Power Electronics

Power Electronics refers to the process of controlling the flow of current and voltage and
converting it to a form that is suitable for user loads. The most desirable power electronic
system is one whose efficiency and reliability is 100%. Take a look at the following block
diagram. It shows the components of a Power Electronic system and how they are
interlinked.

Fig. 1. Block diagram

Power Electronics for Power Systems

The two basic power electronics areas that need to be addressed in renewable energy
applications are power regulation and inverters. The electrical power output of fuel cells,
solar cells, and wind turbines are not constant. The fuel cell voltage is typically controlled by
voltage regulators, DC/DC converters, and other circuits at a constant value that can be
higher or lower than the fuel cell operating voltage.

Multilevel converters are of interest in the distributed energy resources area because
several batteries, fuel cells, solar cells, and wind turbines can be connected through a
multilevel converter to feed a load or grid without voltage-balancing issues. The general
function of the multilevel inverter is to create a desired AC voltage from several levels of DC
voltages. For this reason, multilevel inverters are ideal for connecting an AC grid either in
series or parallel with renewable energy sources such as photovoltaics or fuel cells or with
energy storage devices such as capacitors or batteries. Multilevel converters also have lower
switching frequencies than traditional converters, which results in reduced switching losses
and increased efficiency.
Advances in fuel cell technology require similar advances in power converter technology. By
considering power conversion design parameters early in the overall system design, a small,
inexpensive converter can be built to accompany a reasonably sized solar panel, wind
turbine or fuel cell for high system power and energy density.

DC-to-DC Converters

A DC-to-DC converter is used to regulate the voltage because the output of a renewable
energy system varies with the load current. Many fuel cell and solar cell systems are
designed for a lower voltage; therefore, a DC-DC boost converter is often used to increase
the voltage to higher levels. A converter is required for these renewable energy systems
because the voltage varies with the power that is required. A typical fuel cell drops from
1.23 V DC (no-load) to below 0.5 V DC at full load. Consequently, a converter will have to
work with a wide range of input voltages.

DC-to-DC converters are important in portable electronic devices such as cellular phones
and laptop computers where batteries are used. These types of electronic devices often
contain several subcircuits, that each has its voltage level requirement that is different than
supplied by the battery or an external supply. As the battery’s stored power is drained, a
DC-to-DC converter offers a method to increase voltage from a partially-lowered battery
voltage which saves space instead of using multiple batteries to accomplish the same task.

Inverters

Renewable energy can be used in both homes and businesses as the main power source.
These energy systems will have to connect to the AC grid. The renewable energy system
output will also need to be converted to AC in some grid-independent systems. An inverter
can be used to accomplish this. The resulting AC current can be at the required voltage and
frequency for use with the appropriate transformers and control circuits. Inverters are used
in many applications from switching power supplies in computers to high voltage direct
current applications that supply bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to apply AC
power from DC sources such as fuel cells, solar panels, and batteries.
Power Electronics in Renewable Energy Systems

Electronics are an important part of the devices that we use every day and a critical part of
hybrid energy systems. These components help to transform direct current (DC) into
alternating current (AC), help to increase the voltage of an energy system, regulate the
power that a system provides, and/or creates the proper waveforms and timing that a
motor requires.

Fig. 1. Power Electronics in Hybrid renewable energy systems.

Without integrating these electronics into the system, the voltage and power produced by
an energy system would not be very useful. Therefore, power electronics is an essential part
of every hybrid energy system.

Fig 2 shows a general schematic with a fuel cell that illustrates the power electronics
component as a key element in the fuel cell system. The same concept can also be realized
with other type of renewable energy system instead of fuel cell.

Fig. 2. Power Electronics in Fuel Cell System

 Fig. 3. Power Electronics in Wind Energy System

Fig. 4. Power Electronics in Solar PV System

Power Electronics for Electric Vehicle

DC-DC Converter: A DC-to-DC converter is an electronic circuit or electromechanical device

that converts a source of direct current (DC) from one voltage level to another. It is a type of
electric power converter. Power levels range from very low (small batteries) to very high
(high-voltage power transmission).

Inverter: A power inverter, or inverter, is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes
direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The input voltage, output voltage and
frequency, and overall power handling depend on the design of the specific device or
circuitry.

Rectifier: A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which
periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The
process is known as rectification, since it “straightens” the direction of current.
Uncontrolled Half-Wave Rectifier

Half-wave rectifiers transform AC voltage to DC voltage. A half-wave rectifier circuit uses

only one diode for the transformation. A half-wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier
that allows only one-half cycle of an AC voltage waveform to pass while blocking the other
half cycle. In this session, let us know in detail about the half-wave rectifier.

A half-wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier and requires only one diode for the
construction of a half-wave rectifier circuit. A half-wave rectifier circuit consists of three
main components: (i) diode, (ii) transformer and (iii) resistive load

Fig. 1. The final output voltage waveform of half-wave rectifier

Working of Half Wave Rectifier:

 A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down transformer. The
obtained secondary low voltage is applied to the diode.
 The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage and
reverse biased during the negative half cycle.
Applications of Half Wave Rectifier: Here are a few common applications of half wave
rectifiers:

 They are used for signal demodulation purpose

 They are used for rectification applications
 They are used for signal peak applications

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

 Power loss
 Low output voltage
 The output contains a lot of ripples

Uncontrolled Full-Wave Rectifier

Electric circuits that convert AC to DC are known as rectifiers. Rectifiers are classified into
two types as Half Wave Rectifiers and Full Wave Rectifiers. Significant power is lost while
using a half-wave rectifier and is not feasible for applications that need a smooth and steady
supply. For a more smooth and steady supply, we use the full wave rectifiers.

The input AC supplied to the full wave rectifier is very high. The step-down transformer in
the rectifier circuit converts the high voltage AC into low voltage AC. The anode of the
centre tapped diodes is connected to the transformer’s secondary winding and connected
to the load resistor. During the positive half cycle of the alternating current, the top half of
the secondary winding becomes positive while the second half of the secondary winding
becomes negative.

During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased as it is connected to the top of the
secondary winding while diode D2 is reverse biased as it is connected to the bottom of the
secondary winding. Due to this, diode D1 will conduct acting as a short circuit and D2 will
not conduct acting as an open circuit.

During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased and the diode D2 is forward
biased because the top half of the secondary circuit becomes negative and the bottom half
of the circuit becomes positive. Thus in a full wave rectifiers, DC voltage is obtained for both
positive and negative half cycle.

Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

 The rectification efficiency of full wave rectifiers is double that of half wave rectifiers.
The efficiency of half wave rectifiers is 40.6% while the rectification efficiency of full
wave rectifiers is 81.2%.
 The ripple factor in full wave rectifiers is low hence a simple filter is required. The
value of ripple factor in full wave rectifier is 0.482 while in half wave rectifier it is
about 1.21.
 The output voltage and the output power obtained in full wave rectifiers are higher
than that obtained using half wave rectifiers.

 The only disadvantage of the full wave rectifier is that they need more circuit
elements than the half wave rectifier which makes, making it costlier.

Controlled Half-Wave Rectifier with Resistive Load

Figure 1.a shows the circuit-diagram of a single-phase half-wave converter with resistive
load. The circuit is energized by the line voltage or transformer secondary voltage.

It is assumed that the peak supply voltage never exceeds the forward and reverse-blocking
ratings of the thyristor. The various voltage and current waveshapes for this circuit are
shown in Fig.1.b.
During the positive half-cycle of the supply voltage, the thyristor anode is positive with
respect to its cathode and until the thyristor is triggered by a proper gate-pulse, it blocks the
flow of load current in the forward direction.

When the thyristor is fired at an angle α, full supply voltage is applied to the load. Hence the
load is directly connected to the a.c. supply.

With a zero reactance source and a purely resistive load, the current waveform after the
thyristor is triggered will be identical to the applied voltage wave, and of a magnitude
dependent on the amplitude of the voltage of load resistance R.

As shown in Fig.1.b, the load current will flow until it is commutated by reversal of supply
voltage at ωt=π. The angle (π−α=β) during which the thyristor conducts is called the
conduction angle.

By varying the firing angle α the output voltage can be controlled. During the period of
conduction, voltage drop across the device is of the order of one volt.

During the negative half-cycle of the supply voltage, the thyristor blocks the flow of load
current and no voltage is applied to the load R.
Controlled Full-Wave Rectifier with Resistive Load

Single phase fully-controlled bridge rectifiers are known more commonly as AC-to-DC
converters. A fully-controlled bridge converter is widely used in the speed control of DC
machines and is easily obtained by replacing all four diodes of a bridge rectifier with
thyristors as shown.

In the fully-controlled rectifier configuration, the average DC load voltage is controlled using
two thyristors per half-cycle.

Thyristors T1 and T2 are fired together as a pair during the positive half-cycle, while
thyristors T3 and T4 are also fired together as a pair during the negative half-cycle. That is
180o after T1 and T2.

Then during continuous conduction mode of operation the four thyristors are constantly
being switched as alternate pairs to maintain the average or equivalent DC output voltage.
As with the half-controlled rectifier, the output voltage can be fully controlled by varying the
thyristors firing delay angle (α).
Electric Vehicles

An electric vehicle (EV) is one that operates on an electric motor, instead of an internal-
combustion engine that generates power by burning a mix of fuel and gases. Therefore,
such as vehicle is seen as a possible replacement for current-generation automobile, in
order to address the issue of rising pollution, global warming, depleting natural resources,
etc. Though the concept of electric vehicles has been around for a long time, it has drawn a
considerable amount of interest in the past decade amid a rising carbon footprint and other
environmental impacts of fuel-based vehicles.

Advantages of Electric Vehicles:

 Cheaper to Run. Owners of an EV have the advantage of much lower running costs.
The electricity to charge an EV works out around a third as much per kilometre as
buying petrol for the same vehicle
 Cheaper to Maintain: A battery electric vehicle (BEV) has a lot less moving parts than
a conventional petrol/diesel car. There is relatively little servicing and no expensive
exhaust systems, starter motors, fuel injection systems, radiators and many other
parts that aren’t needed in an EV.
 Less pollution: By choosing to drive an EV you are helping to reduce harmful air
pollution from exhaust emissions. An EV has zero exhaust emissions.
 Renewable energy: If you use renewable energy to recharge your EV, you can
reduce your greenhouse gas emissions even further. You could recharge your EV
from your solar PV system during the day instead of from the grid. Another idea is to
purchase Green Power from your electricity retailer. Then, even if you recharge your
EV from the grid, your greenhouse gas emissions are reduced.
 Eco-friendly materials: There is also a trend towards more eco-friendly production
and materials for EVs. The Ford Focus Electric is made up of recycled materials and
the padding is made out of bio based materials. The Nissan Leaf’s interior and
bodywork are partly made out of green materials such as recycled water bottles,
plastic bags, old car parts and even second hand home appliances.
  Health Benefits: Reduced harmful exhaust emissions is good news for our health.
Better air quality will lead to less health problems and costs caused by air pollution.
EVs are also quieter than petrol/diesel vehicles, which mean less noise pollution.

Types of Electric Vehicles

There are three main types of electric vehicles (EVs), classed by the degree that electricity is
used as their energy source. BEVs, or battery electric vehicles, PHEVs of plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles, and HEVs, or hybrid electric vehicles. Only BEVs are capable of charging on
a level 3, DC fast charge.

 Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV): Battery Electric Vehicles, also called BEVs, and more
frequently called EVs, are fully-electric vehicles with rechargeable batteries and no
gasoline engine. Battery electric vehicles store electricity onboard with high-capacity
battery packs. Their battery power is used to run the electric motor and all onboard
electronics. BEVs do not emit any harmful emissions and hazards caused by
traditional gasoline-powered vehicles. BEVs are charged by electricity from an
external source. Electric Vehicle (EV) chargers are classified according to the speed
with which they recharge an EVs battery.

 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV): HEVs are powered by both gasoline and electricity.
The electric energy is generated by the car’s own braking system to recharge the
battery. This is called ‘regenerative braking’, a process where the electric motor
helps to slow the vehicle and uses some of the energy normally converted to heat by
the brakes. HEVs start off using the electric motor, then the gasoline engine cuts in
 as load or speed rises. The two motors are controlled by an internal computer, which
ensures the best economy for the driving conditions.

 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV): Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles or PHEVs can
recharge the battery through both regenerative braking and “plugging in” to an
external source of electrical power. While “standard” hybrids can (at low speed) go
about 1-2 miles before the gasoline engine turns on, PHEV models can go anywhere
from 10-40 miles before their gas engines provide assistance.

 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV): FCEVs use a propulsion system similar to that of
electric vehicles, where energy stored as hydrogen is converted to electricity by the
fuel cell. Unlike conventional internal combustion engine vehicles, they produce no
harmful tailpipe emissions. FCEVs are fueled with pure hydrogen gas stored in a tank
on the vehicle. Similar to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles, they can
fuel in less than 5 minutes and have a driving range over 300 miles. FCEVs are
equipped with other advanced technologies to increase efficiency, such as
regenerative braking systems, which capture the energy lost during braking and
store it in a battery.

Components of Electric Vehicle

 Charging port or vehicle inlet: It is a connector present on the electric vehicle to
allow it to be connected to an external source of electricity for charging.
 Power electronic converter: A power electronic converter is made of high power
fast-acting semiconductor devices, which act as high-speed switches. Different
switching states alter the input voltage and current through the use of capacitive and
inductive elements. The result is an output voltage and current, which is at a
different level to the input.
 On-board charger: It is an AC-to-DC power electronic converter (often referred to as
a rectifier) that takes the incoming AC electricity supplied via the charge port and
converts it to DC power for charging the traction battery. Using the battery
management system, it regulates the battery characteristics such as voltage, current,
temperature, and state of charge.
 Traction battery pack: It is a high voltage battery used to store energy in the electric
car and provide power for use by the electric traction motor.

 Battery power converter: It is a DC-to-DC power electronic converter that converts

the voltage of the traction battery pack to the higher-voltage of the DC-bus used for
power exchange with the traction motor.
 Motor drive: It is a DC-to-AC (often referred to as inverter or the variable frequency
drive) or at times a DC-to-DC power electronic converter, used to convert power
from the high voltage DC bus to AC (or at times DC) power for the operation of
motor. The converter is bidirectional for operating in both driving and regenerative
braking mode.
 Traction electric motor/generator: It is the main propulsion device in an electric car
that converts electrical energy from the traction battery to mechanical energy for
rotating the wheels. It also generates electricity by extracting energy from the
rotating wheels while braking, and transferring that energy back to the traction
battery pack.
 Transmission: For an electric car, usually a single gear transmission with differential
is used to transfer mechanical power from the traction motor to drive the wheels.
 Power electronics controller: This unit controls the flow of electrical power in the
different power electronic converters in the electric car.
  Battery (auxiliary): In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery provides
electricity to start the car before the traction battery is engaged and is also used to
power the vehicle accessories.

Batteries for Electric Vehicles

Energy storage systems, usually batteries, are essential for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs),
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and all-electric vehicles (EVs).

 Lithium-Ion Batteries: Lithium-ion batteries are currently used in most portable

consumer electronics such as cell phones and laptops because of their high energy
per unit mass relative to other electrical energy storage systems. They also have a
high power-to-weight ratio, high energy efficiency, good high-temperature
performance, and low self-discharge. Most components of lithium-ion batteries can
be recycled, but the cost of material recovery remains a challenge for the industry.
Most of today’s PHEVs and EVs use lithium-ion batteries, though the exact chemistry
often varies from that of consumer electronics batteries.

 Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries: Nickel-metal hydride batteries, used routinely in

computer and medical equipment, offer reasonable specific energy and specific
power capabilities. Nickel-metal hydride batteries have a much longer life cycle than
lead-acid batteries and are safe and abuse tolerant. These batteries have been
widely used in HEVs. The main challenges with nickel-metal hydride batteries are
their high cost, high self-discharge and heat generation at high temperatures, and
the need to control hydrogen loss.

 Lead-Acid Batteries: Lead-acid batteries can be designed to be high power and are
inexpensive, safe, and reliable. However, low specific energy, poor cold-temperature
performance, and short calendar and cycle life impede their use. Advanced high-
power lead-acid batteries are being developed, but these batteries are only used in
commercially available electric-drive vehicles for ancillary loads.

 Ultra capacitors: Ultracapacitors store energy in a polarized liquid between an

electrode and an electrolyte. Energy storage capacity increases as the liquid’s surface
 area increases. Ultracapacitors can provide vehicles additional power during
acceleration and hill climbing and help recover braking energy. They may also be
useful as secondary energy-storage devices in electric-drive vehicles because they
help electrochemical batteries level load power.

Types of Charging Stations

Charging can be done at home through a wall outlet or at a designated station in a public
parking area. Charging occurs through the cars Electric Vehicle Service Equipment (EVSE)

Level 1 Home charging: It uses a 120 volt plug and a standard outlet. No special equipment
required and it can be done at home. It takes longest time to charge EV averaging about
three to five miles per hour of charge.

Level 2 EVSE-Home charging: EVSE use a 240 volt plug and typically need to be installed by
an electrician. It can be used for either home or commercial charging. Many electric car
automakers provide purchase option for this charging at the time of vehicle purchase, and
private companies also offers electric vehicle chargers. It is much faster than level 1 charger,
offering up to 60 miles of range per hour of charge. They are capable of fully charging an
electric car battery in about 2 hrs.

Level 3 EVSE DC Fast chargers: This type of charging station is available in parking lots
around town. They can deliver up to 100 miles of power in about 20 minutes of charging. It
can be accessed through payment apps or specific cards setup for use at public charging
stations.
Smart charging: Smart charging” is an umbrella term for a range of intelligent functionalities
that help to manage charging stations in the most efficient way. These technologies will play
an increasing role as growing numbers of stations and users need to be coordinated in the
future, and it is well worth taking such requirements into consideration from the outset.

Fig. 2. Types of EV Connectors

Indian Electric Vehicle Policy

The aim of the mission is to drive strategies for transformative mobility and Phased
Manufacturing Programmes for electric vehicles, electric vehicle Components and Batteries.
Following are the key roles, roadmap and anticipated impact envisaged under the mission:

Role:

 Drive strategies for transformative mobility and Phased Manufacturing Programmes

for electric vehicles, electric vehicle Components and Batteries.
 Creating a Phased Manufacturing Program (PMP) to localize production across the
entire electric vehicle value chain.
 Details of localization will be finalized by the Mission with a clear Make in India
strategy for the electric vehicle components as well as battery.
 The Mission will coordinate with key stakeholders in Ministries/ Departments/states
to integrate various initiatives to transform mobility in India

Roadmap:

 Phased battery manufacturing roadmap with initial focus on large-scale module and
pack assembly plants by 2019-20 and Gigascale integrated cell manufacturing by
2021- 22.
 Ensuring holistic and comprehensive growth of the battery manufacturing industry in
India through PMP.
 Preparing roadmap for enabling India to leverage its size and scale to produce
innovative, competitive multi-modal mobility solutions that can be deployed globally
in diverse contexts.
 Roadmap for transformative mobility in “New India” by introducing a sustainable
mobility ecosystem and fostering Make-in-India

Impact:

 Drive mobility solutions to benefits to the industry, economy and country.

 Improving air quality in cities along with reducing India’s oil import dependence and
enhancing the uptake of renewable energy and storage solutions.
  The Mission will lay down the strategy and roadmap which will enable India to
leverage upon its size and scale to develop a competitive domestic manufacturing
ecosystem for electric mobility
mobility.
 Benefit all citizens as the aim is to promote ‘Ease of Living’ an
andd enhance the quality
of life of our citizens and also provide employment opportunities through ‘Makein
‘Makein-
India’ across a range of skill sets

State governments in India can play an important role in the transition to electric vehicles,
and policymakers need innovative and dyna
dynamic
mic support in creating and implementing
electric vehicle policies that best fit the local context. The cycle will help state
state-level
policymakers in India establish a strong electric vehicle strategy that includes both electric
vehicle promotion and stakeho
stakeholder integration.

In examining electric vehicle promotion policies from around the world, the authors found
that all were adopted to address five consumer barriers: model availability, cost
competitiveness, fleet deployment, usage convenience, and consumer understanding. While
the scale of the challenges varies by market and fleet, these barriers are common, and the
guidebook therefore identifies strategies to overcome each of the five. The strategies are
detailed in the figure below, and the guidebook matc
matches
hes them with a total of 83 suitable
policy actions. The book also links the recommended actions with real
real-world
world practices via a
case study of Quebec.
Barriers for EV Adaption in India

 Range Anxiety: According to studies conducted, range anxiety is found to be a

predominant barrier in a customer’s decision to buy an EV
 Recharging time: Here, the time it would take to recharge the battery would depend on
the driver’s battery range choice. The more the battery is charged; greater range would
be offered. But this leads to excess charging time since the refuelling capacity is slow.
 EV model variety: model variety of Electric Vehicles is also a significant barrier in EV
adoption.
 Economical factors (financial barrier): These include purchase price of the EV, fuel price
and price of battery. The high purchase price of an EV is found to be a large constraint
in many consumer survey studies. This has also to do with the customer’s perception
about the money value of the EV. The service and maintenance costs of these are less
when compared to ICE vehicles. But the initial high purchase price becomes a hindrance
to consumers to buy EVs. This shows that the consumers aren’t fully aware that an
advantage of having lower operating costs of EVs is that it leads to potential savings.
 Lack of infrastructure- charging networks: Another relevant risk is the lack of a
charging station when travelling. As a result, to consider the need of long-distance
drives, consumers would often demand that public charging stations be made available
at more locations
 Personal characteristics: Other factors that influence EV adoption are gender, age,
income, educational level, tastes and environmental awareness. Consumers who readily
adopt EVs are usually highly educated and environmentally sensitive. Individuals
respond to social expectations and social pressure reflected in statements, such as
socially acceptable behaviour, being considerate of others, expressing shared values
and social responsibility.
 Policies: The non-acceptance of policies and consumers’ perception towards them
could also be a barrier in EV adoption. Regulations and incentives put forth by the
government regarding fuel prices, fuel infrastructure development which are
environment related would influence the adoption. Sometimes these policies aren’t
well understood by the consumers.