ƒÖ dŸÔ«á +. nsTTq|ŸÎ{ì¿,ì n~ dŸÔ«á eT“ dŸeT]œ+#áT¿Ãe&†“¿ì eTq+ ¿=+Ôá |Ÿ“ #ûjÖá *àq
nedŸs+Á –+~. ‚~ ™d¿£HŒ Ž A1.4 ýË “sÁÖ|¾+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
eTT+<ŠT>± ç|ŸkÍï$+#á‹&q³T¢, eTq <îÕq+~q J$Ôá+ýË, ç|Ÿe#áH\ çbÍeÖDì¿£Ôá $wŸjTá +ýË eTq+ n+Ôá C²ç>·Ô>áï ±
–+&ƒeTT. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, pýÉýÕ Ë ¿¹ sÁÞýø ˓ eTq+Ԑy&ýË, ç|ŸÜsÃp esü\T Å£”sÁTkÍïjTá “ MT d•V¾²ÔáTs\T MTÅ£”
#î|¾Î+<ŠqTÅ£”+<‘+. pýÉÕýË ÿ¿£{ì ýñ<‘ s +&ƒT sÃE\T esÁü+ |Ÿ&ƒq|ŸÎ{ì¿¡, MTsÁT €yîTqT $XøÇd¾+#û ne¿±Xø+ –+~.
MTsÁT H«jáTy~ nsTTÔû Ôá|Ο , MTsÁT €yîTÔà y~+#ásTÁ !
eTs=¿£ –<‘VŸ²sÁD>±, »»‡ sÃE #ý² yû&> ± –+~µµ e+{ì eTq+
Ôás#Á Öá ÿ¿£sTÁ eTs=¿£]Ôà #ûd y¿±«\qT |Ÿ]o*+#á+&. ‡ y¿±«\T
ndŸÎwŸ+¼ >± –q•|ŸÎ{ì¿¡ dŸ+<ŠsÒÁ +Û eTqÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT ¿±‹{ì,¼ eTq+ n³Te+{ì
y¿±«\qT dŸT\uó„+>± n+^¿£]kÍï+. »‡ sÃE #ý² yû&>± –+~µ nHû~
yûs¹ ÇsÁT e«Å£”\ï Å£” yûs¹ ÇsÁT $wŸjáÖ\qT dŸÖºdŸT+ï ~, m+<ŠT¿£+fñ Å£”eÖyÃHŽ
qT+& eºÌq ÿ¿£ e«¿ì¿ï ì #ý² yû&>± –q• $wŸjTá +, #îH•Õî qT+& eºÌq
e«¿ìï¿ì –+&ƒ¿£bþe#áTÌ.
¿±ú ÿ¿£ >·DìÔá ç|Ÿe#áq+ ndŸÎwŸ¼+>± –+&ƒÅ£L&ƒ<ŠT. >·DÔì +á ýË, ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ dŸÔ«á eÖ ýñ<‘ ndŸÔ«á yîÖ nsTTÔû, n~
€yîÖ<ŠjÖî >·«yîTq® ~ ýñ<‘ #î\T¢u²³T neÚÔáT+~. ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ m\¢|ڟ Î&ƒÖ dŸÔ«á + nsTTÔû dŸÔ«á ç|Ÿe#áq+ n“, ýñ“#Ã
<‘““ ndŸÔá«ç|Ÿe#áq+ n“ n+{²sÁT..
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, 5 + 2 = 7 nHû~ m\¢|ڟ Î&ƒÖ dŸÔ«á +, ¿±‹{ì¼ ‘5 + 2 = 7’ nHû~ ÿ¿£ dŸÔ«á ç|Ÿe#áq+ eT]jáTT
5 + 3 = 7 nHû~ ÿ¿£ ndŸÔ«á ç|Ÿe#áq+.
172 Proofs in Mathematics

Example 2 : State whether the following statements are true or false:

(i) The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
(ii) Every odd number greater than 1 is prime.
(iii) For any real number x, 4x + x = 5x.
(iv) For every real number x, 2x > x.
(v) For every real number x, x2 ³ x.
(vi) If a quadrilateral has all its sides equal, then it is a square.
Solution :
(i) This statement is true. You have already proved this in Chapter 6.
(ii) This statement is false; for example, 9 is not a prime number.
(iii) This statement is true.
(iv) This statement is false; for example, 2 × (–1) = –2, and – 2 is not greater than –1.
2
æ1ö 1 1 1
(v) This statement is false; for example, ç ÷ = , and is not greater than .
è2ø 4 4 2
(vi) This statement is false, since a rhombus has equal sides but need not be a square.
You might have noticed that to establish that a statement is not true according to mathematics,
all we need to do is to find one case or example where it breaks down. So in (ii), since 9 is not
a prime, it is an example that shows that the statement “Every odd number greater than 1 is
prime” is not true. Such an example, that counters a statement, is called a counter-example. We
shall discuss counter-examples in greater detail in Section A1.5.
You might have also noticed that while Statements (iv), (v) and (vi) are false, they can be
restated with some conditions in order to make them true.
Example 3 : Restate the following statements with appropriate conditions, so that they become
true statements.
(i) For every real number x, 2x > x.
(ii) For every real number x, x2 ³ x.
(iii) If you divide a number by itself, you will always get 1.
(iv) The angle subtended by a chord of a circle at a point on the circle is 90°.
(v) If a quadrilateral has all its sides equal, then it is a square.
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 173

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 2 : ~>·Te |s=Øq• ç|Ÿe#áH\T dŸÔ«á eÖ ýñ<‘ ndŸÔ«á eÖ Ôî\|Ÿ+&:

(i) ÿ¿£ çÜuó„TÈ+ýË n+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+ 180°.
(ii) 1 ¿£+fñ ™|<Š<Ý qÕî ç|ŸÜ uñd¾ dŸ+K« ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿ<‘ó q dŸ+K« n>·TqT.
(iii) @<îHÕ  ydŸeï dŸ+K« x Å£”, 4x + x = 5x.
(iv) ç|ŸÜ ydŸïe dŸ+K« x Å£”, 2x > x.
(v) ç|ŸÜ ydŸeï dŸ+K« x Å£”, x2 ³ x.
(vi) ÿ¿£ #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+ýË n“• uó„TC²\T dŸeÖq+ nsTTÔû n~ ÿ¿£ #áÔáTsÁçdŸ+ n>·TqT.
kÍ<óŠq :
(i) ‡ ç|Ÿe#áq+ dŸÔá«+. ‡ $wŸjá֓• MTsÁT ‚|ŸÎ{칿 6e n<ó‘«jáT+ýË “sÁÖ|¾+#sÁT.
(ii) ‡ ç|Ÿe#áq+ ndŸÔá«+; –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, 9 nHû~ ç|Ÿ<‘ó q dŸ+K« ¿±<ŠT.
(iii) ‡ ç|Ÿe#áq+ dŸÔá«+.
(iv) ‡ ç|Ÿe#áq+ ndŸÔá«+; –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” 2 × (–1) = –2, eT]jáTT – 2 nHû~ –1 ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe ¿±<ŠT.
2

(v) ‡ ç|Ÿe#áq+ ndŸÔá«+; –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” æçè 12 ö÷ø = 14 , eT]jáTT 14 nHû~ 12 ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe ¿±<ŠT.
(vi) ‡ ç|Ÿe#áq+ ndŸÔ«á +, m+<ŠT¿£+fñ ÿ¿£ s+‹dtŔ£ dŸeÖq uóT„ C²\T+{²sTT, nsTTÔû n~ #áÔTá sÁçdŸyTû ¿±qedŸs+Á ýñ<TŠ .
>·DÔì Xá æçdŸï ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+, ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ “È+ ¿±<Š“ “sÆ]+#á&†“¿ì eTq+ #ûjTá e\d¾q~ ÿ¿£ –<‘VŸ²sÁDqT ¿£qT>=q&ƒyTû q“
MTsÁT >·eT“+º –+&ƒe#áTÌ. ¿±‹{ì¼ (ii) ýË »»1 ¿£+fñ ™|<Š<Ý qÕî ç|ŸÜ uñd¾ dŸ+K« ç|Ÿ<‘ó q dŸ+K«µµ nHû ç|Ÿe#áq+ dŸÔ«á + ¿±<Š“
#áÖ|¾+#û ÿ¿£ –<‘VŸ²sÁD, 9 nHû~ ç|Ÿ<ó‘qdŸ+K« ¿±<ŠT. ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ ndŸÔ«á + n“ “sÁÖ|¾+#á&†“¿ì ‚#ûÌ –<‘VŸ²sÁDqT
ç|ŸÔáT«<‘VŸ²sÁD n“ n+{²sÁT. eTq+ ™d¿£ŒHŽ A1.5ýË ç|ŸÔáT«<‘VŸ²sÁD\ >·T]+º eT]+Ôá $esÁ+>± #á]Ì<‘Ý+.
ç|Ÿe#áH\T (iv), (v) eT]jáTT (vi) ndŸÔ«\T. ¿±“ y{ì“ ¿=“• “jáTeÖ\Ôà Ü]Ð dŸÔá«ç|Ÿe#áH\T>± eÖsÁÌe#á̓
Å£L&† MTsÁT >·eT“+º –+&ƒe#áTÌ.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 3 : ‡ ç¿ì+~ ç|Ÿe#áH\qT ÔáÐq “jáTeÖ\Ôà Ü]Ð dŸÔ«á ç|Ÿe#áH\T>± Ôî\|Ÿ+&.
(i) ç|ŸÜ ydŸïe dŸ+K« x, 2x > x.
(ii) ç|ŸÜ ydŸïe dŸ+K« x, x2 ³ x.
(iii) ÿ¿£ dŸ+K«qT n<ûdŸ+K«#û uó²Ð+ºq³¢sTTÔû, MTsÁT m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ 1“ bõ+<ŠTԐsÁT.
(iv) eÔá+ï ýË ÿ¿£ C²«, eÔá+ï ™|Õ ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ e<ŠÝ @sÁÎsÁ#Tá ¿ÃD+ 90°.
(v) ÿ¿£ #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+ýË n“• uó„TC²\T dŸeÖq+ nsTTÔû n~ ÿ¿£ #áÔáTsÁçdŸ+ n>·TqT.
174 Proofs in Mathematics

Solution :
(i) If x > 0, then 2x > x.
(ii) If x £ 0 or x ³ 1, then x2 ³ x.
(iii) If you divide a number except zero by itself, you will always get 1.
(iv) The angle subtended by a diameter of a circle at a point on the circle is 90°.
(v) If a quadrilateral has all its sides and interior angles equal, then it is a square.

EXERCISE A1.1
1. State whether the following statements are always true, always false or ambiguous. Justify
your answers.
(i) There are 13 months in a year.
(ii) Diwali falls on a Friday.
(iii) The temperature in Magadi is 260 C.
(iv) The earth has one moon.
(v) Dogs can fly.
(vi) February has only 28 days.
2. State whether the following statements are true or false. Give reasons for your answers.
(i) The sum of the interior angles of a quadrilateral is 350°.
(ii) For any real number x, x2 ³ 0.
(iii) A rhombus is a parallelogram.
(iv) The sum of two even numbers is even.
(v) The sum of two odd numbers is odd.
3. Restate the following statements with appropriate conditions, so that they become true
statements.
(i) All prime numbers are odd.
(ii) Two times a real number is always even.
(iii) For any x, 3x +1 > 4.
(iv) For any x, x3 ³ 0.
(v) In every triangle, a median is also an angle bisector.
A1.3 Deductive Reasoning
The main logical tool used in establishing the truth of an unambiguous statement is deductive
reasoning. To understand what deductive reasoning is all about, let us begin with a puzzle for
you to solve.
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 175

kÍ<óŠq :
(i) x > 0 nsTTÔû n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT 2x > x.
(ii) x £ 0 ýñ<‘ x ³ 1, nsTTÔû n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT x2 ³ x.
(iii)MTsÁT dŸTH• $TqVŸä ÿ¿£ dŸ+K«qT n<û dŸ+K«#û uó²Ð+ºq³¢sTTÔû, MTsÁT m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ 1“ bõ+<ŠTԐsÁT.
(iv) eÔáï+ MT<Š ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ e<ŠÝ, ÿ¿£ eÔáï+ jîTT¿£Ø y«dŸ+ @sÁÎsÁºq ¿ÃD+ 90°.
(v) ÿ¿£ #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+ýË n“• uó„TC²\T eT]jáTT n+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\T dŸeÖq+ nsTTÔû n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT n~ #áÔáTsÁçdŸ+ n>·TqT.

nuó²«dŸ+ A1.1
1. ~>·Te |s=Øq• ç|Ÿe#áH\T m\¢|ڟ Î&ƒÖ dŸÔ«á eÖ, m\¢|ڟ Î&ƒÖ ndŸÔ«á eÖ ýñ<‘ ndŸÎwŸ+¼ >± –H•jáÖ nHû~
Ôî*jáTCñjáT+&. MT dŸeÖ<ó‘H\qT dŸeT]œ+#á+&.
(i) dŸ+eÔáàs“¿ì 13 Hî\\T –+{²sTT.
(ii) BbÍe[ Xø—ç¿£ysÁ+ edŸT+ï ~.
(iii) eÖ>±&ýË –cþ’ç>·Ôá 260 C –+³T+~.
(iv) uó„Ö$T¿ì ÿ¿£ #á+ç<ŠT&ƒT –H•&ƒT.
(v) Å£”¿£Ø\T m>·sÁ>·\eÚ.
(vi) |˜ç¾ ‹e]ýË 28 sÃE\T eÖçÔáyTû –H•sTT.
2. ~>·Te |s=Øq• ç|Ÿe#áH\T dŸÔ«á eÖ ýñ<‘ ndŸÔ«á eÖ |s=Øq+&. MT dŸeÖ<ó‘H\Å£” ¿±sÁD²\qT Ôî\|Ÿ+&.
(i) ÿ¿£ #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+ jîTT¿£Ø n+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+ 350°.
(ii) @<îH Õ  ydŸeï dŸ+K« x ¿=sÁÅ£”, x2 ³ 0.
(iii) s+‹dt nHû~ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+.
(iv) Âs+&ƒT dŸ]dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ ÿ¿£dŸ]dŸ+K«.
(v) Âs+&ƒT uñd¾ dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ ÿ¿£ uñd¾dŸ+K«.
3. ~>·Te ç|Ÿe#áH\qT dŸ]jîT® q “jáTeÖ\Ôà Ü]Ð dŸÔ«á ç|Ÿe#áH\T>± çyjáT+&.
(i) n“• ç|Ÿ<‘ó q dŸ+K«\T uñdd ¾ +Ÿ K«\T.
(ii) ÿ¿£ ydŸïe dŸ+K«Å£” Âs+&ƒT Âs³T¢ m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ dŸ]dŸ+K«.
(iii) @<îH Õ  x Å£”, 3x +1 > 4.
(iv) @<îH Õ  x Å£”, x3 ³ 0.
(v) ç|ŸÜ çÜuó„TÈ+ýË, ÿ¿£ eT<óŠ«>·Ôá ¹sK ¿ÃD dŸeT~ÇK+&ƒq ¹sK Å£L&† n>·TqT.
A1.3 “>·eTq “sÁÖ|ŸD |Ÿ<ÜƊ
“dŸà+<ûVŸ²+>± ç|Ÿe#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø dŸÔá«$\Te\T Ôî\TdŸT¿Ãe&†“¿ì –|ŸjîÖÐ+#û ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿ<ó‘q Ԑ]Ø¿£ $<ó‘qyûT “>·eTq
“sÁÖ|ŸD |Ÿ<Ü݊ . ÿ¿£ |Ÿ›ýÙqT kÍ~ó+#áT³ <‘Çs “>·eTq “sÁÖ|ŸD n+fñ @$T{Ë |ŸP]ï>± nsÁœ+ #ûdŸTÅ£”+<‘+.
176 Proofs in Mathematics

You are given four cards. Each card has a number printed on one side and a letter on the
other side.

Suppose you are told that these cards follow the rule:
“If a card has an even number on one side, then it has a vowel on the other side.”
What is the smallest number of cards you need to turn over to check if the rule is true?
Of course, you have the option of turning over all the cards and checking. But can you
manage with turning over a fewer number of cards?
Notice that the statement mentions that a card with an even number on one side has a vowel
on the other. It does not state that a card with a vowel on one side must have an even number on
the other side. That may or may not be so. The rule also does not state that a card with an odd
number on one side must have a consonant on the other side. It may or may not.
So, do we need to turn over ‘A’? No! Whether there is an even number or an odd number on
the other side, the rule still holds.
What about ‘5’? Again we do not need to turn it over, because whether there is a vowel or a
consonant on the other side, the rule still holds.
But you do need to turn over V and 6. If V has an even number on the other side, then the rule
has been broken. Similarly, if 6 has a consonant on the other side, then the rule has been broken.
The kind of reasoning we have used to solve this puzzle is called deductive reasoning. It is
called ‘deductive’ because we arrive at (i.e., deduce or infer) a result or a statement from a
previously established statement using logic. For example, in the puzzle above, by a series of
logical arguments we deduced that we need to turn over only V and 6.
Deductive reasoning also helps us to conclude that a particular statement is true, because it
is a special case of a more general statement that is known to be true. For example, once we
prove that the product of two odd numbers is always odd, we can immediately conclude (without
computation) that 70001 × 134563 is odd simply because 70001 and 134563 are odd.
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 177

MTÅ£” H\T>·T ¿±sÁT¦\T ‚eNj&†¦sTT. ç|ŸÜ ¿±sÁT¦Å£” ÿ¿£ yîÕ|ŸÚq ÿ¿£ dŸ+K« eT]jáTT eTs=¿£ yîÕ|ŸÚq ÿ¿£ n¿£ŒsÁ+
eTTç~+#á‹& –+³T+~.

»»ÿ¿£ ¿±sÁTŦ ”£ ÿ¿£ yî|Õ ÚŸ q dŸ]dŸ+K« –+fñ, <‘“¿ì eTs=¿£ yî|Õ ÚŸ q n#áTÌ –+³T+~.µµ
‡ ¿±sÁT\¦ T ‡ “jáTe֓• bÍ{ìkÍïjTá “ MTÅ£” #î|Ο ‹&+<ŠqT¿Ã+&.
‡ “jáTeT+ dŸÔ«á eÖ, ¿±<‘ n“ #áÖ&ƒ&+ƒ ¿=sÁŔ£ MTsÁT çÜ|¾Î #áÖ&†*àq ¿£“wŸ¼ ¿±sÁT\¦ dŸ+K« m+Ôá?
ydŸyï “¿ì, n“• ¿±sÁT\¦ qT Ü|ŸÎ&ƒ+ eT]jáTT Ôá“F #ûd ne¿±Xø+ MTÅ£” –+~. ¿±ú ÔáÅ£”Øe dŸ+K«ýË ¿±sÁT¦\qT
Ü|ŸÎ&ƒ+ <‘Çs MTsÁT “sÁÇV¾²+#á>·\s?
ÿ¿£ yî|Õ ÚŸ q dŸ]dŸ+K« ¿£*Ðq ¿±sÁTŦ ”£ , eTsà yî|Õ ÚŸ q n#áTÌ –+<Š“ ç|Ÿe#áq+ýË |s=Øq&ƒ+ >·eT“+#á+&. ÿ¿£ yî|Õ ÚŸ q
n#áTÌÔà –q• ¿±sÁTŦ ”£ eTs=¿£ yî|Õ ÚŸ q dŸ]dŸ+K« –+&†\“ n¿£Ø&ƒ |s=Øqýñ<TŠ . n~ ný² –+&ƒe#áTÌ ýñ<‘ –+&ƒ¿b£ þe#áTÌ.
ÿ¿£ yîÕ|ŸÚq uñd¾ dŸ+K« –q• ¿±sÁT¦Å£”, eTs=¿£ yîÕ|ŸÚq VŸ²\T¢ –+&†\Hû “jáTeT+ Å£L&† |s=Øqýñ<ŠT. ‚~ ¿±e#áTÌ ýñ<‘
¿±¿£bþe#áTÌ.
¿±‹{ì,¼ eTq+‘A’? “ ÜbÍÎ*àq nedŸs+Á –+<‘? ýñ<TŠ ! eTs=¿£ yî|Õ ÚŸ dŸ]dŸ+K« –H• ýñ<‘ uñd¾dŸ+K« –H•, “jáTeT+
n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT Å£L&† dŸÔá«yûT neÚÔáT+~.
»5µ >·T]+º @$T{ì? eT°ß eTq+ <‘““ Ü|ŸÎe\d¾q nedŸsÁ+ ýñ<ŠT, m+<ŠT¿£+fñ, neÔá*yîÕ|ŸÚq n#áTÌ ýñ<‘ VŸ²\T¢
–H•, “jáTeT+ n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT Å£L&† dŸÔ«á yûT neÚÔáT+~.
¿±ú MTsÁT V eT]jáTT 6 \qT ÜbÍÎ*à –+³T+~. ÿ¿£yÞû ø V Å£” neÔá* yîÕ|ڟ q dŸ]dŸ+K« –q•³¢sTTÔû, n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT “jáTeT+
–\¢+|˜T¾ +#á‹&+~. n<û$<ó+Š >±, ÿ¿£yÞû ø 6 Å£” neÔá* yî|Õ ÚŸ q ÿ¿£ VŸ²\T¢ –q•³¢sTTÔû,n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT Å£L&† € “jáTeT+
–\¢+|˜¾T+#á‹&+~.
‡ |Ÿ›ýÙqT |Ÿ]wŸØ]+#á&†“¿ì eTq+ –|ŸjÖî Ð+ºq Ԑ]Ø¿±“• “>·eTq “sÁÖ|ŸD |Ÿ<ŠÆÜ n“ n+{²sÁT. m+<ŠT¿£+fñ
eTq+ ÿ¿£ |˜Ÿ*Ԑ“• ýñ<‘ ÔásØ“• –|ŸjîÖÐ+º “sÆ]+ºq ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ qT+º eTs=¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+Å£” #ûsÁTÅ£”+{²+.
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, ™|Õ |Ÿ›ýÙ ýË, Ԑ]Ø¿£ y<Šq\ |ŸsÁ+|ŸsÁ <‘Çs, eTq+ ¹¿e\+ V eT]jáTT 6 \qT eÖçÔáyTû ÜbÍÎ*àq
nedŸsÁ+ –+<Š“ }V¾²+#eTT. B““ »“>·eTq+µ n“ n+{²sÁT.
dŸÔ«á + n“ Ôî*d¾q “]Ýw¼Ÿ ç|Ÿe#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø ç|ŸÔ«û ¿£ dŸ+<ŠsÒÁ eÛ TT Å£L&† dŸÔ«á yûT. “>·eTq “sÁÖ|ŸD |Ÿ<ÜƊ Å£L&† ÿ¿£ “]Ýw¼Ÿ
ç|Ÿe#áq+ dŸÔ«á eT“ “sÆsD Á Å£” se&†“¿ì Å£L&† eTqÅ£” dŸVäŸ jáT|Ÿ&Tƒ ÔáT+~. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, s +&ƒT uñd¾ dŸ+K«\ \‹Æ+
m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ uñd¾dŸ+K«>± –+³T+<Š“ eTq+ sÁTEeÚ #ûd¾q ÔásÁTyÔá, 70001 eT]jáTT 134563\T uñd¾dŸ+K«\T ¿£qT¿£
70001 × 134563 uñd¾d+Ÿ K« n“ eTq+ yî+³Hû (>·Dq ýñÅ£”+&†) “sÆsÁDÅ£” se#áTÌ.
178 Proofs in Mathematics

Deductive reasoning has been a part of human thinking for centuries, and is used all the time
in our daily life. For example, suppose the statements “The flower Solaris blooms, only if the
maximum temperature is above 28° C on the previous day” and “Solaris bloomed in Imaginary
Valley on 15th September, 2005” are true. Then using deductive reasoning, we can conclude
that the maximum temperature in Imaginary Valley on 14th September, 2005 was more than 28°
C.
Unfortunately we do not always use correct reasoning in our daily life! We often come to
many conclusions based on faulty reasoning. For example, if your friend does not smile at you
one day, then you may conclude that she is angry with you. While it may be true that “if she is
angry with me, she will not smile at me”, it may also be true that “if she has a bad headache, she
will not smile at me”. Why don’t you examine some conclusions that you have arrived at in your
day-to-day existence, and see if they are based on valid or faulty reasoning?

EXERCISE A1.2
1. Use deductive reasoning to answer the following:
(i) Humans are mammals. All mammals are vertebrates. Based on these two statements,
what can you conclude about humans?
(ii) Anthony is a barber. Dinesh had his hair cut. Can you conclude that Antony cut
Dinesh’s hair?
(iii) Martians have red tongues. Gulag is a Martian. Based on these two statements, what
can you conclude about Gulag?
(iv) If it rains for more than four hours on a particular day, the gutters will have to be
cleaned the next day. It has rained for 6 hours today. What can we conclude about
the condition of the gutters tomorrow?
(v) What is the fallacy in the cow’s reasoning in the cartoon below?

All dogs have tails.

I have a tail.
Therefore I am a
dog.
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 179

“>·eTq Ԑ]Ø¿£ |Ÿ<ÜƊ XøԐu²Ý\T>± eÖqe €ýË#áqýË ÿ¿£ uó²>·+, eT]jáTT eTq <îqÕ +~q J$Ôá+ýË m\¢|ڟ Î&ƒÖ
–|ŸjîÖÐ+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, »»eTT+<ŠT sÃEq >·]wŸ¼ –cþ’ç>·Ôá 28° C ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe>± –+fñHû kþý²]dt |ŸÚeÚÇ
$¿£d¾dŸTï+~, eT]jáTT »»2005 ™d™|¼+‹sÁT 15 q }VŸäÔሿ£ ýËjáTýË kþý²]dt $¿£d¾+º+~µµ nHû y¿±«\T “ÈeT“
nqT¿Ã+&. ÔásÁTyÔá “>·eTq Ԑ]Ø¿£ |Ÿ<ŠÆÜ –|ŸjîÖÐ+º, 2005 ™d™|¼+‹sY 14q }VŸäÔሿ£ ýËjáTýË >·]wŸ¼ –cþ’ç>·Ôá
28°C ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe>± –+<Š“ eTq+ “sÆsÁDÅ£” se#áTÌ .
<ŠTsÁ<ŠwŸ¼eXæÔáTï eTq <îÕq+~q J$Ôá+ýË eTq+ m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ dŸÂsÕq ÔásØ“• –|ŸjîÖÐ+#áýñeTT! ýË|Ÿuó„ÖsTTwŸ¼yîT®q
Ԑ]Ø¿£+ €<ó‘sÁ+>± eTq+ ÔásÁ#áÖ nHû¿£ “sÆsÁD\Å£” ekÍï+. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, ÿ¿£ sÃE MT d•V¾²ÔáTs\T $TeTˆ*• #áÖd¾
ºsÁTqeÚÇ qeÇ¿£bþÔû, n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT €yîT MT™|Õ ¿Ã|Ÿ+>± –+<Š“ MTsÁT “sÆsD Á Å£” se#áTÌ. »»€yîT H™|Õ ¿Ã|Ÿ+>± –+fñ, €yîT
qqT• #áÖd¾ ºsÁTqeÚÇ qeÇ<ŠTµµ nHû~ “È+ nsTTq|ŸÎ{ì¿,¡ »»€yîTÅ£” Ôá\H=|¾Î mÅ£”Øe>± –+fñ, €yîT qqT• #áÖd¾ qeÇ<ŠTµµ
nHû~ Å£L&† “È+ ¿±e#áTÌ. MT <îqÕ +~q J$Ôá+ýË MTsÁT “sÆ]+ºq ¿=“• ç|Ÿe#áH\T n$ #î\T¢u²³T njûT«y ýñ<‘
ýË|Ÿu„Öó sTTwŸ¼yîT®q ÔásÁØ+™|Õ €<ó‘sÁ|Ÿ& –H•jîÖ ýñ<à m+<ŠTÅ£” #áÖ&ƒÅ£L&ƒ<ŠT?
nuó²«dŸ+ A1.2
1. “>·eTq Ԑ]Ø¿£ |Ÿ<ÜƊ “ –|ŸjÖî Ð+º ~>·Tey{ì¿ì dŸeÖ<ó‘q+ ‚eÇ+&.
(i) eÖqeÚ\T ¿¡sŒ < Á ‘\T. n“• ¿¡sŒ <Á ‘\T dŸ¿X£ sâ TÁ ¿±\T. ‡ s +&ƒT ç|Ÿ¿³
£ q\ €<ó‘sÁ+>±, eÖqeÚ\ >·T]+º
MTsÁT @$T “sÆ]+#áe#áTÌ?
(ii) €+<¸Ãú ÿ¿£ eT+>·*. ~Hûwt E³T¼ ¿£Ü] ï +#áTÅ£”H•&ƒT. €+{Ëú ~Hûwt E³T¼qT ¿£Ü]ï +#&ƒ“ MTsÁT
“sÆ]+#á>\· s?
(iii) n+>±sÁ¿£ ç>·VŸ²ydŸT\Å£” mçsÁ{ì H\T¿£\T –+{²sTT. >·Tý²>´ ÿ¿£ n+>±sÁÅ£”&ƒT. ‡ Âs+&ƒT ç|Ÿe#áH\
€<ó‘sÁ+>±, >·Tý²>´ >·T]+º MTsÁT @$T #î|Ο >·\sÁT?
(iv) ÿ¿£ “]ÝwŸ÷ sÃEýË H\T>·T >·+³\Å£”™|Õ>± esÁü+ |Ÿ&Ôû, eTsÁTdŸ{ì sÃE eTT]¿ì ¿±\Te\qT Xø—çuó„+
#ûjáÖ*à –+³T+~. ‡ sÃE 6 >·+³\ bͳT esÁü+ Å£”]d¾+~. ¹s|ŸÚ eTT]¿ì ¿±\Te\ |Ÿ]d¾Üœ >·T]+º
eTq+ @$T “sÆsDÁ Å£” se#áTÌ?
(v) ~>·Te ¿±sÁÖH ¼ ýŽ Ë €eÚ Ô]Ø¿£Ôýá Ë –q• nbþVŸ² @$T{ì?

n“•
Allţdogs
”¿£Ø\Thave
Ôÿ£\tails.
T ¿£*Z
–H•sTT.
I have a tail.
HûqTherefore
T Ôÿ£ ¿£*ÐI–H•qT.
am a
dog.
n+<Š Te\q HûqT Å£”¿£ØqT.
180 Proofs in Mathematics

2. Once again you are given four cards. Each card has a number printed on one side and a
letter on the other side. Which are the only two cards you need to turn over to check
whether the following rule holds?
“If a card has a consonant on one side, then it has an odd number on the other side.”

A1.4 Theorems, Conjectures and Axioms

So far we have discussed statements and how to check their validity. In this section, you will
study how to distinguish between the three different kinds of statements mathematics is built
up from, namely, a theorem, a conjecture and an axiom.
You have already come across many theorems before. So, what is a theorem? A mathematical
statement whose truth has been established (proved) is called a theorem. For example, the
following statements are theorems, as you will see in Section A1.5.
Theorem A1.1 : The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180º.
Theorem A1.2 : The product of two even natural numbers is even.
Theorem A1.3 : The product of any three consecutive even natural numbers is divisible by
16.
A conjecture is a statement which we believe is true, based on our mathematical understanding
and experience, that is, our mathematical intuition. The conjecture may turn out to be true or
false. If we can prove it, then it becomes a theorem. Mathematicians often come up with
conjectures by looking for patterns and making intelligent mathematical guesses. Let us look at
some patterns and see what kind of intelligent guesses we can make.
Example 4 : Take any three consecutive even numbers and add them, say,
2 + 4 + 6 = 12, 4 + 6 + 8 = 18, 6 + 8 + 10 = 24, 8 +10 + 12 = 30, 20 + 22 + 24 = 66.
Is there any pattern you can guess in these sums? What can you conjecture about them?
Solution : One conjecture could be :
(i) the sum of three consecutive even numbers is even.
Another could be :
(ii) the sum of three consecutive even numbers is divisible by 6.
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 181

2. eTsÃkÍ] MTÅ£” H\T>·T ¿±sÁT¦\T ‚eNj&†¦sTT. ç|ŸÜ ¿±sÁT¦Å£” ÿ¿£ yîÕ|ŸÚq ÿ¿£ dŸ+K« eT]jáTT eTs=¿£ yîÕ|ŸÚq ÿ¿£
n¿£ŒsÁ+ eTTç~+#á‹& –+³T+~. »»ÿ¿£ ¿±sÁT¦Å£” ÿ¿£ yîÕ|ŸÚq VŸ²\T¢ –q•³¢sTTÔû, <‘“¿ì eTs=¿£ yîÕ|ŸÚq uñd¾ dŸ+K«
–+³T+~.µµ nHû “jáTeT+ dŸÔá«eÖ ¿±<‘ “sÁÖ|¾+#á&†“¿ì @ Âs+&ƒT ¿±sÁT¦\qT çÜ|¾Î #áÖ&†*?
»»¿±sÁT¦qÅ£” ÿ¿£ yîÕ|ŸÚ VŸ²\T¢ ¿£*Ð –+fñ n~ Âs+&ƒe yîÕ|ŸÚ uñd¾ dŸ+K«qT ¿£*Ð –+³T+~.

A1.4 d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\T, |Ÿ]¿£\Îq\T eT]jáTT dÓÇ¿£Ô\T

eTq+ ‚|ŸÎ{ìesÁŔ£ ç|Ÿe#áH\T eT]jáTT y{ì jîTT¿£Ø dŸÔ«á $\Te\qT mý² “sÁs’ TT+#\Hû <‘“ >·T]+º #á]Ì+#+.
‡ $uó²>·+ýË, ÿ¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+, ÿ¿£ |Ÿ]¿£\Îq eT]jáTT dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\ qT+& “]ˆ+#á‹&q >·DìÔá XæçdŸï+ýË eTÖ&ƒT $_óq•
sÁ¿±\ ç|Ÿe#áH\ eT<óŠ« uóñ<Š+qT mý² >·T]ï+#ýË MTsÁT HûsÁTÌÅ£”+{²sÁT.
MTsÁT ‚+ÔáŔ£ eTT+<ŠT nHû¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\qT #áÖXæsÁT. ¿±‹{ì,¼ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ n+fñ @$T{ì? “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjTá ‹&q ÿ¿£
>·DìÔá ç|Ÿe#áq+qT d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ n+{²sÁT. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, ‡ ç¿ì+~ ç|Ÿe#áH\T d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\T, MTsÁT M{ì“ ™d¿£ŒHŽ A1.5.
ýË $esÁ+>± #áÖkÍïsTÁ .
d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ A1.1 : ÿ¿£ çÜuó„TÈ+ jîTT¿£Ø n+ÔásÁZÔá ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+ 180º.
d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ A1.2 : s +&ƒT dŸ] dŸV²Ÿ ÈdŸ+K«\ \‹Æ+ dŸ] dŸ+K«.
d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ A1.3 : @yîÕH eTÖ&ƒT esÁTdŸ dŸ] dŸVŸ²È dŸ+K«\ \‹Æ+ 16Ôà “XâôwŸ+>± uó²Ð+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
eTq >·DÔì á ne>±VŸ²q eT]jáTT nqTuó„e+ €<ó‘sÁ+>±, n+fñ eTq >·DÔì á n+ÔásÝÁ w¾¼ €<ó‘sÁ+>±, eTq+ “ÈeT“ qyûTˆ
ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áqyûT |Ÿ]¿£\Îq. |Ÿ]¿£\Îq nHû~ dŸÔá«+ ýñ<‘ ndŸÔá«+ ¿±e#áTÌ. eTq+ <‘““ “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûdï, n~ ÿ¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+
neÚÔáT+~. >·DìÔá XæçdŸïEã\T ÔásÁ#áT>± qeTÖH\qT yîÔá¿£&ƒ+ <‘Çs eT]jáTT Ôî*yîÕq >·DìÔá n+#áH\T #ûjáT&ƒ+ <‘Çs
|Ÿ]¿£\Îq\Ôà eTT+<ŠTÅ£” ekÍïsÁT. eTq+ ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ¿=“• qeTÖH\qT |Ÿ]o*<‘Ý+ eT]jáTT eTq+ mý²+{ì Ôî*yîÕq
|Ÿ]¿£\Îq #ûjTá >·\yîÖ #áÖ<‘Ý+.
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 4 : @yîHÕ  eTÖ&ƒT esÁTdŸ dŸ]dŸ+K«\qT rdŸT¿=“ y{ì“ ¿£\|Ÿ+&, –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”,
2 + 4 + 6 = 12, 4 + 6 + 8 = 18, 6 + 8 + 10 = 24, 8 +10 + 12 = 30, 20 + 22 + 24 = 66.
‡ yîTTԐïýË¢ MTsÁT }V¾²+#á>·\ qeTÖH @<îÕH –+<‘? y{ì >·T]+º MTsÁT @$T }V¾²+#áe#áTÌ?
kÍ<óŠq : ÿ¿£ |Ÿ]¿£\Îq ‚ý² –+&ƒe#áTÌ.
(i) eTÖ&ƒT esÁTdŸ dŸ]dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ dŸ]dŸ+K« n>·TqT.
eTs=¿£{ì ‚ý² –+&ƒe#áTÌ:
(ii) eTÖ&ƒT esÁTdŸ dŸ]dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ 6 Ôà “XâôwŸ+>± uó²Ð+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
182 Proofs in Mathematics

Example 5 : Consider the following pattern of numbers called the Pascal’s Triangle:
Line Sum of numbers
1 1 1
2 1 1 2
3 1 2 1 4
4 1 3 3 1 8
5 1 4 6 4 1 16
6 1 5 10 10 5 1 32
7 : : :
8 : : :
What can you conjecture about the sum of the numbers in Lines 7 and 8? What about the
sum of the numbers in Line 21? Do you see a pattern? Make a guess about a formula for the sum
of the numbers in line n.
Solution : Sum of the numbers in Line 7 = 2 × 32 = 64 = 26
Sum of the numbers in Line 8 = 2 × 64 = 128 = 27
Sum of the numbers in Line 21 = 220
Sum of the numbers in Line n = 2n –1
Example 6 : Consider the so-called triangular numbers Tn:

T1 T2 T3 T4

Fig. A1.1
The dots here are arranged in such a way that they form a triangle. Here T1 = 1,
T2 = 3, T3 = 6, T4 = 10, and so on. Can you guess what T5 is? What about T6? What about Tn?
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 183

–<‘VŸ²sÁD 5 : bÍdŸØýÙ çÜuóT„ È+ n“ |¾\Te‹&û dŸ+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø ‡ ç¿ì+~ qeTÖHqT |Ÿ]o*+#á+&:

esÁTdŸ dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+
1 1 1
2 1 1 2
3 1 2 1 4
4 1 3 3 1 8
5 1 4 6 4 1 16
6 1 5 10 10 5 1 32
7 : : :
8 : : :
7 eT]jáTT 8e esÁTdŸý˓ dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ >·T]+º MTsÁT @$T }V¾²+#á>\· sÁT? 21e esÁTdŸýË yîTTÔá+ï >·T]+º qTeÚÇ
@$T nqTÅ£”H•eÚ? MTsÁT ‡ qeTÖH >·eT“+#s? n e esÁTdŸý˓ dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+Å£” ÿ¿£ dŸÖçԐ“•x }V¾²+#á+&.
kÍ<óŠq : 7e esÁTdŸý˓ dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ = 2 × 32 = 64 = 26
8e esÁTdŸý˓ dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ = 2 × 64 = 128 = 27
21e esÁTdŸý˓ dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ = 220
ne esÁTdŸý˓ dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ = 2n –1
–<‘VŸ²sÁD 6 : çÜuóT„ C²¿±sÁ dŸ+K«\T Tn n“ |¾\Te‹&û y{ì“ |Ÿ]>·DqýË¿ì rdŸT¿Ã+&:

T1 T2 T3 T4

|Ÿ³+. A1.1
‚¿£Ø&ƒ #áT¿£Ø\T çÜuó„TC²“• @sÁÎsÁ#û $<óŠ+>± neTsÁ̋& –+{²sTT. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ T1 = 1, T2 = 3, T3 = 6, T4 = 10, eT]jáTT
yîTT<ŠýÉÕq$. T5 n+fñ @$T{Ë }V¾²+#á>·\s? T6 >·T]+º @$T{ì? Tn >·T]+º @$T{ì?
184 Proofs in Mathematics

Make a conjecture about Tn.

It might help if you redraw them in the following way.

T1 T2 T3 T4

Fig. A1.2

5´ 6
Solution :T5 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15 =
2

6´7
T6 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21 =
2

n ´ ( n + 1)
Tn =
2
A favourite example of a conjecture that has been open (that is, it has not been proved to be
true or false) is the Goldbach conjecture named after the mathematician Christian Goldbach
(1690 – 1764). This conjecture states that “every even integer greater than 4 can be expressed
as the sum of two odd primes.” Perhaps you will prove that this result is either true or false,
and will become famous!
You might have wondered – do we need to prove everything we encounter in mathematics,
and if not, why not?
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 185

Tn >·T]+º ÿ¿£ |Ÿ]¿£\Îq #ûjTá +&.

™|Õ y{ì“ ‡ ç¿ì+~ $<ó+Š >± Ü]Ð ^jáT&ƒ+ e\¢ n$ MTÅ£” |Ÿ]¿£ÎqýË dŸVäŸ jáT|Ÿ&eƒ #áTÌ.

T1 T2 T3 T4

|Ÿ³+. A1.2
5´ 6
kÍ<óŠq : T5 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15 =
2

6´7
T6 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21 =
2

n ´ ( n + 1)
Tn =
2
ÿ¿£ |Ÿ]¿£\Îq (n+fñ, n~ “ÈyîÖ, n‹<ŠÆyîÖ ‚|ŸÎ{ìesÁÅ£” “sÁÖ|¾+#á‹&ƒýñ<ŠT) dŸ]jî®Tq –<‘VŸ²sÁD ¿ÃdŸ+ m<ŠTsÁT
¾ Tá HŽ >ÃýÙu¦ ²«¿ù (1690 ` 1764) |sÁT MT<Š –q• >ÃýÙ¦u²«¿ù |Ÿ]¿£\Îq. »»4 ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe
#áÖdŸT+ï ~. >·DìÔá XæçdŸïE&ã Tƒ ç¿ìd¼j
–q• ç|ŸÜ dŸ]|ŸPs’+¿±“• Âs+&ƒT uñd¾ ç|Ÿ<ó‘H+¿±\ yîTTÔáï+>±çyjáTe#áT̵µ n“ ‡ |Ÿ]¿£\Îq #î‹TÔÃ+~. ‹VŸQXæ, ‡
|˜Ÿ*Ôá+ dŸÔá«yîÖ, ndŸÔá«yîÖ n“ MTsÁT “sÁÖ|¾dï, u²>± ç|Ÿd¾~Æ #î+<ŠTԐsÁT!
MTsÁT €XøÌsÁ«bþsTT –+&ƒe#áTÌ ` >·DìÔá+ýË eTq+ m<ŠTs=ØHû ç|ŸÜ<‘“• eTq+ “sÁÖ|¾+#*àq nedŸsÁ+ –+<‘,
eT]jáTT ¿±¿£bþÔû m+<ŠTÅ£” ¿±<ŠT?

HûqT #î|ξ q ç|Ÿr<‘“• HûqT

m+<ŠTÅ£” “sÁÖ|¾+#*.
186 Proofs in Mathematics

The fact is that every area in mathematics is based on some statements which are assumed
to be true and are not proved. These are ‘self-evident truths’ which we take to be true without
proof. These statements are called axioms. In Chapter 5, you would have studied the axioms and
postulates of Euclid. (We do not distinguish between axioms and postulates these days.)
For example, the first postulate of Euclid states:
A straight line may be drawn from any point to any other point.
And the third postulate states:
A circle may be drawn with any centre and any radius.
These statements appear to be perfectly true and Euclid assumed them to be true. Why? This
is because we cannot prove everything and we need to start somewhere. We need some
statements which we accept as true and then we can build up our knowledge using the rules of
logic based on these axioms.
You might then wonder why we don’t just accept all statements to be true when they appear
self-evident. There are many reasons for this. Very often our intuition can be wrong, pictures or
patterns can deceive and the only way to be sure that something is true is to prove it. For
example, many of us believe that if a number is multiplied by another, the result will be larger
than both the numbers. But we know that this is not always true: for example, 5 × 0.2 = 1, which
is less than 5.
Also, look at the Fig. A1.3. Which line segment is longer, AB or CD?

Fig. A1.3

It turns out that both are of exactly the same length, even though AB appears shorter!
You might wonder then, about the validity of axioms. Axioms have been chosen based on our
intuition and what appears to be self-evident. Therefore, we expect them to be true. However, it
is possible that later on we discover that a particular axiom is not true. What is a safeguard
against this possibility? We take the following steps:
(i) Keep the axioms to the bare minimum. For instance, based on only axioms and five
postulates of Euclid, we can derive hundreds of theorems.
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 187

ydŸïe+ @$T³+fñ, >·DìÔá+ýË ç|Ÿr~ ¿=“• ç|Ÿe#áH\™|Õ €<ó‘sÁ|Ÿ& –+³T+~. ‚$ “ÈeT“ uó²$+#á‹&ƒÔsTT
eT]jáTT “sÁÖ|¾+#á‹&ƒeÚ. ‚$ »dÓÇjáT - “¹sÆ¥ÔáyîT®q dŸÔ«\Tµ, M{ì“ sÁTEeÚ ýñÅ£”+&† dŸÔá«+>± eTq+ uó²$kÍï+.
‡ ç|Ÿe#áH\qT dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\T n+{²sÁT. 5 e n<ó‘«jáT+ýË jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\qT, ç|ŸÜbÍ<Šq\qT MTsÁT n<ó«Š jáTq+
#ûd¾eÚ+{²sÁT. (eTq+ ‡ sÃEýË¢ dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\T (axioms) eT]jáTT ç|ŸÜbÍ<Šq\ (postulates) eT<ó«Š Ôû&†qT >·T]ï+#á+&).
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, jáTÖ¿ì¢&Ž jîTT¿£Ø yîTT<Š{ì dÓÇ¿£ÔáeTT ‚ý² |s=Ø+~:
ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ qT+º @<îÕH ‚ÔásÁ _+<ŠTeÚÅ£” ÿ¿£ dŸsÁÞø¹sKqT ^jáTe#áTÌ.
eT]jáTT eTÖ&ƒe dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ ‚ý² |s=Ø+~:
@<îÕH ¹¿+ç<Š+ eT]jáTT y«kÍsœ\Ôà ÿ¿£ eԐ ^jáTe#áTÌ.
‡ ç|Ÿe#áH\T |ŸP]ï>± dŸÔá«yîTq® $>± ¿£“|¾kÍïsTT eT]jáTT jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž n$ dŸÔ«á eT“ uó²$+#&ƒT. m+<ŠTÅ£”? m+<ŠT¿£+fñ
eTq+ ç|ŸÜB “sÁÖ|¾+#áý+ñ eT]jáTT eTq+ m¿£Ø&à ÿ¿£ #ó çbÍsÁ+_ó+#*. eTqÅ£” ¿=“• ç|Ÿe#áH\T nedŸs+Á , y{ì“
eTq+ dŸÔá«+>± n+^¿£]kÍï+ eT]jáTT ÔásÁTyÔá ‡ dŸÖçr¿£sÁD\ €<ó‘sÁ+>± Ԑ]Ø¿£ “jáTeÖ\qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º eTq
C²ãH“• ™|+bõ+~+#áT¿Ãe#áTÌ.
n“• ç|Ÿe#áH\T dÓÇjáT-“¹s¥Æ Ôá+>± ¿£“|¾+ºq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT n$ dŸÔ«á eT“ eTq+ m+<ŠTÅ£” n+^¿£]+#áýeñ TT n“ MTsÁT
€XøÌsÁ«bþe#áTÌ. B“¿ì nHû¿£ ¿±sÁD²\TH•sTT. #ý² Ôás#Á Tá >± eTq n+ÔásÁ uó²eq Ôá|ڟ Î ¿±e#áTÌ, ºçԐ\T ýñ<‘
qeTÖH\T yîÖdŸÐ+#á>\· eÚ eT]jáTT @<à dŸÔ«á + n“ “sÆ]+#áT¿Ãe&†“¿ì @¿¿Õ £ eÖsÁ+Z <‘““ “sÁÖ|¾+#á&+ƒ .
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, eTqýË #ý²eT+~ ÿ¿£ dŸ+K«qT eTsà dŸ+K«Ôà >·TDìdï, € |˜Ÿ*Ôá+ € Âs+&ƒT dŸ+K«\ ¿£+fñ ™|<ŠÝ~>±
–+³T+<Š“ qeTTˆÔsÁT. ¿±ú ‚~ m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ dŸÔá«+ ¿±<Š“ eTqÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT: –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, 5 × 0.2 = 1, ‚~ 5 ¿£+fñ
ÔáŔ£ Øe.
ný²¹>, |Ÿ³+. A1.3 #áÖ&ƒ+&. AB ýñ<‘ CD , @ ¹sU²K+&ƒ+ bõ&ƒeÚ>± –+³T+~?

¹sU² K+&ƒ+ AB

¹sU² K+&ƒ+ CD
|Ÿ³+. A1.3
AB bõ{ì¼>± ¿£“|¾+ºq|ŸÎ{ì¿¡, Âs+&ƒÖ Å£L&† dŸ]>±Z ÿ¹¿ bõ&ƒeÚÔà –H•jáT“ Ôû*+~!
n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT MTsÁT dÓÇ¿£ÔáeTT\ çbÍeÖDì¿Ô£ á >·T]+º €XøÌsÁ«bþe#áTÌ. eTq n+ÔásÁ uó²eq eT]jáTT dÓÇjáT-“¹s¥Æ Ôá+>±
¿£“|¾+#û y{ì €<ó‘sÁ+>± dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\T m+#áT¿Ã‹&†¦sTT. n+<ŠTe\¢, n$ “ÈeT“ eTq+ €¥dŸTHï •+. @<ûyTî H® , ÿ¿£ “]Ýw¼Ÿ
dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ “È+ ¿±<Š“ ÔásÁTyÔá eTq+ ¿£qT>=Hû ne¿±Xø+ –+~. dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\T ÔájÖá sÁT#ûjTá Tq|ŸÚÎ&ƒT rdŸT¿Ãy*àq C²ç>·Ôï\á T
@$T{ì? eTq+ ‡ ç¿ì+~ <ŠX\ø qT rdŸTÅ£”+{²+:
(i) dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\qT ¿£“wŸ¼ kÍÆsTTýË –+#á+&. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, jáTÖ¿ì¢&Ž jîTT¿£Ø ×<ŠT dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\T eT]jáTT ×<ŠT ç|ŸÜbÍ<Šq\
€<ó‘sÁ+>±, eTq+ e+<Šý²~ d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\qT bõ+<Še#áTÌ.
188 Proofs in Mathematics

(ii) Make sure the axioms are consistent.

We say a collection of axioms is inconsistent, if we can use one axiom to show that
another axiom is not true. For example, consider the following two statements. We
will show that they are inconsistent.
Statement1: No whole number is equal to its successor.
Statement 2: A whole number divided by zero is a whole number.
(Remember, division by zero is not defined. But just for the moment, we assume that
it is possible, and see what happens.)
1
From Statement 2, we get = a , where a is some whole number. This implies that, 1
0
= 0. But this disproves Statement 1, which states that no whole number is equal to its
successor.
(iii) A false axiom will, sooner or later, result in a contradiction. We say that there is a
contradiction, when we find a statement such that, both the statement and its
negation are true. For example, consider Statement 1 and Statement 2 above once
again.
From Statement 1, we can derive the result that 2 ¹ 1.
Now look at x2 – x2. We will factorise it in two different ways as follows:
(i) x2 – x2 = x(x – x) and
(ii) x2 – x2 = (x + x)(x – x)
So, x(x – x) = (x + x)(x – x).
From Statement 2, we can cancel (x – x) from both sides.
We get x = 2x, which in turn implies 2 = 1.
So we have both the statement 2 ¹ 1 and its negation, 2 = 1, true. This is a contradiction. The
contradiction arose because of the false axiom, that a whole number divided by zero is a whole
number.
So, the statements we choose as axioms require a lot of thought and insight. We must make
sure they do not lead to inconsistencies or logical contradictions. Moreover, the choice of
axioms themselves, sometimes leads us to new discoveries. From Chapter 5, you are familiar
with Euclid’s fifth postulate and the discoveries of non-Euclidean geometries. You saw that
mathematicians believed that the fifth postulate need not be a postulate and is actually a theorem
that can be proved using just the first four postulates. Amazingly these attempts led to the
discovery of non-Euclidean geometries.
We end the section by recalling the differences between an axiom, a theorem and a
conjecture. An axiom is a mathematical statement which is assumed to be true
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 189

(ii) dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\T d¾sœ +Á >±(consistent) –H•jáT“ <óŠ M¿£]+#áT¿Ã+&.

ÿ¿£ dÓÇ¿£Ԑ“• –|ŸjÖî Ð+º eTs=¿£ dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ dŸÔ«á + ¿±<Š“ #áÖ|¾Ô,û dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\ d¿£sDÁ nd¾sœ +Á >± (inconsistent)
–+<Š“ n+{²+. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, ‡ ç¿ì+~ s +&ƒT ç|Ÿe#áH\qT |Ÿ]o*+#á+&. n$ nd¾sœ +Á >± –H•jáT“ eTq+
“sÁÖ|¾kÍï+.
ç|Ÿe#áq+1: @ |ŸPs’+¿£+ <‘“ ÔásÁTyÔá e#ûÌ <‘“¿ì dŸeÖq+ ¿±<ŠT.
ç|Ÿe#áq+2: @<îÕH |ŸPs’+¿£+qT dŸTH•Ôà uó²Ðdï ÿ¿£ |ŸPs’+¿£+ edŸTï+~.
(>·TsÁTï+#áT¿Ã+&, dŸTH•Ôà uó²Ð+#á&+ƒ “sÁǺ+#á‹&ƒý<ñ TŠ . ¿±ú ç|ŸdTŸ Ôï “¿ì, n~ kÍ<ó«Š eT“ eTq+ uó²$<‘Ý+,
eT]jáTT @$T ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+<à #áÖ<‘Ý+.)
1
ç|Ÿe#áq+ 2 qT+º, eTq+ B““ 0 = a , ‚¿£Ø&ƒ a @<îHÕ  ÿ¿£ |ŸPs’+¿£+. ‚~ 1 = 0 n“ dŸÖºdŸT+ï ~. ¿±ú
‚~ ç|Ÿe#áq+1 nq>± @ |ŸPs’+¿£+, <‘“ ÔásÁTyÔá e#ûÌ <‘“¿ì dŸeÖq+ ¿±<ŠT nHû <‘“¿ì $sÁT<ŠÝ+.
(iii) ÿ¿£ ndŸÔ«á dÓÇ¿£Ôá+, yî+³Hû ýñ<‘ ÔásÇÔá ÿ¿£ $sÁT<Šy
Æ Tî q® uó²eqÅ£” <‘]rdŸT+ï ~. ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ eT]jáTT <‘“
e«Ü¹s¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ s +&ƒÖ dŸÔ«á yûT nsTTÔû <‘““ eTq+ $sÁT<ŠyÆ Tî q® uó²eq n+{²+. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, ™|Õq |s=Øq•
ç|Ÿe#áq+ 1 eT]jáTT ç|Ÿe#áq+ 2 \qT eTsÃkÍ] |Ÿ]>·DqýË¿ì rdŸT¿Ã+&.
ç|Ÿe#áq+ 1 qT+º, 2 ¹ 1 nHû |˜Ÿ*Ԑ“• eTq+ bõ+<Še#áTÌ.
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT x2 – x2 #áÖ&ƒ+&. eTq+ <‘““ ~>·Te |s=Øq•$<ó+Š >± s +&ƒT $_óq• eÖsZýË¢ ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T>±
skÍï+:
(i) x2 – x2 = x(x – x) eT]jáTT
(ii) x2 – x2 = (x + x)(x – x)
¿±‹{ì,¼ x(x – x) = (x + x)(x – x).
ç|Ÿe#áq+ 2 qT+&, eTq+ Âs+&ƒTyîÕ|ŸÚ\ qT+& (x – x) qT ¿={ì¼yûjáTe#áTÌ.
eTqÅ£” x = 2x, edŸT+ï ~, ‚~ 2 = 1“ ‚dŸT+ï ~.
¿±eÚq eTqÅ£” ç|Ÿe#áq+ 2 ¹ 1 eT]jáTT <‘“ e«Ü¹s¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ 2 = 1 \T Âs+&ƒÖ dŸÔá«+ n>·TqT. ‚~ $sÁT<ŠÆ+.
@<îÕH |ŸPs’+¿£+qT dŸTH•Ôà uó²Ðdï ÿ¿£ |ŸPs’+¿£+ edŸTï+~ nHû ndŸÔá« dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ ¿±sÁD+>± ‡ $sÁT<ŠÆyîT®q uó²eq
eºÌ+~.
¿±‹{ì,¼ dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\T>± eTq+ mqT•Å£”Hû ç|Ÿe#áH\Å£” #ý² €ýË#áq eT]jáTT n+ÔásÝÁ w¾¼ nedŸs+Á . n$ nd¾sœ +Á >±
ýñ<‘ Ԑ]Ø¿£ $sÁT<ŠyÆ Tî q® uó²eq\Å£” <‘] rjáTÅ£”+&† eTq+ #áÖdŸT¿Ãy*. n+Ôû¿±Å£”+&†, dŸÇjáT+>± dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\qT m+|¾¿£
#ûdTŸ ¿Ãe&ƒ+ ¿=“•kÍsÁT¢ eTq*• ç¿=Ôáï €$wŸØsÁD\ yî|Õ ÚŸ q&|d¾ TŸ +ï ~. n<ó‘«jáT+ 5 qT+&, jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž jîTT¿£Ø ×<Še dÓÇ¿£Ôá+
eT]jáTT jáTÖ¿¡&¢ j  Tá HŽ ¿±“ C²«$TÜ jîTT¿£Ø €$wŸØsÁD\ >·T]+º MTÅ£” Ôî\TdŸT. >·DÔì á XæçdŸE ï \ã T ×<Še dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ ÿ¿£
dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ ¿±qedŸs+Á ýñ<“Š eT]jáTT ydŸyï “¿ì yîTT<Š{ì H\T>·T dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\qT –|ŸjÖî Ð+º sÁTEeÚ #ûjTá >·\ ÿ¿£
d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ n“ qeֈsÁ“ MTsÁT #áÖXæsÁT. €XøÌsÁ«¿£s+Á >±, ‡ ç|ŸjáTԐ•\T jáTÖ¿¡¢&jáTHŽ ¿±“ C²«$TÜ\qT ¿£qT>=q&†“¿ì
<‘]rXæsTT.
ÿ¿£ dÓÇ¿£Ԑ“¿ì, ÿ¿£ |Ÿ]¿£\Îq¿ì, d¾<‘Ý+ÔáeTTqÅ£” eT<óŠ« >·\ Ôû&†\qT >·TsÁTï #ûdŸT¿Ãe&ƒ+ <‘Çs eTq+ ‡
$uó ²>±“• eTTÐkÍï+ . dÓÇ ¿£Ôá+ nHû~ “sÁ Ö |Ÿ D ýñ Å £ ” +&†Hû dŸÔ á « +>± uó ²$+#û ÿ¿£ >·D ì Ô á ç|Ÿ e #á q+.
190 Proofs in Mathematics

without proof; a conjecture is a mathematical statement whose truth or falsity is yet to be

established; and a theorem is a mathematical statement whose truth has been logically
established.
EXERCISE A1.3
1. Take any three consecutive even numbers and find their product; for example,
2 × 4 × 6 = 48, 4 × 6 × 8 = 192, and so on. Make three conjectures about these products.
2. Go back to Pascal’s triangle.
Line 1 : 1 = 110
Line 2 : 1 1 = 111
Line 3 : 1 2 1 = 112
Make a conjecture about Line 4 and Line 5. Does your conjecture hold? Does your
conjecture hold for Line 6 too?
3. Let us look at the triangular numbers (see Fig.A1.2) again. Add two consecutive triangular
numbers. For example, T1 + T2 = 4, T2 + T3 = 9, T3+ T4 = 16.
What about T4 + T5 ? Make a conjecture about Tn–1 +Tn.
4. Look at the following pattern:
12 = 1
112 = 121
1112 = 12321
11112 = 1234321
111112 = 123454321
Make a conjecture about each of the following:
1111112 =
11111112 =
Check if your conjecture is true.
5. List five axioms (postulates) used in this book.
A1.5 What is a Mathematical Proof?
Let us now look at various aspects of proofs. We start with understanding the difference between
verification and proof. Before you studied proofs in mathematics, you were mainly asked to
verify statements.
For example, you might have been asked to verify with examples that “the product of
two even numbers is even”. So you might have picked up two random even numbers,
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 191

|Ÿ]¿£\Îq\T nHû$ dŸÔ«\T>± uó²$dŸÖï ‚+Ôá esÁŔ£ “sÁÖ|¾+#á‹&ƒ“ >·DÔì á ç|Ÿe#áH\T. d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\T nHû$ “sÁÖ|¾+#á‹&q
>·DÔì á ç|Ÿe#áH\T.
nuó²«dŸ+ A1.3
1. @yîÕH eTÖ&ƒT esÁdŸ dŸ] dŸ+K«\qT rdŸT¿Ã+& eT]jáTT y{ì \u²Æ“• ¿£qT>=q+& ; –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”,
2 × 4 × 6 = 48, 4 × 6 × 8 = 192 yîTT<ŠýÉÕq$. ‡ \u²Æ\ >·T]+º eTÖ&ƒT |Ÿ]¿£\Îq\T #ûjáT+&.
2. bÍdŸØýÙ jîTT¿£Ø çÜuó„TC²“• >·TsÁTïÅ£” Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&.
esÁTdŸ 1 : 1 = 110
esÁTdŸ 2 : 1 1 = 111
esÁTdŸ 3 : 1 2 1 = 112
esÁTdŸ 4 eT]jáTT esÁTdŸ 5 >·T]+º ÿ¿£ |Ÿ]¿£\Îq #ûjáT+&. MT |Ÿ]¿£\Îq dŸeTsÁœújáTeÖ? MT |Ÿ]¿£\Îq esÁTdŸ
6 Å£” Å£L&† nqÇsTT+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+<‘?
3. çÜuóT„ C²¿±sÁ dŸ+K«\qT (|Ÿ³+.A1.2) eT°ß #áÖ<‘Ý+. s +&ƒT esÁdŸ çÜuóT„ C²¿±sÁ dŸ+K«\qT ¿£\|Ÿ+&. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”,
T1 + T2 = 4, T2 + T3 = 9, T3+ T4 = 16.
T4 + T5 $\Te @$T{ì? Tn–1 +Tn >·T]+º ÿ¿£ |Ÿ]¿£\Îq sjáT+&.
4. ~>·Te qeTÖHqT >·eT“+#á+&:
12 = 1
112 = 121
1112 = 12321
11112 = 1234321
111112 = 123454321
‡ ç¿ì+~y{ìýË ç|ŸÜ <‘“ >·T]+º ÿ¿£ |Ÿ]¿£\Îq #ûjTá +&:
1111112 =
11111112 =
MT |Ÿ]¿£\Îq “ÈyîÖ ¿±<à dŸ]#áÖ&ƒ+&.
5. ‡ |ŸÚdŸï¿£+ýË –|ŸjîÖÐ+ºq 5 dÓÇ¿£Ô\ C²_Ԑ sjáT+&.
A1.5 >·DÔ
ì á “sÁÖ|ŸD n+fñ @$T{ì?
“sÁÖ|ŸD\ jîTT¿£Ø $$<óŠ n+Xæ\qT eTq+ ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT #áÖ<‘Ý+. B““ eTq+ <óŠ M¿£sDÁ (verification) eT]jáTT “sÁÖ|ŸD
(proof)\ eT<óŠ« e«Ô«k͓• nsÁœ+ #ûdŸT¿Ãe&ƒ+ <‘Çs çbÍsÁ+_ókÍï+. MTsÁT >·DìÔá+ýË ç|Ÿe#áH\Å£” “sÁÖ|ŸD\qT
n<óŠ«jáTq+ #ûjáT&†“¿ì eTT+<ŠT ç|Ÿe#áH\qT dŸ]#áÖkÍïsÁT.
–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, »»Âs+&ƒT dŸ]dŸ+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø \‹Æ+ dŸ]dŸ+K«µµ n“ –<‘VŸ²sÁD\Ôà <óŠM¿£]+#áeT“ $TeTˆ*•
n& Ð –+&ƒ e#á TÌ. n+<ŠT e\¢ MTsÁ T Âs +&ƒT jáÖ<Š ºÌÛ¿ £ dŸ] dŸ+ K«\qT rdŸT ¿=“ –+&ƒe#á TÌ,
192 Proofs in Mathematics

say 24 and 2006, and checked that 24 × 2006 = 48144 is even. You might have done so for
many more examples.
Also, you might have been asked as an activity to draw several triangles in the class and
compute the sum of their interior angles. Apart from errors due to measurement, you would
have found that the interior angles of a triangle add up to 180°.
What is the flaw in this method? There are several problems with the process of verification.
While it may help you to make a statement you believe is true, you cannot be sure that it is true
in all cases. For example, the multiplication of several pairs of even numbers may lead us to
guess that the product of two even numbers is even. However, it does not ensure that the product
of all pairs of even numbers is even. You cannot physically check the products of all possible
pairs of even numbers. If you did, then like the girl in the cartoon, you will be calculating the
products of even numbers for the rest of your life. Similarly, there may be some triangles
which you have not yet drawn whose interior angles do not add up to 180°. We cannot measure
the interior angles of all possible triangles.

, even , even

At age 8 At age 16

, even , even

At age 36 At age 86
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 193

y{ì“ 24 eT]jáTT 2006 nqTÅ£”+<‘+, eT]jáTT 24 × 2006 = 48144 dŸ] dŸ+K« n“ dŸ]#áÖ&ƒ&yƒ Tî q® ~. ‚ý² MTsÁT
eTÂsHÕ –<‘VŸ²sÁD\Ôà dŸ]#áÖ&ƒe#áTÌ.
n<û$<óŠ+>±, ÔásÁ>·Ü >·~ýË nHû¿£ çÜuó„TC²\qT ^d¾ eT]jáTT y{ì n+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\ yîTTԐ ýÉ¿ìØ+#áeT“ n&ƒ>·e#áTÌ.
¿=\Ôá\ýË <ÃcÍ\T #áÖ&ƒÅ”£ +fñ, ÿ¿£ çÜuóT„ È+ jîTT¿£Ø n+ÔásÔZÁ á ¿ÃD²\T yîTTÔá+ï 180° esÁŔ£ eÚ+{²jáT“ MTsÁT ¿£qT>=+{²sÁT.
‡ |Ÿ<ÜƊ ýË ýË|Ÿ+ @$T{ì? <óŠ M¿£sD Á (verification) ç|Ÿç¿ìjTá ýË nHû¿£ dŸeTdŸ«\T –H•sTT. ‚~ “ÈeT“ MTsÁT
$XøÇd¾+#û ç|Ÿe#áq+ çyjáT&ƒ+ýË MTÅ£” dŸVŸäjáT|Ÿ&ƒe#áTÌ, nsTTÔû ‚~ n“• dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\ýË dŸÔá«eT“ MTsÁT KºÌÔá+>±
#î|Ο ýñsTÁ . –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, nHû¿£ ÈÔá\ dŸ]dŸ+K«\ >·TD¿±sÁ+ Âs+&ƒT dŸ]dŸ+K«\ \‹Æ+ dŸ] n“ }V¾²+#á&†“¿ì <‘]rdŸT+ï ~.
nsTTÔû, ‚~ dŸ]dŸ+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø n“• ÈÔá\ \‹Æ+ dŸ]n“ “sÆ]+#á<TŠ . MTsÁT kÍ<ó«Š eTjûT« n“• ÈÔá\ dŸ]dŸ+K«\
\u²Æ\qT uó…Ü¿£+>± Ôá“F #ûjáTýñsÁT. MTsÁT ný²#ûdï, ¿±sÁÖ¼HŽý˓ neֈsTTý²>±, MTsÁT MT J$Ԑ+Ôá+ dŸ]dŸ+K«\
\u²Æ\qT ýÉ¿ìØkÍïsÁT. n<û $<óŠ+>±, MTsÁT ‚+¿± ^jáT“ ¿=“• çÜuó„TC²\T –+&ƒe#áTÌ, y{ì n+ÔásÁZÔá ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔá+ï 180°.
esÁŔ£ eÚ+&ƒ¿b£ þe#áTÌ. kÍ<ó«Š eTjûT« n“• çÜuóT„ C²\ n+ÔásÔZÁ á ¿ÃD²\qT eTq+ ¿=\eýñ+.

, dŸ] dŸ+K«
, dŸ] dŸ+K«

8 dŸ+eÔáàs\ ejáTdŸTà
16 dŸ+eÔáàs\ ejáTdŸTà

, dŸ] dŸ+K«
, dŸ] dŸ+K«

36 dŸ+eÔáàs\ ejáTdŸTà 86 dŸ+eÔáàs\ ejáTdŸTà

194 Proofs in Mathematics

Moreover, verification can often be misleading. For example, we might be tempted to

conclude from Pascal’s triangle (Q.2 of Exercise A1.3), based on earlier verifications, that 115
= 15101051. But in fact 115 =161051.
So, you need another approach that does not depend upon verification for some cases only.
There is another approach, namely ‘proving a statement’. A process which can establish the
truth of a mathematical statement based purely on logical arguments is called a mathematical
proof.
In Example 2 of Section A1.2, you saw that to establish that a mathematical statement is
false, it is enough to produce a single counter-example. So while it is not enough to establish
the validity of a mathematical statement by checking or verifying it for thousands of cases, it is
enough to produce one counter-example to disprove a statement (i.e., to show that something
is false). This point is worth emphasising.

Girls don’t
climb trees.

To show that a mathematical statement is false, it is enough to find a single counter-

example.
So, 7 + 5 = 12 is a counter-example to the statement that the sum of two odd numbers is
odd.
Let us now look at the list of basic ingredients in a proof:
(i) To prove a theorem, we should have a rough idea as to how to proceed.
(ii) The information already given to us in a theorem (i.e., the hypothesis) has to be clearly
understood and used.
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 195

n+Ôû¿±¿£, <óŠM¿£sÁD ÔásÁ#áT>± Ôá|ŸÚÎ<Ãe |Ÿ{ì¼+#û $<óŠ+>± –+³T+~. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, bÍdŸØýÙ çÜuó„TÈ+ (nuó²«dŸeTT
A1.3, Q.2) qT+&, eTTqT|Ÿ{ì <óŠ M¿£sD Á \ €<ó‘sÁ+>±, 115 = 15101051. n“ eTq+ Ô=+<Šs|Á &Ÿ  çyjáTe#áTÌ. ¿±ú
ydŸyï “¿ì 115 =161051 neÚÔáT+~.
n+<ŠTe\¢, ¿=“• dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\Å£” dŸ]#áÖ#áT³™|Õ €<ó‘sÁ|&Ÿ “ƒ eTsà eÖsÁ+Z MTÅ£” nedŸs+Á neÚÔáT+~. € eTsà $<ó‘qyûT
»ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+qT “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjTá &ƒ+µ. ÿ¿£ >·DìÔá ç|Ÿe#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø dŸÔ«“• ¿¹ e\+ Ԑ]Ø¿£ y<Šq\ €<ó‘sÁ+>± “sÆ]+#á>\·
ç|Ÿç¿ìjáTqT >·DÔì á “sÁÖ|ŸD n“ n+{²sÁT.
™d¿£HŒ Ž A1.2 jîTT¿£Ø –<‘VŸ²sÁD 2 ýË, ÿ¿£ >·DìÔá ç|Ÿe#áq+ ndŸÔá«eT“ “sÆ]+#á&†“¿ì, ÿ¿£ ç|ŸÔáT«<‘VŸ²sÁD ‚dï
dŸ]bþÔáT+<Š“ MTsÁT #áÖXæsÁT. ¿±‹{ì¼, ÿ¿£ >·DìÔá ç|Ÿe#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø çbÍeÖDì¿£ÔáqT yû\ dŸ+K«ýË $$<óŠ dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\Å£”
Ôá“F #ûjTá &ƒ+ ýñ<‘ <óŠ M¿£]+#á&+ƒ <‘Çs <‘“ #î\T¢u²³TqT “sÁs’ TT+#áý¿ñ £ bþsTTq|ŸÎ{ì¿,¡ ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+qT ndŸÔá«+ n“
“sÁÖ|¾+#á&†“¿ì ÿ¿£ ç|ŸÔáT«<‘VŸ²sÁDqT ‚dï dŸ]bþÔáT+~. ‡ n+X擕 H=¿ìØ #îbÍÎ*àq nedŸsÁ+ –+~.

neֈsTT\T
#î³T¢ m¿£Øs<ŠT.

ÿ¿£ >·DÔì á ç|Ÿe#áq+ ndŸÔ«á eT“ #áÖ|Ÿ&†“¿ì, ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ ç|ŸÔTá «<‘VŸ²sÁDqT ¿£qT>=+fñ dŸ]bþÔáT+~.
n+<ŠTe\¢, 7 + 5 = 12 nHû~ Âs+&ƒT uñd¾ dŸ+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø yîTTÔáï+ uñd¾dŸ+K« nHû ç|Ÿe#áq+Å£” ÿ¿£
ç|ŸÔáT«<‘VŸ²sÁD .
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT eTq+ ÿ¿£ >·DìÔá “sÁÖ|ŸDÅ£” ¿±e*d¾q çbÍ<¸Š$T¿£ n+Xæ\ C²_ԐqT #áÖ<‘Ý+:
(i) ÿ¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ“• mý² “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjÖá ýË eTqÅ£” çbÍ<¸$Š T¿£ (rough) €ýË#áq –+&†*.
(ii) ÿ¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ýË eTqÅ£” eTT+<û ‚eNj&q dŸeÖ#sÁ+ (n+fñ, <ŠÔï+Xø+)qT dŸÎwŸ¼+>± nsÁœ+ #ûdŸT¿Ãy*
eT]jáTT “sÁÖ|ŸDýË –|ŸjîÖÐ+#*.
196 Proofs in Mathematics

For example, in Theorem A1.2, which states that the product of two even numbers is
even, we are given two even natural numbers. So, we should use their properties. In the
Factor Theorem (in Chapter 2), you are given a polynomial p(x) and are told that p(a) = 0.
You have to use this to show that (x – a) is a factor of p(x). Similarly, for the converse
of the Factor Theorem, you are given that (x – a) is a factor of p(x), and you have to use
this hypothesis to prove that p(a) =0.
You can also use constructions during the process of proving a theorem. For example,
to prove that the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°, we draw a line parallel to one of
the sides through the vertex opposite to the side, and use properties of parallel lines.
(iii) A proof is made up of a successive sequence of mathematical statements. Each statement
in a proof is logically deduced from a previous statement in the proof, or from a theorem
proved earlier, or an axiom, or our hypothesis.
(iv) The conclusion of a sequence of mathematically true statements laid out in a logically
correct order should be what we wanted to prove, that is, what the theorem claims.
To understand these ingredients, we will analyse Theorem A1.1 and its proof. You have already
studied this theorem in Chapter 6. But first, a few comments on proofs in geometry. We often
resort to diagrams to help us prove theorems, and this is very important. However, each statement
in the proof has to be established using only logic. Very often, we hear students make statements
like “Those two angles are equal because in the drawing they look equal” or “that angle must be
900, because the two lines look as if they are perpendicular to each other”. Beware of being
deceived by what you see (remember Fig A1.3)! .
So now let us go to Theorem A1.1.
Theorem A1.1 : The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
Proof : Consider a triangle ABC (see Fig. A1.4).
We have to prove that Ð ABC + Ð BCA + Ð CAB = 180° (1)

Fig A 1.4
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 197

–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, s +&ƒT dŸ]dŸ+K«\ \‹Æ+ dŸ]dŸ+K« n“ #î|Î d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ A1.2 ýË , eTqÅ£” Âs+&ƒT dŸ] dŸV²Ÿ È
dŸ+K«\T ‚eNj&†¦sTT. ¿±‹{ì¼, eTq+ y{ì <óŠsˆ\qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º B““ “sÁÖ|¾+#*. ¿±sÁD²+¿£
d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+(n<ó‘«jáT+ 2) ýË, MTÅ£” ÿ¿£ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ p(x) ‚eNj&+~ eT]jáTT p(a) = 0 n“ #î|Ο ‹&+~.
(x – a) nHû~ p(x) jîTT¿£Ø ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ n“ #áÖ|¾+#á&ƒ+ ¿=sÁÅ£” MTsÁT B““ –|ŸjîÖÐ+#*à –+³T+~.
n<û$<óŠ+>±, ¿±sÁD²+¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ jîTT¿£Ø $|ŸsÁ«já֓¿ì dŸ+‹+~ó+º,(x – a) nHû~ p(x) jîTT¿£Ø ¿±sÁD²+¿£+
n“ MTÅ£” ‚eNj&+~, eT]jáTT p(a) = 0 n“ “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjáT&†“¿ì MTsÁT ‡ <ŠÔï+Xø+qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+#*à
–+³T+~.
ÿ¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ“• “sÁÖ|¾+#û ç|Ÿç¿ìjáTýË MTsÁT “sˆD²\qT Å£L&† –|ŸjîÖÐ+#áe#áTÌ. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, ÿ¿£
çÜuó„TÈ+ jîTT¿£Ø ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+ 180° n“ “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjTá &ƒ+ ¿=sÁŔ£ , eTq+ uóT„ C²“¿ì m<ŠTsÁT>± –+&û osÁü+
>·T+&† ÿ¿£ uó„TC²“¿ì dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± ÿ¿£ ¹sKqT ^kÍï+ eT]jáTT dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ ¹sK\ <óŠsˆ\qT –|ŸjîÖÐkÍï+.
(iii) ÿ¿£ “sÁÖ|ŸD nHû~ >·DÔ ì á ç|Ÿe#áH\ jîTT¿£Ø esÁTdŸ ç¿£eT+Ôà sÁÖbõ+~+#á‹&+~. “sÁÖ|ŸDý˓ ç|ŸÜ
ç|Ÿe#áq+, Ԑ]Ø¿£+>± “sÁÖ|ŸDý˓ eTT+<ŠT ç|Ÿe#áq+ qT+& ýñ<‘ ‚+ÔáÅ£” eTT+<ŠT “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjáT‹&q ÿ¿£
d¾<‘Æ+ÔáeTT qT+& ýñ<‘ ÿ¿£ dÓÇ¿£ÔáeTT qT+& ýñ<‘ eTq <ŠÔï+Xø+ qT+& ç>·V¾²+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
(iv) eTq+ “sÁÖ|¾+#\qTÅ£”q•~ n+fñ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ @$T #î‹TÔáT+<à n~ Ԑ]Ø¿£+>± dŸÂsÕq ç¿£eT+ýË >·DìÔáXæçdŸï
|ŸsÁ+>± “¹sÝ¥+ºq dŸÔá«yîT®q ç|Ÿe#áH\ esÁTdŸ>± eÚ+&†*.
‡ $wŸjáÖ\qT nsÁ+œ #ûdŸT¿Ãe&†“¿ì, eTq+ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ A1.1 eT]jáTT <‘“ “sÁÖ|ŸDqT $Xâw¢ k¾ Íï+. ‡ d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ“•
MTsÁT ‚|ŸÎ{칿 6e n<ó‘«jáT+ýË n<ó«Š jáTq+ #ûXæsÁT. ¿±ú yîTT<Š³, C²«$TÜýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\™|Õ ¿=“• y«K«\T, d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\qT
“sÁÖ|¾+#á&+ƒ ýË eTqÅ£” Ôás#Á áT>± |Ÿ{²\T dŸVäŸ jáT|Ÿ&ԃ sTT eT]jáTT ‚~ #ý² eTTK«yîTq® $wŸjTá +. nsTTÔû, “sÁÖ|ŸDý˓
ç|ŸÜ ç|Ÿe#áq+qT ¿¹ e\+ ÔásÁØ+qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º çyjáÖ*à –+³T+~. #ý² Ôás#Á Tá >±, $<‘«sÁT\œ T »»€ s +&ƒT ¿ÃD²\T
dŸeÖq+ n+{²sÁT. m+<ŠT¿£+fñ ^d¾q|ŸÚ&ƒT dŸeÖq+>± ¿£“|¾dŸTïH•sTTµµ ýñ<‘ »»€ ¿ÃD+ Ôá|ŸÎ“dŸ]>± 90° –+&†*,
m+<ŠT¿£+fñ s +&ƒT s¹ K\T ÿ¿£<‘“¿=¿£{ì \+‹+>± –q•³T¢>± ¿£“|¾dTŸ Hï •sTTµµ. MTsÁT ¿£q‹&û<‘“• #áÖd¾ yîÖdŸbþe³+
>·T]+º C²ç>·Ô>áï ± –+&ƒ+& (|Ÿ³+ A1.3 >·TsÁTïÅ£”Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&)!
¿±‹{ì¼, ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT eTq+ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ A1.1Å£” yîÞ²Ý+.
d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ A1.1 : ÿ¿£ çÜuó„TÈ+ jîTT¿£Ø n+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+ 180°.
‹TTEeÚ : ABC nHû çÜuóT„ C²“• |Ÿ]>·DqýË¿ì rdŸTÅ£”+<‘+ (|Ÿ³+ A1.4 #áÖ&ƒ+&).
Ð ABC + Ð BCA + Ð CAB = 180° n“ eTq+ “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjÖ á *. (1)

|Ÿ³+ A 1.4
198 Proofs in Mathematics

Construct a line DE parallel to BC passing through A. (2)

DE is parallel to BC and AB is a transversal.
So, Ð DAB and Ð ABC are alternate angles. Therefore, by Theorem 6.2, Chapter 6, they are
equal, i.e. Ð DAB = Ð ABC (3)
Similarly, Ð CAE = Ð ACB (4)
Therefore, Ð ABC + Ð BAC+ Ð ACB = Ð DAB +Ð BAC + Ð CAE (5)
But Ð DAB +Ð BAC + Ð CAE = 180°, since they form a straight angle. (6)
Hence, Ð ABC + Ð BAC+ Ð ACB = 180°. (7)
Now, we comment on each step of the proof.
Step 1 : Our theorem is concerned with a property of triangles, so we begin with a triangle.
Step 2 : This is the key idea – the intuitive leap or understanding of how to proceed so as to be
able to prove the theorem. Very often geometric proofs require a construction.
Steps 3 and 4 : Here we conclude that Ð DAE = Ð ABC and Ð CAE = Ð ACB, by using the fact
that DE is parallel to BC (our construction), and the previously proved Theorem 6.2, which
states that if two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, then the alternate angles are
equal.
Step 5 : Here we use Euclid’s axiom (see Chapter 5) which states that: “If equals are added to
equals, the wholes are equal” to deduce
Ð ABC + Ð BAC+ Ð ACB = Ð DAB +Ð BAC + Ð CAE.
That is, the sum of the interior angles of the triangle are equal to the sum of the angles on a
straight line.
Step 6 : Here we use the Linear pair axiom of Chapter 6, which states that the angles on a
straight line add up to 180°, to show that Ð DAB +Ð BAC + Ð CAE = 180°.
Step 7 : We use Euclid’s axiom which states that “things which are equal to the same thing are
equal to each other” to conclude that Ð ABC + Ð BAC + Ð ACB = Ð DAB +Ð BAC + Ð CAE
= 180°. Notice that Step 7 is the claim made in the theorem we set out to prove.
We now prove Theorems A1.2 and A1.3 without analysing them.
Theorem A1.2 : The product of two even natural numbers is even.
Proof : Let x and y be any two even natural numbers.
We want to prove that xy is even.
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 199

A >·T+&† BC ¿ì dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± DE ¹sKqT “]ˆ+#á+&. (2)

DE nHû~ BC¿ì dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± –+³T+~ eT]jáTT AB nHû~ ÜsÁ«ç¹>K.
¿±‹{ì¼, Ð DAB eT]jáTT Ð ABC nHû$ @¿±+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\T. n+<ŠTe\¢, d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ 6.2, n<ó‘«jáT+ 6 <‘Çs, n$
dŸeÖq+, n+fñ Ð DAB = Ð ABC (3)
n<û$<ó+Š >±, Ð CAE = Ð ACB (4)
n+<ŠTe\¢, Ð ABC + Ð BAC+ Ð ACB = Ð DAB +Ð BAC + Ð CAE (5)
¿±ú Ð DAB +Ð BAC + Ð CAE = 180°, m+<ŠT¿£+fñ n$ ÿ¿£ dŸsÁÞø¿ÃD²“• @sÁÎsÁTkÍïsTT. (6)
n+<ŠTe\¢, Ð ABC + Ð BAC+ Ð ACB = 180°. (7)
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, “sÁÖ|ŸD jîTT¿£Ø ç|ŸÜ kþbÍq+™|Õ eTq+ y«U²«“kÍï+.
kþbÍq+ 1: eTq d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ çÜuó„TC²\ <óŠsˆ“¿ì dŸ+‹+~ó+ºq~, ¿±‹{ì¼ eTq+ çÜuó„TÈ+Ôà çbÍsÁ+_ókÍï+.
kþbÍq+ 2: ‚~ ¿¡\¿£yTî q® €ýË#áq - d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ“• “sÁÖ|¾+#á>*· >¹ ý² mý² ¿=qkÍÐ+#ýË dŸV²Ÿ ÈyîT®q ne>±VŸ²qÔÃ
eÚ+&†*. #ý² ÔásÁ#áT>± C²«$TrjáT “sÁÖ|ŸD\Å£” “sˆD+ nedŸsÁ+.
kþbÍH\T 3 eT]jáTT 4: ‚¿£Ø&ƒ eTq+ DE nHû~ BCÅ£” dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ+>± (eTq “sˆD+) –q•<ŠHû ydŸïy“•
–|ŸjÖî Ð+#á&+ƒ <‘Çs Ð DAE = Ð ABC eT]jáTT Ð CAE = Ð ACB \qT bõ+<Še#áTÌ eT]jáTT s +&ƒT dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ
¹sK\T, ÿ¿£ ÜsÁ«ç¹>K#û K+&+#á‹&q³¢sTTÔû, n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT @sÁÎ&û @¿±+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\T dŸeÖq+ nHû ‚+ÔáÅ£” eTT+<ŠT “sÁÖ|ŸD
#ûjáT‹&ƒ¦ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ 6.2, <‘Çs #î|ŸÎe#áTÌqT.
kþbÍq+ 5: »»dŸeÖH\qT dŸeÖq $\Te\qT CË&dï, @sÁÎ&û yîTTԐï\T dŸeÖq+µµ nHû jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž jîTT¿£Ø dÓÇ¿£Ԑ“•
(n<ó‘«jáT+ 5 #áÖ&ƒ+&) –|ŸjîÖÐ+º
Ð ABC + Ð BAC+ Ð ACB = Ð DAB +Ð BAC + Ð CAE >± çyjáTe#áTÌ.
nq>±, çÜuó„TÈ+ jîTT¿£Ø n+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+, ÿ¿£ dŸsÁÞø¹sK™|Õ –q• ¿ÃD²\ yîTTԐì dŸeÖq+.
kþbÍq+ 6: eTq+ ‚¿£Ø&ƒ dŸsÁÞø¹sK™|Õÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ e<ŠÝ ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+ 180°nHû n<ó‘«jáT+ 6ý˓ s¹ FjáT<ŠÇjáT+
dÓÇ¿£Ôá+qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º Ð DAB +Ð BAC + Ð CAE = 180°>± çykÍ+.
kþbÍq+ 7: Ð ABC + Ð BAC + Ð ACB = Ð DAB +Ð BAC + Ð CAE = 180° n“ çyjáT&†“¿ì »»@<îHÕ 
ÿ¿£<‘“¿ì dŸeÖqyîTq® s +&ƒT n+Xæ\T ÿ¿£<‘“¿=¿£{ì dŸeÖq+µµ n“ |s=Øq• jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž jîTT¿£Ø dÓÇ¿£Ôá+qT eTq+
–|ŸjîÖÐkÍï+. eTq+ “sÁÖ|¾+#á&†“¿ì @sÎ³T #ûd¾q d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ýË kþbÍq+7 nHû~ “]Æw¼Ÿ ç|Ÿe#áq+ n“ >·eT“+#á+&.
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT eTq+ d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\qT A1.2 eT]jáTT A1.3 \qT $Xâ¢w¾+#áÅ£”+&†Hû y{ì“ sÁTEeÚ #ûkÍï+.
d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ A1.2 : s +&ƒT dŸ] dŸV²Ÿ È dŸ+K«\ \‹Æ+ ÿ¿£ dŸ]dŸ+K«.
sÁTEeÚ : x eT]jáT y \T @yîÕH Âs+&ƒT dŸ] dŸVŸ²È dŸ+K«\T nqTÅ£”+<‘+.
xy nHû~ dŸ]dŸ+K« n“ eTq+ “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjáÖ*.
200 Proofs in Mathematics

Since x and y are even, they are divisible by 2 and can be expressed in the form
x = 2m, for some natural number m and y = 2n, for some natural number n.
Then xy = 4 mn. Since 4 mn is divisible by 2, so is xy.
Therefore, xy is even.

Theorem A1.3 : The product of any three consecutive even natural numbers is divisible by
16.
Proof : Any three consecutive even numbers will be of the form 2n, 2n + 2 and
2n + 4, for some natural number n. We need to prove that their product
2n(2n + 2)(2n + 4) is divisible by 16.
Now, 2n(2n + 2)(2n + 4) = 2n × 2(n +1) × 2(n + 2)
= 2 × 2 × 2n(n + 1)(n + 2) = 8n(n + 1)(n + 2).
Now we have two cases. Either n is even or odd. Let us examine each case.
Suppose n is even : Then we can write n = 2m, for some natural number m.
And, then 2n(2n + 2)(2n + 4) = 8n(n + 1)(n + 2) = 16m(2m + 1)(2m + 2).
Therefore, 2n(2n + 2)(2n + 4) is divisible by 16.
Next, suppose n is odd. Then n + 1 is even and we can write n + 1 = 2r, for some natural number
r.
We then have :2n(2n + 2)(2n + 4) =8n(n + 1)(n + 2)
= 8(2r – 1) × 2r × (2r + 1)
= 16r(2r – 1)(2r + 1)
Therefore, 2n(2n + 2)(2n + 4) is divisible by 16.
So, in both cases we have shown that the product of any three consecutive even numbers is
divisible by 16.
We conclude this chapter with a few remarks on the difference between how mathematicians
discover results and how formal rigorous proofs are written down. As mentioned above, each
proof has a key intuitive idea (sometimes more than one). Intuition is central to a mathematician’s
way of thinking and discovering results. Very often the proof of a theorem comes to a
mathematician all jumbled up. A mathematician will often experiment with several routes of
thought, and logic, and examples, before she/he can hit upon the correct solution or proof. It is
only after the creative phase subsides that all the arguments are gathered together to form a
proper proof.
It is worth mentioning here that the great Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan used
very high levels of intuition to arrive at many of his statements, which
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 201

x eT]jáTT y \T dŸ]dŸ+K«\T. ¿£qT¿£, n$ 2 #û uó²Ð+#á‹&ƒÔsTT eT]jáTT y{ì“ @<îÕH dŸVŸ²È dŸ+K« m Å£” x = 2m,
eT]jáTT @<îHÕ  dŸV²Ÿ È dŸ+K« n Å£” y = 2n sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË e«¿£|ï sŸ #Á eá #áTÌ.
n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT xy = 4 mn nHû~ 2 Ôà uó²Ð+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~ ¿£qT¿£, xy Å£L&† 2 Ôà uó²Ð+|Ÿ‹&ƒTÔáT+~ .
n+<ŠTe\¢, xy nHû~ dŸ]dŸ+K« n>·TqT.
d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ A1.3 : @yîÕH eTÖ&ƒT esÁTdŸ dŸ] dŸVŸ²È dŸ+K«\ \‹Æ+ 16Ôà uó²Ð+|Ÿ‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
sÁTEeÚ : @<îÕH dŸVŸ²È dŸ+K« n Å£”, @yîHÕ  eTÖ&ƒT esÁTdŸ dŸ]dŸV²Ÿ È dŸ+K«\T 2n, 2n + 2 eT]jáTT 2n + 4, sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË
–+{²sTT. y{ì \‹Æ+ 2n(2n + 2)(2n + 4) nHû~ 16Ôà uó²Ð+|Ÿ‹&ƒTÔáT+<Š“ eTq+ “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjáÖ*à –+³T+~.
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT, 2n(2n + 2)(2n + 4) = 2n × 2(n +1) × 2(n + 2)
= 2 × 2 × 2n(n + 1)(n + 2) = 8n(n + 1)(n + 2).
‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT eTqÅ£” Âs+&ƒT dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\T –H•sTT. n nHû~ dŸ] ýñ<‘ uñd.¾ eTq+ ‚|ŸÚÎ&ƒT ç|ŸÜ dŸ+<ŠsÒۓ• |Ÿ]o*<‘Ý+.
n nHû~ dŸ]dŸ+K« nqTÅ£”+<‘+: n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT eTq+ @<îH Õ  dŸV²Ÿ È dŸ+K« m Å£” n = 2m n“ çyjáTe#áTÌ.
eT]jáTT, n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT 2n(2n + 2)(2n + 4) = 8n(n + 1)(n + 2) = 16m(2m + 1)(2m + 2).
n+<ŠTe\¢, 2n(2n + 2)(2n + 4) nHû~ 16Ôà uó²Ð+|Ÿ‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
ÔásÁTyÔá, n nHû~ uñd¾ nqTÅ£”+<‘+. n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT n+1 nHû~ dŸ] eT]jáTT @<îHÕ  dŸV²Ÿ È dŸ+K« r Å£” eTq+ n+1=2r n“
çyjáTe#áTÌ.
n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT eTqÅ£” : 2n(2n + 2)(2n + 4) = 8n(n + 1)(n + 2)
= 8(2r – 1) × 2r × (2r + 1)
= 16r(2r – 1)(2r + 1)
n+<ŠTe\¢, 2n(2n + 2)(2n + 4) nHû~ 16Ôà uó²Ð+|Ÿ‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
¿±‹{ì¼, Âs+&ƒT dŸ+<ŠsÒÛýË¢qÖ @yîÕH eTÖ&ƒT esÁTdŸ dŸ] dŸ+K«\ \‹Æ+ 16 Ôà uó²Ð+|Ÿ‹&ƒTÔáT+<Š“ eTq+
“sÁÖ|¾+#+.
>·DÔì Xá æçdŸEï \ã T |˜*Ÿ Ԑ\qT mý² ¿£qT>=+{²sÁT eT]jáTT ý²+#óqá çbÍjáTyîTq® ¿£]qÄ yîTq® “sÁÖ|ŸD\T mý² sjáT‹&ƒÔjáTHû
<‘“ eT<ó«Š e«Ô«dŸ+™|Õ ¿=“• y«U²«H\Ôà ‡ n<ó‘«já֓• eTTÐkÍï+. ™|qÕ |s=Øq•³T¢>±, ç|ŸÜ “sÁÖ|ŸDÅ£” ¿¡\¿£
dŸV²Ÿ Èd¾<yƊ Tî q® €ýË#áq (¿=“•kÍsÁT¢ ÿ¿£{ì ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe) –+³T+~. ÿ¿£ >·DÔì á XæçdŸE ï “ã €ýË#áH $<ó‘H“¿ì eT]jáTT
|˜Ÿ*Ԑ\qT ¿£qT>=Hû $<ó‘H“¿ì n+ÔásY<Šw¾¼ ¹¿+ç<Š _+<ŠTeÚ n>·TqT. #ý² ÔásÁ#Tá >± ÿ¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ jîTT¿£Ø “sÁÖ|ŸD ÿ¿£
>·DÔì á XæçdŸE ï &ã ¿ ì edŸT+ï ~. ÿ¿£ >·DÔì á XæçdŸE
ï &ã Tƒ Ôás#Á Tá >± €yîT/nÔáqT dŸs qÕ |Ÿ]cÍØsÁ+ ýñ<‘ “sÁÖ|ŸDqT sjáT&†“¿ì
eTT+<ŠT nHû¿£ €ýË#áH eÖsZ\T eT]jáTT ÔásÁØ+ eT]jáTT –<‘VŸ²sÁD\Ôà ç|ŸjîÖ>±\T #ûkÍï&ƒT. dŸÈHÔሿ£ <ŠXø ÔáÐZq
ÔásTÁ yÔá eÖçÔáyTû n“• y<Šq\T ÿ¿£#ó #û] dŸs qÕ “sÁÖ|ŸDqT @sÁÎsÁTkÍïsTT.
>=|ŸÎ uó²sÁrjáT >·DÔì á XæçdŸE ï &ã Tƒ ço“ydŸ seÖqTÈHŽ Ôáq nHû¿£ dŸÔ«á eTT\“ |s=Øq• ç|Ÿe#áH\qT dŸÎwŸ+¼ >±
Ôî\TdŸT¿Ãe&†“¿ì #ý² –q•Ôá k͜sTT n+ÔásÁÝw¾¼“ –|ŸjîÖÐ+#&ƒ“ ‚¿£Ø&ƒ |s=Øq<ŠÐ+~.
202 Proofs in Mathematics

he claimed were true. Many of these have turned out be true

and are well known theorems. However, even to this day
mathematicians all over the world are struggling to prove
(or disprove) some of his claims (conjectures).

Srinivasa Ramanujan
(1887–1920)
EXERCISE A1.4
Fig. A1.5
1. Find counter-examples to disprove the following statements:
(i) If the corresponding angles in two triangles are equal, then the triangles are
congruent.
(ii) A quadrilateral with all sides equal is a square.
(iii) A quadrilateral with all angles equal is a square.
(iv) For integers a and b, a2 + b2 =a+b
(v) 2n2 + 11 is a prime for all whole numbers n.
(vi) n2 – n + 41 is a prime for all positive integers n.
2. Take your favourite proof and analyse it step-by-step along the lines discussed in Section
A1.5 (what is given, what has been proved, what theorems and axioms have been used,
and so on).
3. Prove that the sum of two odd numbers is even.
4. Prove that the product of two odd numbers is odd.
5. Prove that the sum of three consecutive even numbers is divisible by 6.
6. Prove that infinitely many points lie on the line whose equation is y = 2x.
(Hint : Consider the point (n, 2n) for any integer n.)
7. You must have had a friend who must have told you to think of a number and do various
things to it, and then without knowing your original number, telling you what number you
ended up with. Here are two examples. Examine why they work.
(i) Choose a number. Double it. Add nine. Add your original number. Divide by three.
Add four. Subtract your original number. Your result is seven.
(ii) Write down any three-digit number (for example, 425). Make a six-digit number by
repeating these digits in the same order (425425). Your new number is divisible by
7, 11 and 13.
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 203

M{ìýË nHû¿+£ dŸÔ«á eT“ Ôû*+~ eT]jáTT u²>± Ôî*d¾q d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\T. @<ûyTî H® ,
‡ sÃE esÁÅ£” ç|Ÿ|Ÿ+#áy«|Ÿ+ï >± –q• >·DìÔá XæçdŸïEã\T nÔᓠy<Šq\ýË
¿=“• |Ÿ]¿£\Îq\qT “sÁÖ|¾+#á&†“¿ì (ýñ<‘ K+&+#á&†“¿ì) #ý²
¿£w|¼Ÿ &Ÿ Tƒ ÔáTH•sÁT.

nuó²«dŸ+ A1.4 ço“ydŸ seÖqTÈHŽ

(1887–1920)
|Ÿ³+. A1.5
1. ~>·Te ç|Ÿe#áH\T ndŸÔ«á eTT\“ #áÖ|Ÿ&†“¿ì ÿ¿£ ç|ŸÔTá «<‘VŸ²sÁDqT ¿£qT>=q+&:
(i) s +&ƒT çÜuóT„ C²\ýË nqTsÁÖ|Ÿ ¿ÃD²\T dŸeÖq+ nsTTÔû, n|ŸÚÎ&ƒT € çÜuóT„ C²\T dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖH\T.
(ii) n“• uó„TC²\T dŸeÖq+>± –q• #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+ ÿ¿£ #áÔáTsÁçdŸ+ n>·TqT.
(iii) n“• ¿ÃD²\T dŸeÖq+>± –q• #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+ ÿ¿£ #áÔáTsÁçdŸ+ n>·TqT.
(iv) |ŸPsÁd’ +Ÿ K«\T a eT]jáTT b, \Å£” a + b = a + b
2 2

(v) |ŸPs’+¿£+ n \“•+{ì¿ì 2n2 + 11 nHû~ ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿ<‘ó q dŸ+K« n>·TqT.

(vi) |ŸPsÁ’dŸ+K« n \“•+{ì¿ì n2 – n + 41 nHû~ ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿ<‘ó q dŸ+K« n>·TqT.
2. MTÅ£” ‚wŸy¼ Tî q® “sÁÖ|ŸDqT rdŸT¿=“, ™d¿£HŒ Ž A1.5ýË #á]Ì+ºq eÖsZýË¢ kþbÍH\ y¯>± $Xâw¢ +¾ #á+& (@$T
‚eNj&+~, @~“sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjáT‹&+~, @ d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ\T eT]jáTT dÓÇ¿£ÔáeTT\T –|ŸjîÖÐ+#sÁT, yîTT<ŠýÉÕq$).
3. Âs+&ƒT uñd¾ dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ dŸ] n“ sÁTEeÚ #ûjáT+&.
4. Âs+&ƒT uñd¾ dŸ+K«\ \‹Æ+ uñd¾ n“ sÁTEeÚ #ûjáT+&.
5. eTÖ&ƒT esÁTdŸ dŸ] dŸ+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ 6 Ôà “XâôwŸ+>± uó²Ð+|Ÿ‹&ƒTÔáT+<Š“ “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjáT+&.
6. y = 2x nHû dŸMT¿£sÁD+ >·\ ¹sK™|Õ nq+Ôá+>± nHû¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ\T –H•jáT“ “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjáT+&. (dŸÖ#áq:
@<îHÕ  |ŸPsÁd’ +Ÿ K« n Å£”, _+<ŠTeÚ (n, 2n) qT rdŸT¿Ã+&.)
7. MTsÁT ÿ¿£ dŸ+K« >·T]+º €ý˺+º <‘“™|Õ sÁ¿s£ ¿Á ±\ |ŸqT\T #ûjTá eT“#î|ξ , € ™|Õ MT ndŸ\T dŸ+K« Ôî*jáTÅ£”+&†,
MTsÁT @ dŸ+K«Ôà eTTÐ+#sà #î|Ο &†“¿ì Ôá|Ο “dŸ]>± MTÅ£” ÿ¿£ d•V¾²ÔáT&ƒT –+&†*. ‚¿£Ø&ƒ s +&ƒT –<‘VŸ²sÁD\T
–H•sTT. n$ m+<ŠTÅ£” |Ÿ“ #ûdTŸ Hï •jîÖ |Ÿ]o*+#á+&.
(i) ÿ¿£ dŸ+K«qT m+#áT¿Ã+&. <‘““ s {ì+¼ |ŸÚ #ûjTá +&. Ô=$Tˆ~“ ¿£\|Ÿ+&. MT ndŸ\T dŸ+K«qT ¿£\|Ÿ+&.
eTÖ&ƒTÔà uó²Ð+#á+&. H\T>·T ¿£\|Ÿ+&. MT ndŸ\T dŸ+K«qT rd¾yûjáT+&. MT |˜Ÿ*Ôá+ @&ƒT.
(ii) @<îHÕ  eTÖ&ƒT n+¿\ dŸ+K«qT sjáT+& (–<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£”, 425). ‡ n+¿\qT n<û ç¿£eT+ýË |ŸÚqseÔá+
#ûjáT&ƒ+ <‘Çs €sÁT n+¿\ dŸ+K«qT sÁÖbõ+~+#á+& (425425). MT ¿=Ôáï dŸ+K« 7, 11 eT]jáTT
13 \Ôà uó²Ð+|Ÿ‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
204 Proofs in Mathematics

A1.6 Summary
In this Appendix, you have studied the following points:
1. In mathematics, a statement is only acceptable if it is either always true or always false.
2. To show that a mathematical statement is false, it is enough to find a single counter-example.
3. Axioms are statements which are assumed to be true without proof.
4. A conjecture is a statement we believe is true based on our mathematical intuition, but which
we are yet to prove.
5. A mathematical statement whose truth has been established (or proved) is called a theorem.
6. The main logical tool in proving mathematical statements is deductive reasoning.
7. A proof is made up of a successive sequence of mathematical statements. Each statement in
a proof is logically deduced from a previouly known statement, or from a theorem proved
earlier, or an axiom, or the hypothesis.
>·DìÔá+ýË “sÁÖ|ŸD\T 205

A1.6 kÍs+Xø+
‡ nqT‹+<óŠ+ýË, MTsÁT ‡ ç¿ì+~ n+Xæ\qT n<óŠ«jáTq+ #ûXæsÁT:
1. >·DìÔá+ýË, ÿ¿£ ç|Ÿe#áq+ m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ dŸÔá«+ ýñ<‘ m\¢|ŸÚÎ&ƒÖ ndŸÔá«+ nsTTÔûHû €yîÖ~+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
2. ÿ¿£ >·DìÔá ç|Ÿe#áq+ ndŸÔá«eT“ #áÖ|Ÿ&†“¿ì, ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ ç|ŸÔáT«<‘VŸ²sÁDqT ¿£qT>=+fñ dŸ]bþÔáT+~.
3. dÓÇ¿£Ԑ\T nHû$ “sÁÖ|ŸD ýñŔ£ +&† dŸÔ«á + n“ uó²$+#á‹&û ç|Ÿe#áH\T.
4. ÿ¿£ |Ÿ]¿£\Îq nHû~ ‚+¿± “sÁÖ|¾+#á‹&ƒ“ eTq+ >·DìÔá n+ÔásÁÝw¾¼ €<ó‘sÁ+>± dŸÔá«+ n“ qyûTˆ ç|Ÿe#áq+.
5. “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjTá ‹&q ÿ¿£ >·DÔ ì á ç|Ÿe#áH“• ÿ¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ n+{²sÁT.
6. >·DÔì á ç|Ÿe#áH\qT “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjTá &ƒ+ýË ç|Ÿ<‘ó q Ԑ]Ø¿£ kÍ<óqŠ + “>·eTq “sÁÖ|ŸD |Ÿ<Ü݊ .
7. ÿ¿£ “sÁÖ|ŸD >·DÔ ì á ç|Ÿe#áH\ jîTT¿£Ø esÁTdŸ ç¿£eT+Ôà sÁÖbõ+~+#á‹&+~. “sÁÖ|ŸDý˓ ç|ŸÜ ç|Ÿe#áq+ Ԑ]Ø¿£+>±
eTT+<ŠT>± Ôî*d¾q ç|Ÿe#áq+ qT+& ýñ<‘ ‚+ÔáŔ£ eTT+<ŠT sÁTEeÚ #ûjTá ‹&q ÿ¿£ d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ qT+& ýñ<‘ ÿ¿£ dÓÇ¿£Ôá+
ýñ<‘ |Ÿ]¿£\Îq qT+& ç>·V¾²+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
206 Answers

APPENDIX 1

ANSWERS/ HINTS

EXERCISE 1.1
0 0 0
1. Yes. 0= = = etc., denominator q can also be taken as negative integer..
1 2 3

2. There can be infinitely many rationals betwen numbers 3 and 4, one way is to take them

3= . Then the six numbers are .

3. . Therefore, five rationals are :

4. (i) True, since the collection of whole numbers contains all the natural numbers.

(ii) False, for example – 2 is not a whole number.

(iii) False, for example is a rational number but not a whole number..

EXERCISE 1.2

1. (i) True, since collection of real numbers is made up of rational and irrational numbers.

(ii) False, no negative number can be the square root of any natural number.

(iii) False, for example 2 is real but not irrational.

2. No. For example, = 2 is a rational number..

3. Repeat the procedure as in Fig. 1.8 several times. First obtain and then .
Èy‹T\T 207

APPENDIX 1

Èy‹T\T / dŸÖ#áq\T
nuó²«dŸ+ 1.1
0 0 0
1. neÚqT. 0= = = yîTTöö. VŸäsÁeTT q qT ‹TTD|ŸPsÁ’ dŸ+K«>± Å£L&† rdŸT¿Ãe#áTÌ.
1 2 3

2. 3 eT]jáTT 4 n+¿\ eT<ó«Š nq+ÔáyîTq® n¿£sD

Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K«\T ¿£\eÚ. y{ì“ ¿£qT>=qT ÿ¿£ $<ó‘q+
3= . n|Ÿð&ƒT 6 dŸ+K«\T .

3. . ×<ŠT n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\T :

4. (i) dŸÔá«+ (m+<ŠTe\qq>±) |ŸPs’+¿±\T nú• dŸVŸ²È dŸ+U«\qT ¿£*Ð –+&ƒTqT.

(ii) ndŸÔá«+. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” – 2 |ŸPs’+¿£+ ¿±<ŠT.
(iii) ndŸÔá«+. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« ¿±“ |ŸPs’+¿£+ ¿±<ŠT.
nuó²«dŸ+ 1.2
1. (i) dŸÔá«+. ydŸïe dŸ+K«\T nHû$ ¿£sÁD¡jáT eT]jáTT n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«\ dŸyûTˆÞøq+.
(ii) ndŸÔá«+. @ dŸVŸ²ÈdŸ+K«Å£” ‹TTDdŸ+K« esÁZeTÖ\+ ¿±HûsÁ<ŠT.
(iii) ndŸÔá«+ –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” 2 ydŸeï dŸ+K« ¿±“ ¿£sD
Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K« ¿±<ŠT.
2. ¿±<ŠT. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” = 2 ÿ¿£ n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«.
3. |Ÿ³+ 1.8ýË $<ó‘H“• nHû¿£kÍsÁT¢ |ŸÚqseÔá+ #ûjáÖ*. yîTT<Š³ ÔásÁTyÔá bõ+<ŠTԐsÁT.
208 Answers

EXERCISE 1.3

1. (i) 0.36, terminating. (ii) 0.09 , non-terminating repeating.

(iii) 4.125, terminating. (iv) 0.230769 , non-terminating repeating.

(v) 0.18 non-terminating repeating.(vi) 0.8225 terminating.

2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1
2. = 2´ = 0.285714, = 3´ = 0.428571, = 4´ = 0.571428, = 5´ = 0.714285,
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
6 1
= 6´ = 0.857142
7 7

2 6 2
3. (i) 3
[Let x = 0.666. . . So 10x = 6.666. . . or, 10x = 6 + x or , x= 9
=
3
]

43 1
(ii) 90
(iii) 999

4. 1 [Let x = 0.9999. . . So 10 x = 9.999. . . or, 10 x = 9 + x or, x = 1]

5. 0.0588235294117647

6. The prime factorisation of q has only powers of 2 or powers of 5 or both.

7. 0.01001000100001. . ., 0.202002000200002. . ., 0.003000300003. . .
8. 0.75075007500075000075. . ., 0.767076700767000767. . ., 0.808008000800008. . .
9. (i) and (v) irrational; (ii), (iii) and (iv) rational.
EXERCISE 1.4
1. (i) Irrational (ii) Rational (iii) Rational (iv) Irrational
(v) Irrational
2. (i) 6 + 3 2 + 2 3 + 6 (ii) 6 (iii) 7 + 2 10 (iv) 3
3. There is no contradiction. Remember that when you measure a length with a scale or any
other device, you only get an approximate rational value. So, you may not realise that either
c or d is irrational.
4. Refer Fig. 1.17.

7 5 - 2 7 + 2
5. (i) (ii) 7 + 6 (iii) (iv)
7 3 3
Èy‹T\T 209

nuó²«dŸ+ 1.3
1. (i) 0.36 n+ÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xø+ (ii) 0.09 , n+Ôá+¿±“ €eÔá <ŠXæ+Xø+ (€eÔá+)
(iii) 4.125, n+ÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xø+ (iv) 0.230769 , n+Ôá+ ¿±“ ` €eÔá <ŠXæ+Xø+
(v) 0.18 n+Ôá+ ¿±“ €eÔá+ n>·T <ŠXæ+Xø+ (vi) 0.8225 n+ÔáeTjûT« <ŠXæ+Xø+
2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1
2. = 2´ = 0.285714, = 3´ = 0.428571, = 4´ = 0.571428, = 5´ = 0.714285,
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
6 1
= 6´ = 0.857142
7 7

2 6 2
3. (i) 3
[ x = 0.666. . . nqT¿=qTeTT n|ŸÚ&ƒT 10x = 6.666. . . ýñ<‘, 10x = 6 + x ýñ<‘ , x = 9
=
3
]

43 1
(ii) 90
(iii) 999

4. 1 [Let x = 0.9999. . ..nqT¿=qTeTT n|ŸÚ&ƒT 10 x = 9.999. . . ýñ<‘, 10 x = 9 + x ýñ<‘, x =

1]
5. 0.0588235294117647

6. q jîTT¿£Ø ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uóÈ

„ q ¹¿e\+ 2 jîTT¿£Ø |˜ÖŸ Ԑ+¿£+>± >±“ ýñ<‘ 5 jîTT¿£Ø |˜ÖŸ Ԑ+¿£+>± >±“ ýñ<‘ Âs+&+{ì“
¿£*Ð –+&ƒTqT.
7. 0.01001000100001. . ., 0.202002000200002. . ., 0.003000300003. . .
8. 0.75075007500075000075. . ., 0.767076700767000767. . ., 0.808008000800008. . .
9. (i) eT]jáTT (v) ¿£sD ¡ Tá dŸ+K«\T; (ii), (iii) eT]jáTT (iv) \T n¿£sD
Á j Á j
¡ Tá dŸ+K«\T
nuó²«dŸ+ 1.4
1. (i) ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« (ii) n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+U« (iii) n¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«
(iv) ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K« (v) ¿£sÁD¡jáT dŸ+K«
2. (i) 6 + 3 2 + 2 3 + 6 (ii) 6 (iii) 7 + 2 10 (iv) 3
3. ‚#á³ m³Te+{ì $sÁT<ŠÔÆ á ýñ<ŠT. m|ŸÚ&îÕH úeÚ ÿ¿£ <ŠÖs“• dØ\TÔà >±“ ýñ<‘ ‚ÔásÁ |Ÿ]¿£sÁ+Ôà >±“ ¿=*ºq|ŸÚ&ƒT
dŸTeÖsÁT $\TeqT eÖçÔáyTû bõ+<Š>\· e“ >·TsÁT+ï #áT¿Ã. ¿±eÚq c ýñ<‘ d >±“ ¿£sD Á j¡ Tá dŸ+K«\“ uó²$+#áe<ŠT.Ý
4. |Ÿ³+ 1.17 qT |Ÿ]o*+#á+&.

7 5 - 2 7 + 2
5. (i) (ii) 7 + 6 (iii) (iv)
7 3 3
210 Answers

EXERCISE 1.5

1 1
1 é -
3 - ù

1. (i) 8 (ii) 2 (iii) 52.(i) 27 (ii) 4 (iii) 8 (iv) ê (125)

3
= (5 )
3 = 5–1 ú
5ë û

13 1 1
3. (i) 215 (ii) 3–21 (iii) 114 (iv) 56 2

EXERCISE 2.1
1. (i) and (ii) are polynomials in one variable, (v) is a polynomial in three variables,
(iii), (iv) are not polynomials, because in each of these exponent of the variable is not a
whole number.

p
2. (i) 1 (ii) –1 (iii) (iv) 0
2

3. 3x35 – 4; 2 y100 (You can write some more polynomials with different coefficients.)
4. (i) 3 (ii) 2 (iii) 1 (iv) 0

5. (i) quadratic (ii) cubic (iii) quadratic (iv) linear

(v) linear (vi) quadratic (vii) cubic

EXERCISE 2.2
1. (i) 3 (ii) –6 (iii) –3
2. (i) 1, 1, 3 (ii) 2, 4, 4 (iii) 0, 1, 8 (iv) –1, 0, 3
3. (i) Yes (ii) No (iii) Yes (iv) Yes
(v) Yes (vi) Yes

1 2
(vii) - is a zero, but is not a zero of the polynomial (viii) No
3 3

- 5 2
4. (i) –5 (ii) 5 (iii) (iv) 3
2

d
(v) 0 (vi) 0 (vii) -
c

EXERCISE 2.3
Èy‹T\T 211

nuó²«dŸ+ 1.5
1 1
1 é -
3 - ù

1. (i) 8 (ii) 2 (iii) 52.(i) 27 (ii) 4 (iii) 8 (iv) ê (125)

3
= (5 )
3 = 5–1 ú
5ë û

13 1 1
3. (i) 215 (ii) 3–21 (iii) 114 (iv) 56 2

nuó²«dŸ+ 2.1
1. (i) eT]jáTT (ii) nqTq$ @¿£#ásÁs¥ýË ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T (v) nqTq~ 3 #ásÁsXø—\ýË ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~.
(iii), (iv) nqTq$ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<ŠT\T ¿±eÚ. m+<ŠT¿£+fñ ‡ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~ýË ç|Ÿr #ásÁs¥ jîTT¿£Ø |˜ŸÖԐ+¿£+ |ŸPs’+¿£+
¿±<ŠT.
p
2. (i) 1 (ii) –1 (iii) (iv) 0
2

3. 3x35 – 4; 2 y100 (úeÚ yûs¹ ÇsÁT >·TD¿±\Ôà eT]¿=“• ‹VŸQ|Ÿ<TŠ \qT sjáTe#áTÌqT)
4. (i) 3 (ii) 2 (iii) 1 (iv) 0
5. (i) esÁZ (ii) |˜TŸ q (iii)esÁZ (iv) ¹sFjáT
(v) ¹sFjáT (vi) esÁZ (vii) |˜TŸ q
nuó²«dŸ+ 2.2
1. (i) 3 (ii) –6 (iii) –3
2. (i) 1, 1, 3 (ii) 2, 4, 4 (iii) 0, 1, 8 (iv) –1, 0, 3
3. (i) neÚqT (ii) ¿±<ŠT (iii) neÚqT (iv) neÚqT
(v) neÚqT (vi) neÚqT
1 2
(vii) - nqTq~ XøSq« $\Te ¿±“ nqTq~ ‹VŸQ|Ÿ~¿ì XøSq« $\Te ¿±<ŠT.
3 3

(viii) ¿±<ŠT
- 5 2
4. (i) –5 (ii) 5 (iii) (iv) 3
2

d
(v) 0 (vi) 0 (vii) -
c

nuó²«dŸ+ 2.3
212 Answers

1. (x + 1) is a factor of (i), but not the factor of (ii), (iii) and (iv).
2. (i) Yes (ii) No (iii) Yes
3
3. (i) –2 (ii) - (2 + 2) (iii) 2 - 1 (iv)
2

4. (i) (3x – 1) (4x – 1)(ii)(x + 3) (2x + 1) (iii) (2x + 3) (3x – 2) (iv)

(x + 1) (3x – 4)
5. (i) (x – 2) (x – 1) (x + 1) (ii) (x + 1) (x + 1) (x – 5)
(iii) (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 10) (iv) (y – 1) (y + 1) (2y + 1)
EXERCISE 2.4
1. (i) x2 + 14x + 40(ii) x2 – 2x – 80 (iii) 9x2 – 3x – 20
9
(iv)y4 – (v) 9 – 4x2
4

2. (i) 11021 (ii) 9120 (iii) 9984

æ yö æ yö
3. (i) (3x + y) (3x + y)(ii)(2y – 1) (2y – 1)(iii) ç
x +
÷
10 ø
ç
x -
÷
10 ø
è è

4. (i) x2 + 4y2 + 16z2 + 4xy + 16yz + 8xz

(ii) 4x2 + y2 + z2 – 4xy – 2yz + 4xz
(iii) 4x2 + 9y2 + 4z2 – 12xy + 12yz – 8xz
(iv)9a2 + 49b2 + c2 – 42ab + 14bc – 6ac
(v) 4x2 + 25y2 + 9z2 – 20xy – 30yz + 12xz

a2 b2 ab a
(vi) + + 1- - b +
16 4 4 2

5. (i) (2x + 3y – 4z) (2x + 3y – 4z) (ii) ( - 2x + y + 2 2 z) ( - 2x + y + 2 2 z)

6. (i) 8x3 + 12x2 + 6x + 1 (ii) 8a3 – 27b3 – 36a2b + 54ab2

27 3 27 2 9 3 8 3 4 xy 2
(iii) x + x + x + 1 (iv) x - y - 2 x2 y +
8 4 2 27 3
Èy‹T\T 213

1. (x + 1) nqTq~ (i) Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿£+, ¿±“ (ii), (iii) eT]jáTT (iv) \Å£” ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ ¿±<ŠT.
2. (i) neÚqT (ii) ¿±<ŠT (iii) neÚqT
3
3. (i) –2 (ii) - (2 + 2) (iii) 2 - 1 (iv)
2

4. (i) (3x – 1) (4x – 1) (ii) (x + 3) (2x + 1) (iii) (2x + 3) (3x – 2) (iv)

(x + 1) (3x – 4)
5. (i) (x – 2) (x – 1) (x + 1) (ii) (x + 1) (x + 1) (x – 5)
(iii) (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 10) (iv) (y – 1) (y + 1) (2y + 1)

nuó²«dŸ+ 2.4
1. (i) x2 + 14x + 40 (ii) x2 – 2x – 80 (iii) 9x2 – 3x – 20
9
(iv)y4 – (v) 9 – 4x2
4

2. (i) 11021 (ii) 9120 (iii) 9984

æ yö æ yö
3. (i) (3x + y) (3x + y) (ii) (2y – 1) (2y – 1) (iii) ç
x +
÷
10 ø
ç
x -
÷
10 ø
è è

4. (i) x2 + 4y2 + 16z2 + 4xy + 16yz + 8xz

(ii) 4x2 + y2 + z2 – 4xy – 2yz + 4xz
(iii) 4x2 + 9y2 + 4z2 – 12xy + 12yz – 8xz
(iv)9a2 + 49b2 + c2 – 42ab + 14bc – 6ac
(v) 4x2 + 25y2 + 9z2 – 20xy – 30yz + 12xz

a2 b2 ab a
(vi) + + 1- - b +
16 4 4 2

5. (i) (2x + 3y – 4z) (2x + 3y – 4z) (ii) ( - 2x + y + 2 2 z) ( - 2x + y + 2 2 z)

6. (i) 8x3 + 12x2 + 6x + 1 (ii) 8a3 – 27b3 – 36a2b + 54ab2

27 3 27 2 9 3 8 3 4 xy 2
(iii) x + x + x + 1 (iv) x - y - 2 x2 y +
8 4 2 27 3
214 Answers

7. (i) 970299 (ii) 1061208 (iii) 994011992

8. (i) (2a + b)(2a + b)(2a + b) (ii) (2a – b)(2a – b)(2a – b)

(iii) (3 – 5a)(3 – 5a)(3 – 5a) (iv)(4a – 3b)(4a – 3b)(4a – 3b)

1ö æ 1ö æ 1ö
(v) æ
ç
3p -
÷ ç
3p -
÷ ç
3p -
÷
è 6ø è 6ø è 6ø

10. (i) (3y + 5z) (9y2 + 25z2 – 15yz) (ii) (4m – 7n) (16m2 + 49n2 + 28mn)

11. (3x + y + z) (9x2 + y2 + z2 – 3xy – yz – 3xz)

12. Simiplify RHS.

13. Put x + y + z = 0 in Identity VIII.

14. (i) –1260. Let a = –12, b = 7, c = 5. Here a + b + c = 0. Use the result given in Q13.

(ii) 16380

15. (i) One possible answer is : Length = 5a – 3, Breadth = 5a – 4

(ii) One possible answer is : Length = 7y – 3, Breadth = 5y + 4

16. (i) One possible answer is : 3, x and x – 4.

(ii) One possible answer is : 4k, 3y + 5 and y – 1.

EXERCISE 3.1

1. Consider the lamp as a point and table as a plane.

25 cm
Choose any two perpendicular edges of the table. Lamp

Measure the distance of the lamp from the longer 30 cm

edge, suppose it is 25 cm. Again, measure the distance
of the lamp from the shorter edge, and suppose it is
30 cm. You can write the position of the lamp as (30,
25) or (25, 30), depending on the order you fix.
Èy‹T\T 215

7. (i) 970299 (ii) 1061208 (iii) 994011992

8. (i) (2a + b)(2a + b)(2a + b) (ii) (2a – b)(2a – b)(2a – b)

(iii) (3 – 5a)(3 – 5a)(3 – 5a) (iv)(4a – 3b)(4a – 3b)(4a – 3b)

1ö æ 1ö æ 1ö
(v) æ
ç
3p -
÷ ç
3p -
÷ ç
3p -
÷
è 6ø è 6ø è 6ø

10. (i) (3y + 5z) (9y2 + 25z2 – 15yz) (ii) (4m – 7n) (16m2 + 49n2 + 28mn)

11. (3x + y + z) (9x2 + y2 + z2 – 3xy – yz – 3xz)

12. RHS qT kÍ~ó+#á+&.

13. VIII qT ¿£qT>=qT³ýË x + y + z = 0 >± rdŸT¿Ã+&.

14. (i) –1260 , a = –12, b = 7, c = 5 nqT¿Ã+&. ‚#á³ a + b + c = 0. Q13 ýË ‚ºÌq |˜*Ÿ Ԑ“•
–|ŸjîÖÐ+#á+&.
(ii) 16380

15. (i) kÍ<ó«Š |Ÿ&û dŸeÖ<ó‘q+, bõ&ƒeÚ = 5a – 3, yî&ƒ\TÎ = 5a – 4

(ii) kÍ<ó«Š |Ÿ&û dŸeÖ<ó‘q+ bõ&ƒeÚ = 7y – 3, yî&ƒ\TÎ = 5y + 4
16. (i) kÍ<ó«Š eTjûT« dŸeÖ<ó‘q+ 3, x eT]jáTT x – 4.
(ii) kÍ<ó«Š eTjûT« dŸeÖ<ó‘q+ 4k, 3y + 5 eT]jáTT y – 1.
nuó²«dŸ+ 3.1
25 cm
1. ‹\¢qT ÿ¿£ dŸeTÔá\+>± eT]jáTT Bb͓• ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ>± nqT¿Ã+&. Lamp

‹\¢ jîTT¿£Ø @yîÕH Âs+&ƒT \+‹+>± –q• n+#áT\qT rdŸT¿Ã+&. 30 cm

bõ&ƒeÚ n+#áT qT+& Bb͓¿ì >·\ <ŠÖs“• ¿=\e+&. n~ ÿ¿£ 25
™d+.MT. nqT¿Ã+&. eTsÁý² ºq• n+#áT qT+& Bb͓¿ì >·\ <ŠÖs“•
¿=\e+&. n~ 30 ™d+.MT. nqT¿Ã+&. ‚|ŸÚ&Tƒ B|Ÿ+ k͜H“• (30,25)
ýñ<‘ (25,30) >± sjáTe#áTÌ. n~ MTsÁT rdŸTÅ£”q• esÁTdŸ™|Õ €<ó‘sÁ|&Ÿ 
–+&ƒTqT.
216 Answers

2. The Street plan is shown in figure given below.

Street 3

Street 5
Street 1

Street 4
Street 2
N

Street 5
Street 4
Street 3
Street 2
Street 1
W E
C

S
Both the cross-streets are marked in the figure above. They are uniquely found because of
the two reference lines we have used for locating them.

EXERCISE 3.2
1. (i)The x - axis and the y - axis (ii) Quadrants (iii) The origin
2. (i)(– 5, 2) (ii) (5, –5) (iii) E (iv) G (v) 6 (vi) – 3 (vii) (0, 5) (viii) (–3, 0)

EXERCISE 4.1
1. x – 2y = 0
2. (i) 2x + 3y – 9.35 = 0; a = 2, b = 3, c = – 9.35
y -1,
(ii) x – 5
– 10 = 0; a = 1, b = 5
c = –10
(iii) –2x + 3y – 6 = 0; a = –2, b = 3, c = –6
(iv)1.x – 3y + 0 = 0; a = 1, b = –3, c = 0
(v) 2x + 5y + 0 = 0; a = 2, b = 5, c = 0
(vi)3x + 0.y + 2 = 0; a = 3, b = 0, c = 2
(vii) 0.x + 1.y – 2 = 0; a = 0, b = 1, c = –2
(viii) –2x + 0.y + 5 = 0; a = –2, b = 0, c = 5
Èy‹T\T 217

2. ç¿ì+<Š ‚eNj&q |Ÿ³+ýË M~ó ç|ŸD²[¿£ #áÖ|Ÿ‹&q~.

M~ó 3

M~ó 5
M~ó 1

M~ó 4
M~ó 2
N

Street

Street
Street

Street
Street
Street
M~ó 5
Street
M~ó 4
Street
M~ó 3
Street
M~ó 2
Street
M~ó 1
W E
C

S
™|Õ |Ÿ³+ýË ç¿±dt d{¼Ó Ù (cross-streets) M<óTŠ \T s +&ƒÖ >·T]ï+|Ÿ‹&†¦sTT. n$ ç|ŸÔ«û ¿£+>± ¿£“|¾kÍïsTT. m+<ŠT¿£+fñ
y{ì“ dŸÖº+#áT³Å£” Âs+&ƒT yû¹sÇsÁT dŸsÞÁ ø¹sK\qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+#eTT.

nuó²«dŸ+ 3.2
1. (i)x - n¿£Œ+ eT]jáTT y - n¿£Œ+ (ii) bÍ<ŠeTT\T (iii) eTÖ\ _+<ŠTeÚ
2. (i)(– 5, 2) (ii) (5, –5) (iii) E (iv) G (v) 6 (vi) – 3 (vii) (0, 5) (viii) (–3, 0)

nuó²«dŸ+ 4.1
1. x – 2y = 0
2. (i) 2x + 3y – 9.35 = 0; a = 2, b = 3, c = – 9.35
y - 1,
(ii) x – 5
– 10 = 0; a = 1, b = 5
c = –10
(iii) –2x + 3y – 6 = 0; a = –2, b = 3, c = –6
(iv)1.x – 3y + 0 = 0; a = 1, b = –3, c = 0
(v) 2x + 5y + 0 = 0; a = 2, b = 5, c = 0
(vi)3x + 0.y + 2 = 0; a = 3, b = 0, c = 2
(vii) 0.x + 1.y – 2 = 0; a = 0, b = 1, c = –2
(viii) –2x + 0.y + 5 = 0; a = –2, b = 0, c = 5
218 Answers

EXERCISE 4.2
1. (iii), because for every value of x, there is a corresponding value of y and vice-versa.
2. (i) (0, 7), (1, 5), (2, 3), (4, –1)
9,
(ii) (1, 9 – p ), (0, 9), (–1, 9 + p ), æ
ç
ö
0÷
è p ø

1ö
(iii) (0, 0), (4, 1), (– 4, 1), æ
ç
2, ÷
è 2ø
3. (i) No (ii) No (iii) Yes (iv) No (v) No
4. 7
EXERCISE 5.1
1. (i) False. This can be seen visually by the student.
(ii) False. This contradicts Axiom 5.1.
(iii) True. (Postulate 2)
(iv) True. If you superimpose the region bounded by one circle on the other, then they
coincide. So, their centres and boundaries coincide. Therefore, their radii will
coincide.
(v) True. The first axiom of Euclid.
3. There are several undefined terms which the student should list. They are consistent,
because they deal with two different situations - (i) says that given two points A and B,
there is a point C lying on the line in between them; (ii) says that given A and B, you can
take C not lying on the line through A and B.
These ‘postulates’ do not follow from Euclid’s postulates. However, they follow from
Axiom 5.1.
4. AC = BC
So, AC + AC = BC + AC(Equals are added to equals)
i.e., 2AC = AB (BC + AC coincides with AB)
1
Therefore, AC = AB
2
5. Make a temporary assumption that different points C and D are two mid-points of AB.
Now, you show that points C and D are not two different points.
6. AC = BD (Given) (1)
AC = AB + BC(Point B lies between A and C) (2)
BD = BC + CD(Point C lies between B and D) (3)
Èy‹T\T 219
nuó²«dŸ+ 4.2
1. (iii)m+<ŠT¿£+fñ ç|Ÿr x $\TeÅ£” <‘“¿ì nqT>·TDyîTq® y $\Te –+&ƒTqT eT]jáTT ç|Ÿr y $\TeÅ£” <‘“¿ì
nqT>·TDyîT®q x $\Te –+³T+~.
2. (i) (0, 7), (1, 5), (2, 3), (4, –1)
9,
(ii) (1, 9 – p ), (0, 9), (–1, 9 + p ), æ
ç
ö
0÷
è p ø

1ö
(iii) (0, 0), (4, 1), (– 4, 1), æ
ç
2, ÷
è 2ø
3. (i) ¿±<ŠT (ii) ¿±<ŠT (iii) neÚqT (iv) ¿±<ŠT (v) ¿±<ŠT
4. 7
nuó²«dŸ+ 5.1
1. (i) ndŸÔ«á +. ‚~ $<‘«]Æ¿ì <ŠXø«|Ÿs+Á >± nqTuóe„ + neÚÔáT+~.
(ii) ndŸÔá«+. ‚~ 5.1 kÍeÖq« uó²eqÅ£” $sÁT<ŠÆ+.
(iii) dŸÔ«á +. (2e dÓÇ¿£Ôá+)
(iv) dŸÔá«+. Âs+&ƒT dŸeÖq eÔï\qT ÿ¿£<‘“™|Õ eTs=¿£{ì –+ºq|ŸÚ&ƒT n$ @¿¡u$„ó kÍïsTT. ¿±eÚq y{ì ¿¹ +ç<‘\T
eT]jáTT eÔáï |Ÿ+<óŠT\T Å£L&† @¿¡uó„$+#áTqT. n+<ŠTe\q y“ eÔáï y«kÍsÆ\T Å£L&† @¿¡uó„$kÍïsTT.
(v) dŸÔ«á +. jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž yîTT<Š{ì kÍeÖq« uó²eq.
3. ‚#á³ nHû¿£ n“sÁǺÔá |Ÿ<‘\qT $<‘«]œ C²_Ԑ sÁÖ|Ÿ+ýË #áÖ&ƒe#áTÌ. n$ dŸ+XøÔáyîT®q~. m+<ŠT¿£+fñ Âs+&ƒT
yû¹sÇsÁT dŸ+<ŠsÒÛ\qT |Ÿ¯Xæ*+#á>± (i) qT+& ‚eNj&q A eT]jáTT B _+<ŠTeÚ\ >·T+&† bþjûT ¹sK™|Õ
A, B \ eT<óŠ« C nqT _+<ŠTeÚ ¿£\<ŠT n“ Ôî\TdŸT+ï ~. (ii) qT+& A eT]jáTT B >·T+&† bþjûT s¹ K™|Õ ýñŔ£ +&†
C nqT _+<ŠTeÚ qT rdŸT¿=qe#áTÌ n“ Ôî*jáTTqT.
‡ dÓÇ¿£Ô\T jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž dÓÇ¿£Ô\qT nqTdŸ]+º ýñeÚ. nsTTÔû n$ kÍeÖq« uó²eq 5.1qT nqTdŸ]+º
–H•sTT.
4. AC = BC
¿±eÚq AC + AC = BC + AC (dŸeÖq sXø—\qT dŸeÖqsXø—\Å£” Å£L&ƒ>±)
¿±‹{ì¼ 2AC = AB (BC + AC R AB n“ @¿¡uó„$dŸTï+~ )
1
Therefore, AC = AB
2
5. C eT]jáTT D nqTq$ AB Å£” Âs+&ƒT yû¹sÇsÁT eT<ó«Š _+<ŠTeÚ\T nqT¿Ã+&. ‚|ŸÚ&ƒT C eT]jáTT D nHû$ Âs+&ƒT
yûs¹ ÇsÁT _+<ŠTeÚ\T ¿±eÚ n“ #áÖbÍ*.
6. AC = BD (‚eNj&+~) (1)
AC = AB + BC ( B _+<ŠTeÚ A eT]jáTT C \ eT<ó«Š ¿£\<ŠT ) (2)
BD = BC + CD ( C _+<ŠTeÚ B eT]jáTT D \ eT<ó«Š ¿£\<ŠT ) (3)
220 Answers

Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), you get

AB + BC = BC + CD

So, AB = C D (Subtracting equals from equals)

7. Since this is true for any thing in any part of the world, this is a universal truth.
EXERCISE 6.1

1. 30°, 250° 2. 126° 4. Sum of all the angles at a point = 360°

5. Ð QOS = Ð SOR + Ð ROQ and Ð POS = Ð POR – Ð SOR. 6. 122°, 302°

EXERCISE 6.2

1. 126° 2. 126°, 36°, 54° 3. 60° 4. 50°, 77°

5. Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection. At point B, draw BE ^ PQ and at point C, draw

CF ^ RS.
EXERCISE 7.1

1. They are equal. 6. Ð BAC = Ð DAE

EXERCISE 7.2

6. Ð BCD =Ð BCA + Ð DCA = Ð B + Ð D 7. each is of 45°

EXERCISE 7.3

3. (ii) From (i), Ð ABM = Ð PQN

EXERCISE 8.1

3. (i) From D DAC and D BCA, show Ð DAC = Ð BCA and Ð ACD = Ð CAB, etc.
(ii) Show Ð BAC = Ð BCA, using Theorem 8.4.
EXERCISE 8.2

2. Show PQRS is a parallelogram. Also show PQ || AC and PS || BD. So, Ð P = 90°.

5. AECF is a parallelogram. So, AF || CE, etc.
Èy‹T\T 221

(2) eT]jáTT (3) \qT (1) ýË ç|ŸÜ¿¹ |Œ +¾ #á>±

AB + BC = BC + CD

¿±eÚq, AB = C D (dŸeÖq sXø—\ û Tá >±)

qT+& dŸeÖq sXø—\qT rd¾yj
7. m+<ŠT¿£+fñ ç|Ÿ|Ÿ+#á+ýË ç|Ÿr $wŸjá֓¿ì ‚~ dŸÔá«+. ‚~ kÍsÁÇçÜ¿£ dŸÔá«+.
nuó²«dŸ+ 6.1
1. 30°, 250° 2. 126° 4. ÿ¿£ _+<ŠTeÚ e<ŠÝ n“• ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔá+ï = 360°
5. Ð QOS = Ð SOR + Ð ROQ eT]jáTT Ð POS = Ð POR – Ð SOR. 6. 122°, 302°

nuó²«dŸ+ 6.2
1. 126° 2. 126°, 36°, 54° 3. 60° 4. 50°, 77°

5. |ŸÔqá ¿ÃD+ $\Te R |ŸsesÁqï ¿ÃD+ $\Te. B _+<ŠTeÚ e<ŠÝ BE PQ n>·Tq³T¢ BEqT eT]jáTT C
^

CF RS n>·Tq³T¢ CF qT ^jáT+&.
^

nuó²«dŸ+ 7.1
1. n$ dŸeÖH\T 6. Ð BAC = Ð DAE

nuó²«dŸ+ 7.2
6. Ð BCD =Ð BCA + Ð DCA = Ð B + Ð D 7. ç|Ÿr¿ÃD+ $\Te 45°
nuó²«dŸ+ 7.3
3. (ii) qT+& (i), Ð ABM = Ð PQN
nuó²«dŸ+ 8.1
3. (i) D DAC eT]jáTT D BCA \ qT+& Ð DAC = Ð BCA eT]jáTT Ð ACD = Ð CAB yîTTöö n“
#áÖbÍ*.
(ii) d¾<‘Æ+Ôá+ 8.4 qT –|ŸjîÖÐ+º Ð BAC = Ð BCA n“ #áÖ|Ÿ+&.
nuó²«dŸ+ 8.2
2. PQRS ÿ¿£ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ n“ #áÖbÍ*. n+Ôû¿±Å£”+&† PQ || AC eT]jáTT PS || BD n“ #áÖbÍ*.
¿±eÚq, Ð P = 90°.
5. AECF nHû~ ÿ¿£ dŸeÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+. ¿±eÚq, AF || CE yîTTöö
222 Answers

EXERCISE 9.1

1. Prove exactly as Theorem 9.1 by considering chords of congruent circles.

2. Use SAS axiom of congruence to show the congruence of the two triangles.

EXERCISE 9.2

1. 6 cm. First show that the line joining centres is perpendicular to the radius of the smaller
circle and then that common chord is the diameter of the smaller circle.

2. If AB, CD are equal chords of a circle with centre O intersecting at E, draw perpendiculars
OM on AB and ON on CD and join OE. Show that right triangles OME and ONE are
congruent.
3. Proceed as in Example 2. 4. Draw perpendicular OM on AD.
5. Represent Reshma, Salma and Mandip by R, S
and M respectively. Let KR = x m (see figure).
O
1 5m
Area of D ORS = x × 5. Also, area of D ORS = R M
2 K
1 1 6mL
RS × OL = × 6 × 4.
2 2 S

Find x and hence RM.

6. Use the properties of an equilateral triangle and also Pythagoras Theorem.
EXERCISE 9.3
1. 45° 2. 150°, 30° 3. 10°
4. 80° 5. 110° 6. Ð BCD = 80° and Ð ECD = 50°
7. Draw perpendiculars AM and BN on CD (AB || CD and AB < CD). Show
D AMD @ D BNC. This gives Ð C = Ð D and, therefore, Ð A + Ð C = 180°.

EXERCISE 10.1

3 2
1. a , 900,3cm 2 2. ` 1650000 3. 20 2 m2
4

4. 21 11 cm2 5. 9000 cm2 6. 9 15 cm2

Èy‹T\T 223

nuó²«dŸ+ 9.1
1. d¾<‘Ý+Ôá+ 9.1 ç|Ÿ¿±sÁ+ dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖq eÔï\ C²«\qT |Ÿ]>·DýË¿ì rdŸTÅ£”“ “sÁÖ|ŸD #ûjÖá *.
2. s +&ƒT çÜuóT„ C²\T dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖq+ n“ #áÖ|ŸÚ³Å£” uóT„ .¿Ã.uóT„ . dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖqÔáÇ “jáTe֓• –|ŸjÖî Ð+#*.
nuó²«dŸ+ 9.2
1. 6 ™d+.MT. yîTT<Š³>± eÔáï ¹¿+ç<‘\qT ¿£\T|ŸÚ ¹sK ºq•eÔáï y«kÍsœ“¿ì \+‹+>± –+³T+<Š“ #áÖbÍ*
eT]jáTT –eTˆ& C²« ºq• eÔáï y«dŸ+ n“ #áÖbÍ*.
2. O ¹¿+ç<Š+>± >·\ eÔáï+ jîTT¿£Ø Âs+&ƒT dŸeÖq C²« \T E e<ŠÝ K+&+#áT¿=q•fÉÔ
í¢ û AB Å£” \+‹+ OM eT]jáTT
CD Å£” \+‹+ ON qT ^jáÖ* eT]jáTT OEqT ¿£\|Ÿ+&. \+‹¿ÃD çÜuóT„ C²\T OME eT]jáTT ONE\T
dŸsÇÁ dŸeÖqeT“ #áÖbÍ*.
3. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” 2qT nqTdŸ]+#á+&. 4. AD MT<Š OM \+u²“• ^jáT+&.
5. ¹swŸˆ, dŸ\ˆ eT]jáTT eTHŽB|t\qT R, S eT]jáTT M \ÔÃ
dŸÖº+#á+&. KR = x m nqT¿Ã+&. (|Ÿ{²“• #áÖ&ƒ+&). D

1 1 O
ORS yîÕXæ\«+ = x × 5. eT]jáTT D ORS yîÕXæ\«+ = 5m
2 2
R M
K
1 6mL
RS × OL = × 6 × 4.
2
S
x eT]jáTT RM $\Te\qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
6. dŸeTu²VŸQ çÜuó„TÈ <óŠsˆ\T eT]jáTT ™|Õ<¸‘>·sÁdt d¾<‘Æ+Ԑ“• –|ŸjîÖÐ+#á+&.
nuó²«dŸ+ 9.3
1. 45° 2. 150°, 30° 3. 10°
4. 80° 5. 110° 6. Ð BCD = 80° eT]jáTT Ð ECD = 50°
7. CDMT<Š AM eT]jáTT BN \+u²\qT ^jáT+&. (AB || CD eT]jáTT AB < CD).
D AMD @ D BNC n“ #áÖbÍ*. B“qT+& Ð C = Ð D eT]jáTT Ð A + Ð C = 180°.

nuó²«dŸ+ 10.1
3 2
1. a , 900,3cm 2 2. ` 1650000 3. 20 2 m2
4

4. 21 11 cm2 5. 9000 cm2 6. 9 15 cm2

224 Answers

EXERCISE 11.1
1. 165 cm2 2. 1244.57 m2 3. (i) 7 cm (ii) 462 cm2
4. (i) 26 m (ii) ` 137280 5. 63 m 6. ` 1155
7. 5500 cm2 8. ` 384.34 (approx.)
EXERCISE 11.2
1. (i) 1386 cm2 (ii) 394.24 cm2 (iii) 2464 cm2
2. (i) 616 cm2 (ii) 1386 cm2 (iii) 38.5 m2
3. 942 cm2 4. 1 : 4 5. ` 27.72
6. 3.5 cm 7. 1 : 16 8. 173.25 cm2
9. (i) 4p r2 (ii) 4p r2 (iii) 1 : 1
EXERCISE 11.3

11
1. (i) 264 cm3(ii) 154 cm3 2. (i) 1.232 l (ii) l
35

3. 10 cm 4. 8 cm 5. 38.5 kl
6. (i) 48 cm (ii) 50 cm (iii) 2200 cm2 7. 100p cm3 8. 240p cm3; 5 :
12
9. 86.625x m3, 99.825 m2
EXERCISE 11.4

1
1. (i) 1437 3
cm3 (ii) 1.05 m3 (approx.)

2
2. (i) 11498 3
cm3 (ii) 0.004851 m3 3. 345.39 g (approx.)

1
4. 5. 0.303l (approx.) 6. 0.06348 m3 (approx.)
64

2
7. 179 cm3 8. (i) 249.48 m2 (ii) 523.9 m3 (approx.) 9. (i) 3r (ii) 1 : 9
3

10. 22.46 mm3 (approx.)

Èy‹T\T 225

nuó²«dŸ+ 11.1
1. 165 cm2 2. 1244.57 m2 3. (i) 7 cm (ii) 462 cm2
4. (i) 26 m (ii) ` 137280 5. 63 m 6. ` 1155
7. 5500 cm2 8. ` 384.34 (dŸTeÖsÁT>±)
nuó²«dŸ+ 11.2
1. (i) 1386 cm2 (ii) 394.24 cm2 (iii) 2464 cm2
2. (i) 616 cm2 (ii) 1386 cm2 (iii) 38.5 m2
3. 942 cm2 4. 1 : 4 5. ` 27.72
6. 3.5 cm 7. 1 : 16 8. 173.25 cm2
9. (i) 4p r2 (ii) 4p r2 (iii) 1 : 1
nuó²«dŸ+ 11.3
11
1. (i) 264 cm3(ii) 154 cm3 2. (i) 1.232 l (ii) l
35

3. 10 cm 4. 8 cm 5. 38.5 kl
6. (i) 48 cm (ii) 50 cm (iii) 2200 cm2 7. 100p cm3 8. 240p cm3; 5 : 12
9. 86.625x m3, 99.825 m2
nuó²«dŸ+ 11.4
1
1. (i) 1437 3
cm3 (ii) 1.05 m3 (dŸTeÖsÁT>±)

2
2. (i) 11498 3
cm3 (ii) 0.004851 m3 3. 345.39 g (dŸTeÖsÁT>±)

1
4. 5. 0.303l (dŸTeÖsÁT>±) 6. 0.06348 m3 (dŸTeÖsÁT>±)
64

2
7. 179 cm3 8. (i) 249.48 m2 (ii) 523.9 m3 (dŸTeÖsÁT>±) 9. (i) 3r (ii) 1 : 9
3

10. 22.46 mm3 (dŸTeÖsÁT>±)

226 Answers

EXERCISE 12.1
1. (ii)Reproductive health conditions.
3. (ii)Party A 4. (ii) Frequency polygon (iii) No 5. (ii) 184

8. Age (in years) Frequency Width Length of the rectangle

5
1-2 5 1 ´ 1 = 5
1
3
2-3 3 1 ´ 1 = 3
1
6
3-5 6 2 ´ 1= 3
2
12
5-7 12 2 ´ 1= 6
2
9
7 - 10 9 3 3
´ 1= 3

10
10 - 15 10 5 5
´ 1= 2

4
15 - 17 4 2 ´ 1= 2
2

Now, you can draw the histogram, using these lengths.

9. (i) Number of letters Frequency Width of Length of
interval rectangle

6
1-4 6 3 3
´ 2 = 4

30
4-6 30 2 ´ 2 = 30
2
44
6-8 44 2 ´ 2 = 44
2
16
8 - 12 16 4 ´ 2 = 8
4

4
12 - 20 4 8 8
´ 2 = 1

Now, draw the histogram.

(ii) 6 - 8
Èy‹T\T 227

nuó²«dŸ+ 12.1
1. (ii) |ŸÚqsÁTÔáÎÜï¿ì dŸ+‹+~ó+ºq €sÃ>·« dŸeTdŸ«\T.
3. (ii) bͯ¼ A 4. (ii) båq:|ŸÚq« ‹VŸQuóT„ › (iii) ¿±<ŠT 5. (ii) 184

8. ejáTdŸTà (dŸ+ööýË) ÔásÁ#áT<Šq+ yî&ƒ\TÎ BsÁé #áÔáTsÁçdŸ+ jîTT¿£Ø bõ&ƒeÚ

5
1-2 5 1 ´ 1 = 5
1
3
2-3 3 1 ´ 1 = 3
1
6
3-5 6 2 ´ 1= 3
2
12
5-7 12 2 ´ 1= 6
2
9
7 - 10 9 3 3
´ 1= 3

10
10 - 15 10 5 5
´ 1= 2

4
15 - 17 4 2 ´ 1= 2
2

‚|ŸÚ&ƒT ‡ bõ&ƒeÚ\qT|ŸjîÖÐ+º MTsÁT kþbÍq¹sU² ºçÔá+ V¾²kþ¼ç>±yŽT ^jáTeýÉqT.

9. (i) n¿£Œs\ dŸ+K« ÔásÁ#áT<Šq+ yî&\ƒ TÎ BsÁé #áÔTá sÁçdŸ+
jîTT¿£Ø bõ&ƒeÚ
6
1-4 6 3 3
´ 2 = 4

30
4-6 30 2 ´ 2 = 30
2
44
6-8 44 2 ´ 2 = 44
2
16
8 - 12 16 4 ´ 2 = 8
4

4
12 - 20 4 8 8
´ 2 = 1

‚|ŸÚ&ƒT V¾²kþ¼ç>±yŽT kþbÍq¹sU² ºçÔá+ ^jáÖ*.

(ii) 6 - 8
228 Answers

EXERCISE A1.1
1. (i) False. There are 12 months in a year.
(ii) Ambiguous. In a given year, Diwali may or may not fall on a Friday.
(iii) Ambiguous. At some time in the year, the temperature in Magadi, may be 26° C.
(iv) Always true.
(v) False. Dogs cannot fly.
(vi) Ambiguous. In a leap year, February has 29 days.
2. (i) False. The sum of the interior angles of a quadrilateral is 360°.
(ii) True (iii) True (iv) True
(v) False, for example, 7 + 5 = 12, which is not an odd number.
3. (i) All prime numbers greater than 2 are odd.
(ii) Two times a natural number is always even. (iii) For any x > 1, 3x + 1 > 4.
(iv) For any x ³ 0, x3 ³ 0.
(v) In an equilateral triangle, a median is also an angle bisector.
EXERCISE A1.2
1. (i) Humans are vertebrates. (ii) No. Dinesh could have got his hair cut by anybody
else. (iii) Gulag has a red tongue. (iv) We conclude that the gutters will have to be
cleaned tomorrow. (v) All animals having tails need not be dogs. For example, animals
such as buffaloes, monkeys, cats, etc. have tails but are not dogs.
2. You need to turn over B and 8. If B has an even number on the other side, then the rule has
been broken. Similarly, if 8 has a consonant on the other side, then the rule has been
broken.

EXERCISE A1.3
1. Three possible conjectures are:
(i) The product of any three consecutive even numbers is even. (ii) The product of
any three consecutive even numbers is divisible by 4. (iii) The product of any three
consecutive even numbers is divisible by 6.
2. Line 4: 1 3 3 1 =113; Line 5: 1 4 6 4 1=114; the conjecture holds for Line 4 and Line
5; No, because 115 ¹ 15101051.
3. T4 + T5 =25 = 52 ; Tn – 1 + Tn = n2.
4. 1111112 = 12345654321 ; 11111112 = 1234567654321
5. Student’s own answer. For example, Euclid’s postulates.
Èy‹T\T 229

nuó²«dŸ+ A1.1
1. (i) ndŸÔá«+. ÿ¿£ dŸ+eÔáàs“¿ì 12 Hî\\T.
(ii) dŸ+~>·ZÔá: ÿ¿£ dŸ+ööýË BbÍe[ Xø—ç¿£ysÁ+ se#áTÌ, s¿£bþe#áTÌ.
(iii) dŸ+~>·ZÔá : dŸ+ööýË ÿ¿£sÃE eT>·~ó –cþ’ç>·Ôá 26° C –+&ƒe#áTÌ.
(iv) m\¢|Ÿð&ƒÖ dŸÔá«+.
(v) ndŸÔá«+. Å£”¿£Ø\T m>·TsÁ ýñeÚ.
(vi) dŸ+~>·ÝÔá : ©|˜t dŸ+ööýË |˜¾ç‹e] Hî\Å£” 29 sÃE\T+&ƒTqT.
2. (i) ndŸÔá«+. #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+ýË n+ÔásÁ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+ 360°.
(ii) dŸÔ«á + (iii) dŸÔ«á + (iv) dŸÔ«á +
(v) ndŸÔá«+. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” 7 + 5 = 12 uñd¾ dŸ+K« ¿±<ŠT.
3. (i) 2 ¿£+fÉ ™|<Š< Ý qÕî ç|Ÿ<‘ó q dŸ+K«\ú• uñd¾ dŸ+K«\T.
(ii) ÿ¿£ dŸV²Ÿ ÈdŸ+K«Å£” s {ì+¼ |ŸÚ m\¢|ڟ &ƒÖ dŸ]dŸ+K« neÚÔáT+~.
(iii) x > 1 njûT«³T¢ x jîTT¿£Ø @ $\Te¿ÕH 3x + 1 > 4 neÚÔáT+~.
(iv) x ³ 0 njûT«³T¢ x jîTT¿£Ø @ $\Te¿ÕH x3 ³ 0 neÚÔáT+~.
(v) dŸeTu²VŸQ çÜuó„TÈ+ýË eT<óŠ«>·Ôá ¹sKjûT ¿ÃD dŸeT~ÇK+&ƒq ¹sK neÚÔáT+~.
nuó²«dŸ+ A1.2
1. (i) eÖqeÚ\T dŸ¿ £XâsÁT¿±\T (yîqT•eTT¿£ >·\ JeÚ\T) (ii) ¿±<ŠT. ~Hûwt E³T¼qT eTÂseÂsÕH ¿£Üï]+º
–+&ƒ¿b£ þe#áTÌ. (iii) >·Tý²>´ mçsÁ{ì H\T¿£qT ¿£*Ð –+~. (iv) ¿±\Te\T s¹ |ŸÚ Xø—çuó+„ #ûjÖá \“ yûTeTT
“sÆ]+#+. (v) Ôÿ£\Tq• n“• È+ÔáTeÚ\T Å£”¿£Ø\T ¿±qedŸsÁ+ ýñ<TŠ . –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” ¹><î\T, ¿ÃÔáT\T, |¾\T¢\T
yîTT<Š\>·Tq$ Ôÿ£\T ¿£*Ð –+&ƒTqT.
2. úeÚ B eT]jáTT 8“ eÖsÌ*à –+~. ÿ¿£yÞû ø BÅ£” eTs=¿£y| îÕ ŸÚ dŸ] dŸ+K« –+fñ n|ŸÚ&ƒT “jáTeT+ bÍ{ì+#á‹&ƒ<ŠT.
n<û$<óŠ+>± ÿ¿£yûÞø BÅ£” yûs=¿£y|Õî ڟ d¾sœ sÁ ¥ –+fñ n|ŸÚ&ƒT “jáTeT+ bÍ{ì+#á‹&ƒ<TŠ .

nuó²«dŸ+ A1.3
1. eTÖ&ƒT kÍ<óŠ«eTjûT« |Ÿ]¿£\Îq\T.
(i) @yîH Õ  3 esÁTdŸ dŸ]dŸ+K«\ \‹Ý+ dŸ] dŸ+K«. (ii) @yîHÕ  3 esÁTdŸ dŸ] dŸ+K«\ \‹Ý+ 4#û uó²Ð+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
(iii) @yîÕH 3 esÁTdŸ dŸ] dŸ+K«\ \‹Ý+ 6#û uó²Ð+#á‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
2. 4e esÁTdŸ : 1 3 3 1 =113; 5e esÁTdŸ : 1 4 6 4 1=114; 4e esÁTdŸ eT]jáTT 5e esÁTdŸ\Å£” |Ÿ]¿£\Îq
e]ïdTŸ +ï ~. 115 15101051 ¿±eÚqT e]ï+#á<TŠ .
¹

3. T4 + T5 =25 = 52 ; Tn – 1 + Tn = n2.
4. 1111112 = 12345654321 ; 11111112 = 1234567654321
5. $<‘«sÁT\
œ dŸÇ+Ôá dŸeÖ<ó‘q+. –<‘VŸ²sÁDÅ£” jáTÖ¿ì&¢ Ž dÓÇ¿£Ô\T.
230 Answers

EXERCISE A1.4
1. (i) You can give any two triangles with the same angles but of different sides.
(ii) A rhombus has equal sides but may not be a square.
(iii) A rectangle has equal angles but may not be a square.
(iv) For a = 3 and b = 4, the statement is not true.
(v) For n = 11, 2n2 + 11 = 253 which is not a prime.
(vi) For n = 41, n2 – n + 41 is not a prime.
2. Student’s own answer.
3. Let x and y be two odd numbers. Then x = 2m +1 for some natural number m and
y = 2n + 1 for some natural number n.
x + y = 2 (m + n + 1). Therefore, x + y is divisible by 2 and is even.
4. See Q.3. xy = (2m + 1)(2n + 1) = 2 (2mn + m + n) + 1.
Therefore, x y is not divisible by 2, and so it is odd.
5. Let 2n, 2n + 2 and 2n + 4 be three consecutive even numbers. Then their sum is
6(n + 1), which is divisible by 6.
7. (i) Let your original number be n. Then we are doing the following operations:

n ® 2n ® 2 n + 9 ® 2 n + 9 + n = 3n + 9 ® 3n + 9 =n+3® n+3+4=n+7®
3
n + 7 – n = 7.
(ii) Note that 7 × 11 × 13 = 1001. Take any three digit number say, abc. Then
abc × 1001 = abcabc. Therefore, the six digit number abcabc is divisible by 7, 11
and 13.
EXERCISE A2.1
1. Step 1: Formulation :
The relevant factors are the time period for hiring a computer, and the two costs given to
us. We assume that there is no significant change in the cost of purchasing or hiring the
computer. So, we treat any such change as irrelevant. We also treat all brands and
generations of computers as the same, i.e. these differences are also irrelevant.
The expense of hiring the computer for x months is ` 2000x. If this becomes more than
the cost of purchasing a computer, we will be better off buying a computer. So, the
equation is
2000 x = 25000 (1)
Èy‹T\T 231

nuó²«dŸ+ A1.4
1. (i) dŸeÖq ¿ÃD²\T ¿£*Ð yû¹sÇsÁT uó„TC²\T ¿£*Ðq @yîÕH 2 çÜuó„TC²\qT úeÚ ‚eÇe#áTÌ.
(ii) s+‹dt nqTq~ dŸeÖq uó„TC²\qT ¿£*Ð –+&ƒTqT ¿±“ #áÔáTsÁçdŸ+ ¿±¿£bþe#áTÌ.
(iii) Böö#áöö dŸeÖq ¿ÃD²\qT ¿£*Ð –+&ƒTqT. ¿±“ #áÔTá sÁçdŸ+ ¿±¿£bþe#áTÌ.
(iv) a = 3 eT]jáTT b = 4 \Å£” ç|Ÿe#áq+ dŸÔ«á + ¿±<ŠT.
(v) n = 11 nsTTq 2n2 + 11 = 253 ç|Ÿ<‘ó q dŸ+K« ¿±<ŠT.
(vi) n = 41 nsTTq n2 – n + 41 ç|Ÿ<‘ó q dŸ+K« ¿±<ŠT.
2. $<‘«sÁT\œ dŸÇjáT+(dŸÇ+Ôá) dŸeÖ<ó‘q+.
3. x eT]jáTT y nqTq$ Âs+&ƒT uñd¾ dŸ+K«\T nqT¿Ã+&. n|ŸÚ&ƒT x = 2m +1. m ÿ¿£ dŸVŸ²È dŸ+K« eT]jáTT
y = 2n + 1 n ÿ¿£ dŸVŸ²È dŸ+K«.
x + y = 2 (m + n + 1). x + y 2 Ôà uó²Ð+#á‹&ƒTqT eT]jáTT dŸ] dŸ+K«
4. Q.3 qT #áÖ&ƒ+&. xy = (2m + 1)(2n + 1) = 2 (2mn + m + n) + 1.
x y nqTq~ »2µ Ôà uó²Ð+#á‹&ƒ<TŠ . ¿±eÚq ‚~ uñd¾ dŸ+K«.
5. 2n, 2n + 2 eT]já T T 2n + 4 nqTq$ eTÖ&ƒ T esÁ T dŸ dŸ ] dŸ+ K«\T. n|Ÿ Ú&ƒ T y“ yî T TÔá ï +
6(n + 1) nqTq~ »6µ Ôà uó²Ð+|Ÿ‹&ƒTqT.
7. (i) MT jîTT¿£Ø ndŸ\T dŸ+K« n nqT¿Ã+&. n|ŸÚ&ƒT eTq+ ç¿ì+~ $<óŠ+>± #ûkÍï+.

n ® 2n ® 2 n + 9 ® 2 n + 9 + n = 3n + 9 ® 3n + 9 =n+3® n+3+4=n+7®
3
n + 7 – n = 7.
(ii) 7 × 11 × 13 = 1001 n“ >·eT“+#á+&. @<îH
Õ  3 n+¿\ dŸ+K« abc nqT¿Ã+&. n|ŸÚ&ƒT
abc × 1001 = abcabc ¿±eÚq »6µ n+¿\dŸ+K« abcabc nHû~ 7, 11 eT]jáTT 13 \ÔÃ
uó²Ð+#á‹&ƒTqT.
nuó²«dŸ+ A2.1
1. dŸÖçr¿£sÁD : 1e <ŠXø:
¿£+|ŸP«³sYqT n<îÝÅ£” rdŸT¿=qT ¿±\e«e~ó¿ì dŸ+‹+~ó+º ¿±sÁ¿±\T eT]jáTT Âs+&ƒT KsÁTÌ\T eÖÅ£” ‚eNj&†¦sTT.
¿£+|ŸP«³sYqT K¯<ŠT #ûjTá &†“¿ì njûT« KsÁTÌ eT]jáTT n<îÅÝ ”£ rdŸT¿=qT³Å£” njûT« KsÁTÌ\ýË ™|<Š>Ý ± eÖsÁTÎýñ<“Š
yûTeTT nqT¿=+³TH•+. ¿±eÚq n³Te+{ì @ eÖsÁTÎHîÕH ndŸ+‹+<óŠyîT®q~>± |Ÿ]>·DìkÍï+. n+Ôû¿±Å£”+&† n“•
çu²+&ƒT¢ eT]jáTT n“• Ôás\ ¿£+|ŸP«³sÁT¢qT ÿ¹¿sÁ¿£yîT®q$>± |Ÿ]>·DìkÍï+. nq>± ‡ eÖsÁTÎ\T Å£L&†
ndŸ+‹+<óŠyîT®q$.
¿£+|ŸP«³sYqT x Hî\\T n<îÅÝ £” rdŸT¿=qT³Å£” n>·T KsÁTÌ ` 2000x. ÿ¿£yûÞø ¿£+|ŸP«³sYqT K¯<ŠT #ûjáTT³Å£”
njûT« KsÁTÌ ¿£+fñÉ mÅ£”ØyîÔÕ û n|ŸÚ&ƒT ¿£+|ŸP«³sYqT K¯<ŠT #ûjTá T³ eT+º<Š“ uó²$kÍï+. ¿±eÚq dŸMT¿£sDÁ +
2000 x = 25000 (1)
232 Answers

25000
Step 2 : Solution : Solving (1), x = = 12.5
2000
Step 3 : Interpretation : Since the cost of hiring a computer becomes more after 12.5
months, it is cheaper to buy a computer, if you have to use it for more than 12 months.
2. Step1 : Formulation : We will assume that cars travel at a constant speed. So, any
change of speed will be treated as irrelevant. If the cars meet after x hours, the first car
would have travelled a distance of 40x km from A and the second car would have travelled
30x km, so that it will be at a distance of (100 – 30x) km from A. So the equation will be
40x = 100 – 30x, i.e., 70x = 100.
100
Step 2 : Solution : Solving the equation, we get x = .
70

Step 3 : Interpretation : 100 is approximately 1.4 hours. So, the cars will meet after
70
1.4 hours.
3. Step1 : Formulation : The speed at which the moon orbits the earth is
Length of the orbit .
Time taken

Step 2 : Solution : Since the orbit is nearly circular, the length is 2 × p × 384000 km
= 2411520 km
The moon takes 24 hours to complete one orbit.
2411520
So, speed = = 100480 km/hour..
24
Step 3 : Interpretation : The speed is 100480 km/h.
4. Formulation : An assumption is that the difference in the bill is only because of using
the water heater.
Let the average number of hours for which the water heater is used = x
Difference per month due to using water heater = ` 1240 – ` 1000 = ` 240
Cost of using water heater for one hour = ` 8
So, the cost of using the water heater for 30 days = 8 × 30 × x
Also, the cost of using the water heater for 30 days = Difference in bill due to using
water heater
So, 240x = 240
Solution : From this equation, we get x = 1.
Interpretation : Since x = 1, the water heater is used for an average of 1 hour in a day.
Èy‹T\T 233

25000
2e <ŠXø : kÍ<óŠq : (1) qT kÍ~ó+#á>± x= = 12.5
2000

3e <ŠXø : $esÁD: 12.5 Hî\\ ÔásÇÔá ¿£+|ŸP«³sYqT n<îÝÅ£” rdŸT¿=qT³Å£” njûT« KsÁTÌ mÅ£”Øe neÚÔáT+~.
¿±eÚq ¿£+|ŸP«³sYqT 12 Hî\\T ¿£+fñ mÅ£”Øe $“jîÖÐ+#*à edï <‘““ K¯<ŠT #ûjTá &†“¿ì njûT« K¹sÌ #ê¿£>±
–+³T+~.
2. dŸÖçr¿£sÁD : 1e <ŠXø : ¿±sÁT¢ d¾œsÁyû>·+Ôà ç|ŸjáÖDìdŸTïH•jáT“ nqTÅ£”+<‘+. ¿±eÚq yû>·+ýË @ eÖsÁTÎHîÕH
ndŸ+‹+<óyŠ Tî q® ~>± uó²$kÍï+. ÿ¿£yÞû ø x >·+³\ ÔásÇÔá € ¿±sÁT¢ ÿ¿£#ó ¿£*dï n|ŸÚ&ƒT yîTT<Š{ì ¿±sÁT A qT+&
40x ¿ì.MT. <ŠÖsÁ+ ç|ŸjáÖDìdŸTï+~ eT]jáTT 2e ¿±sÁT 30x <ŠÖsÁ+ ç|ŸjáÖDìdŸTï+~. n|ŸÚ&ƒT A qT+&
(100 – 30x) ¿ì.MT. neÚÔáT+~.
100
2e <ŠXø : kÍ<óŠq : dŸMT¿£sÁD²“• kÍ~ó+#á>± x = bõ+<ŠTԐ+.
70
3e <ŠXø : $esÁD : 100 = 1.4 >·+öö (dŸTeÖsÁT>±) ¿±eÚq 2 ¿±sÁT¢ 1.4>·+³\ ÔásÇÔá ¿£\TkÍïsTT.
70
¿£ ¿£«Œ£ bõ&ƒeÚ
3. dŸÖçr¿£sÁD : 1e <ŠXø: #á+ç<ŠT&ƒT uó„Ö$T #áT³Ö¼ Ü]¹> yû>·+ R |Ÿ{q¼ì dŸeTjáT+ .

2e <ŠXø : kÍ<óŠq : ¿£¿«Œ£ <‘<‘|ŸÚ>± eÔï¿±sÁ+ýË –q•+<ŠTq bõ&ƒeÚ 2 × p × 384000 ¿ì.MT.

= 2411520 ¿ì.MT.
#á+ç<ŠT&ƒT ÿ¿£ |Ÿ]çuó„eTD+ #ûjáTT³Å£” |Ÿfñ¼¿±\+ 24>·+öö
¿±eÚq yû>+· = 2411520 24
= 100480 ¿ì.MT/>·+öö
2e <ŠXø : $esÁD : |Ÿ]çuóe „ TD yû>+· 100480 ¿ì.MT./>·+öö
4. dŸÖçr¿£sÁD : y³sY VÓ²³sYqT $“jîÖÐ+#á&ƒ+ e\q eÖçÔáyûT _\T¢ýË Ôû&† eºÌ+<Š“ nqTÅ£”+<‘+. y³sY
VÓ²³sYqT $“jîÖÐ+ºq dŸsdŸ] >·+³\ dŸ+K« = x nqT¿Ã+&.
y³sY VÓ²³sYqT $“jîÖ>·+ e\q ÿ¿£ Hî\Å£” Ôû&† = ` 1240 – ` 1000 = ` 240
1>·+öö y³sY VÓ²³sY $“jîÖÐ+#áT³Å£” njûT« KsÁTÌ = ` 8
¿±eÚq, y³sY VÓ²³sYqT 30 sÃE\Å£” $“jîÖÐ+#áT³Å£” njûT« KsÁTÌ = 8 × 30 × x
y³sY VÓ²³sYqT 30 sÃE\T $“jîÖÐ+#áT³Å£” n>·T KsÁTÌ = y³sY VÓ²³sYqT $“jîÖÐ+#á³+ e\q ¿£Âs+{Ù
_\T¢ýË eºÌq Ôû<‘
¿±eÚq, 240x = 240
kÍ<óŠq : ‡ dŸMT¿£sÁD+ qT+& x = 1 neÚÔáT+~.
$esÁD : x = 1 qT+& y³sY VÓ²³sY ÿ¿£ sÃEÅ£” dŸsdŸ] 1>·+öö $“jîÖÐ+|Ÿ‹&ƒTÔáT+~.
234 Answers

EXERCISE A2.2

1. We will not discuss any particular solution here. You can use the same method as we
used in last example, or any other method you think is suitable.
EXERCISE A2.3
1. We have already mentioned that the formulation part could be very detailed in real-life
situations. Also, we do not validate the answer in word problems. Apart from this word
problem have a ‘correct answer’. This need not be the case in real-life situations.
2. The important factors are (ii) and (iii). Here (i) is not an important factor although it can
have an effect on the number of vehicles sold.
Èy‹T\T 235

nuó²«dŸ+ A2.2
1. ÿ¿£ KºÌÔáyTî q® |Ÿ]cÍØs“• ‚¿£Ø&ƒ #á]Ì+#+. ºe] –<‘VŸ²sÁDýË dŸÖº+#ᓠ$<ó‘H“• >±“ B“¿ì dŸ]bþjûT
yûs¹ $<ó‘H“• >±“ MTsÁT –|ŸjÖî Ð+#áe#áTÌ.
nuó²«dŸ+ A2.3
1. dŸÖçr¿£sDÁ uó²>·+ nqTq~ “È J$Ôá |Ÿ]d¾Ôœ Tá \Å£” $esÁ+>± –+<Š“ eTq+ ‚~esÁ¿¹ |s=ØH•+. |Ÿ<Š dŸeTdŸ«\
dŸeÖ<ó‘H“• Å£L&† <óŠ M¿£]+#áý+ñ . ‚~¿±Å£”+&† |Ÿ<dŠ eŸ TdŸ«Å£” dŸs qÕ dŸeÖ<ó‘q+ ¿£\<ŠT. “È J$Ôá |Ÿ]d¾Ôœ Tá ýË¢
‡$<óŠ+>± –+&†*àq nedŸsÁ+ ýñ<ŠT.
2. eTTK«yîTq
® ¿±sÁ¿±\T (ii) eT]jáTT (iii) ‚¿£Ø&ƒ (i) nHû~ eTTK«yîT®q ¿±sÁ¿£+ ¿±<ŠT. nsTTq|ŸÎ{ì¿¡ neTˆ‹&q
yVŸ²H\ dŸ+K« ™|Õ ‚~ ç|Ÿu²ó e+ #áÖ|ŸÚÔáT+~.
ROUGH WORK
ROUGH WORK
ROUGH WORK