Power Electronic Devices and Components 1 (2022) 100001

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Power Electronic Devices and Components

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pedc

The state-of-the-art of power electronics converters configurations in

electric vehicle technologies
Pandav Kiran Maroti a,d, Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban a,d, Mahajan Sagar Bhaskar b,∗,
Vigna K. Ramachandaramurthy c, Frede Blaabjerg d
a
Department of Business Development and Technology, CTIF Global Capsule (CGC) Laboratory, Aarhus University, Herning 7400, Denmark
b
Renewable Energy Lab, Department of Communications and Networks Engineering, College of Engineering, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia
c
Institute of Power Engineering, Department of Electrical Power Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Jalan Ikram-Uniten, Kajang,
Selangor 43000, Malaysia
d
Centre of Reliable Power Electronics (CORPE), Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg 9220, Denmark

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Today, the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is gradually being replaced by electric motors, which results in
Renewable energy higher efficiency and low emission of greenhouse gases. The electric vehicle either works wholly or partially on
DC-DC bidirectional converter electrical energy generated from batteries and ultra-capacitors. The battery or ultra-capacitor is either charged
Electric vehicle
from the AC supply connected to a grid line in a plug-in electric vehicle or from ICE in a hybrid electric vehicle.
Battery electric vehicle
Alternatively, the battery charges from the traction motor by regenerative braking. In the reverse direction, the
Fuel cell vehicle
Hybrid electric vehicle energy from the battery or ultra-capacitor is injected into the AC grid line in the plug-in electric vehicle. Power
Plug-in electric vehicle electronic converters play a vital role in the conversion process from grid line to traction motor and in the re-
verse direction. In this paper, the role of power electronics converters in an electric vehicle is elaborated. The
bidirectional DC-DC converter plays a vital role in the power conversion process of electric vehicles. The existing
bidirectional DC-DC converter topologies are discussed with a comprehensive review, comparison, and applica-
tion. Additionally, the advancement in power electronics converters to improve the efficiency and reliability of
the vehicular system is elaborated.

1. Introduction
Fossil fuel is depleting gradually due to excessive use to propel
in the conventional vehicular system (Bhaskar, Padmanaban & Holm-
Nielsen, 2019b; Ida, Murakami & Tanaka, 2014; Querini, Dagostino,
Morel & Rousseaux, 2012; Shareef, Islam & Mohamed, 2016;
Williamson, Rathore & Musavi, 2015; Yong, Ramachandaramurthy &
Tan, 2015a). Moreover, the demand for fossil fuel is also gradually in-
creasing due to advancements in the vehicular system (Afonso, Mar-
ques & Fuinhas, 2017; Gielen et al., 2019; Guo, Liu, Sun & Jin, 2018;
Jenniches, 2018). The efficiency of conventional ICE is nearly 20%.
The remaining energy is wasted as heat and Greenhouse Gases (GHG)
as a by-product after combustion (Adams, Klobodu & Apio, 2018;
Awasthia et al., 2017). Some key features of EVs are ease of operation;
fewer moving parts that reflect increasing efficiency, pollutant-free, ca-
pable of frequently starting and stopping operation, and high starting
torque (Adams et al., 2018). Apart from this, the electric vehicle is be-
coming an emerging concept in renewable generating facilities and ad-
vanced grid systems (Awasthia et al., 2017). In a Plug-in Electric Vehi-
cle (PEV), the battery injects power into the gridline to overcome the
overload problem and to provide ancillary services (Gough, Rowley &
Walsh, 2014; Mukherjee & Gupta, 2015; Schaltz, Khaligh & Rasmussen,
2009; Subramaniam et al., 2019). All these features of electric vehicles
are encouraging researchers to take this technology to the next level.
In recent advancements in automobile system, advanced Power Elec-
tronics Converters (PECs) and motor drives play an essential role in
vehicular technology (Baha & Thomas, 2013; Bhaskar et al., 2019a;
Bhaskar, Sanjeevikumar, Holm-Nielsen, Pedersen & Leonowicz, 2019c;
Emadi, Rajashekara, Williamson & Lukic, 2005; Krishna, Daya, Sanjee-
vikumar & Mihet-Popa, 2017; Un-Noor, Padmanaban, Mihet-Popa, Mol-
lah & Hossain, 2017). In EVs, PECs and electric motor drives control
the flow of electrical energy within the vehicle or from the external
charging station or grid to the vehicle and vice versa (Awasthia et al.,
2017; Subramaniam et al., 2019). This makes EVs pollutant-free, more
efficient, higher performance and increases the durability of the ve-
hicle (Bhaskar et al., 2018; Daramy-Williams, Anable & Grant-Muller,
2019; Daya et al., 2016; Lane et al., 2018; Li, Khajepour & Song, 2019;
Tahami, Kazemi & Farhanghi, 2003; Wu & Gao, 2006; Zhao, He, Yao
& Huang, 2019; Zhou, Yang, Cai & Ying, 2018). In a conventional ICE

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sagar25.mahajan@gmail.com (M.S. Bhaskar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedc.2021.100001
Received 25 August 2021; Accepted 5 November 2021
Available online 22 November 2021
2772-3704/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
P.K. Maroti, S. Padmanaban, M.S. Bhaskar et al.
vehicle, 6 V to 12 V is needed to start up and to run other electric equip-
ment (Miller & Webster, 1997). The hydraulic system such as brake
and mechanically driven system such as steering is being replaced by
an electrically driven system, which makes it more efficient and safer
(Adams et al., 2018). The luxurious load such as power windows, high
power headlamp, and auto start-up is introduced in advanced automo-
bile systems that demand higher power with different voltage ratings to
work. Hence, power electronics converters are responsible for the ad-
vancement in EVs (Chan, 2002).
This paper will elaborate on the state-of-the-art of the PECs in the
battery, hybrid, fuel cell, and plug-in electric vehicle systems and com-
pare the associated advantages and disadvantages of the existing PECs
for theze vehicular systems. In this paper, section-II elaborates the clas-
sifications of an electric vehicles, their structures, modes of operation,
and the role of PECs in each vehicular system. Section-III deals with the
role of PECs in existing electrical vehicular technology and discusses
the non-isolated bidirectional DC-DC converter. Section-IV includes the
challenges in power electronics vehicular systems.
2. Types of electrical vehicle and role of power electronics
converter
EVs use electrical energy to drive the vehicle and for the electri-
cal appliances in the vehicle to function. According to the International
Electro-Technical Commission’s Technical Committee (IETCTC), if the
vehicle uses two or more energy sources, storage device, and converter
to drive the vehicle, then it’s called a Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) as
long as at least one source is providing electrical energy (Awasthia et al.,
2017). EVs are classified into different types according to the combina-
tion of sources (Bayindir, Gozukucuk & Teke, 2011). The battery alone
works as a source in the Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV), fuel cell and bat-
tery in Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV), battery and ICE in HEV, and
battery and grid or external charging station in PEV as shown in Fig. 1.
The details of the EV types are discussed in the following section.
2.1. Battery electric vehicle
2.1.1. Architecture of battery electric vehicle
In a BEV, the battery provides power to drive the train of the vehi-
cle (Cassani & Williamson, 2009; Ehsani, Gao & Gay, 2005; Grunditz &
Thiringer, 2016). The rechargeable battery storage unit acts as a fuel
tank in BEV. Therefore, the range of a BEV depends on the capacity
of the battery unit. Typically, once it is fully charged, the BEV covers
100 km to 250 km distance (Awasthia et al., 2017). In BEV, ICE is re-
placed by an electric motor to propel which makes it a pollution-free
vehicle. The typical structure of BEV is shown in Fig. 2(a). The 14 V to
2
Power Electronic Devices and Components 1 (2022) 100001
Fig. 1. General classification of electric vehicle.
300 V rechargeable batteries is used in BEV according to the type of vehi-
cle. Light-duty, mid-duty, and heavy-duty vehicles need 14 V, 120 V and
150 V DC batteries, respectively (Hegazy, Barrero & Van Mierlo, 2013;
Musavi, Craciun & Gautam, 2014; Rodatz, Garcia & Guzzella, 2003).
Two operating modes are observed in BEV. The power from the battery
is transferred to the vehicle through a DC-DC converter and an inverter
in the battery operating mode. In regenerative braking mode, the power
generated by traction motor transfers to the battery via rectifier and DC-
DC converter.
2.1.2. Role of PECs in battery electric vehicle
In BEV, the unidirectional step-up DC-DC converter is adopted to
boost the voltage as per the demand of the propelling system and elec-
trical load (Adams et al., 2018; Awasthia et al., 2017). The low volt-
age/power rated equipment, such as mobile charger receives supply
from the battery. The DC voltage of the battery is transferred to a high
voltage DC bus through the step-up converter. The high voltage DC bus
supply power to higher voltage rated equipment such as projector lamps.
The function of the DC-AC inverter is to convert DC into a variable (volt-
age and frequency) three-phase AC to drive the AC motor. To drive the
vehicle, and other electronic types of equipment, the DC power sup-
ply from the battery is used as fuel. The voltage controller controls the
DC-DC converter to maintain the charging level of the battery at its
maximum and minimum limits (Miller & Webster, 1997) as shown in
Fig. 2(b).
2.2. Fuel cell electric vehicle
2.2.1. Architecture of fuel cell electric vehicle
The hybrid FCEV is a type of electric vehicle in which both the fuel
cell and the battery provide electrical power to drive the train of the ve-
hicle (Lai & Nelson, 2007; Marchesoni & Vacca, 2007; Thomas, 2009).
In FCEV, oxygen from the air is combined with the stored hydrogen
to generate power for driving the electric motor. From a fuel tank, hy-
drocarbon gas is transferred to the fuel reformer to achieve purity of
hydrogen gas and is stored in the fuel cell stack (Tazelaar, Veenhuizen
& Jagerman, 2013). As per the requirement of power, hydrogen for fuel
cell stacks is combined with oxygen from the air to generate electricity,
and excess electricity can be saved in batteries or ultra-capacitors.
There are different types of fuel cells available in the market, such as
polymer electronic membrane (PEM), direct methanol fuel cells, phos-
phoric acid fuel cells, regenerative fuel cells, reformed methanol fuel
cells, solid oxide fuel cells, and molten carbonate fuel cells (Das, Tan &
Yatim, 2017). Both hybrid and fuel cell vehicles are pollutant-free, and
the by-product is water. The schematic block diagram of hybrid and fuel
cell vehicle is shown in Fig. 3(a). The operating mode of FCEV is divided
P.K. Maroti, S. Padmanaban, M.S. Bhaskar et al. Power Electronic Devices and Components 1 (2022) 100001

Fig. 2. Battery Electric Vehicle (a) Typical structure of BEV, (b) Control scheme operating modes of BEV.

Fig. 3. Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (a) Typical structure of FCEV, (b) Operating modes of FCEV.

into five modes, as shown in Fig. 3(b). In fuel mode, the fuel cell acts
as a source of energy to propel the train individually. In battery mode,
the battery works as a source of energy to drive the train. If both the
battery and fuel supply are together, then it is called a "combined mode"
(Miller & Webster, 1997). In split mode, the fuel cell supplies power to
drive the vehicle, and excess energy is utilized to charge the battery. In
a regenerative mode, the traction motor acts as a source to charge the
battery (Jafri & Gupta, 2016; Schaltz, 2010).

2.2.2. Role of PECs in fuel cell electric vehicle

In FCEV, the electric energy is generated from the battery and fuel
cell. The main goal of FCEVs is to convert electrical energy from fuel
cells to usable power for various loads of the vehicle by using an effi-
cient method to improve the efficiency and performance of the vehicle
(Adams et al., 2018; Awasthia et al., 2017).
Low voltage DC equipments, such as mobile charger, auto starters
receives power directly from a battery or fuel cell. For motor drive and
high voltage applications, the low voltage is stepped-up to 300 V us-
ing a step-up DC-DC converter. The traction controller is adapted to
maintain the required speed of the vehicle by varying the amplitude
and frequency of the inverter output. The voltage controller is adapted
to maintain the maximum and minimum charging levels of the battery
and to increase its life, as shown in Fig. 4. In FCEV electrical system, a
bidirectional DC-DC power converter plays a key role to controlling the
energy flow from the fuel cell to a traction motor during motor mode
and from the motor to the battery during regenerative braking mode
in hybrid FCEV. The bidirectional DC-DC power converter controls the
energy flow with the help of traction and voltage controllers.
Fig. 4. Control scheme of FCEV.
2.3. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVS)
The hybrid electric vehicle is a combination of an ICG vehicle and a
BEV (Gao, Ehsani & Miller, 2005). The ICE provides the necessary pro-
pelling power to drive the train of vehicles. By regenerative mechanism,
the lost energy during the braking mechanism is stored in the battery to
increase the efficiency and economy of the vehicle. Customarily, there
are two types of hybrid electric vehicles, namely Series Hybrid Elec-
tric Vehicle (SHEV) and Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) (Chiu
& Lin, 2006; Gruosso, 2014; Zhang & Williamson, 2008). To improve
power, performance and fuel economy, a third series-parallel hybrid ve-
hicle (SPHEV) was introduced by combining the features of SHEV and
PHEV (Gurkaynak, Khaligh & Emadi, 2009).

3
P.K. Maroti, S. Padmanaban, M.S. Bhaskar et al.
Fig. 5. SHEV (a) Typical structure of SHEV (b) Different operating mode of SHEV.
2.3.1. Series hybrid electric vehicle
In SHEV, both ICE and the battery is modeled in such a way that
they can generate the necessary power to propel the train and periph-
eral electric/electronic equipment (Parag Jose & Meikandasivam, 2016;
Roche, Shabbir & S., 2017). In SHEV, the mechanical energy from ICE
is converted to electrical form by using a generator. The generated AC
power is converted into the DC form to charge the battery by using an
AC-DC rectifier (Akbarian, Pillay & Lopes, 2015). In SHEV, the ICE is
not directly connected to the traction motor to drive the train. In be-
tween ICE and the traction motor, the battery is the intermediate unit.
To drive the train, SHEV requires three propulsion devices. ICE will
generate mechanical energy, and the generator will convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy, whereas the traction motor will convert
the electrical energy to mechanical energy for propelling the vehicle
(Nayanatara, Shanmugapriya & Gurusivakumar, 2014; Razavian, Azad
& McPhee, 2012). Therefore, the efficiency of SHEV is lower. The typical
structure of SHEV is shown in Fig. 5(a).
In SHEV, the battery is the primary source of power to drive the train.
The ICE runs at the optimal speed to drive the generator and charge the
battery. When the State of Charge (SOC) of the battery is minimized, the
ICE starts to charge the battery. As the SOC reaches its maximum level
of around 65%−70%, the ICE stops charging the battery. The battery
is the source of power to drive the train, which reduces the fuel con-
sumption and emissions of the vehicle. The SHEV is a viable solution
when the frequent starting and stopping of the vehicle is required, such
as in city rides (Miller & Webster, 1997). Three operating modes are
observed in SHEV. First, in the fuel mode, ICE is utilized to charge the
battery according to the SOC of the battery. In the battery mode, the
propelling power is gained from the battery. The traction motor also
acts as a source during braking operations to charge the battery, which
is called regenerative braking mode, as shown in Fig. 5(b).
2.3.2. Parallel hybrid electric vehicle
The PHEV is another type of HEV in which both the ICE and the
battery act as a source to drive the train of the vehicle (Desai &
Williamson, 2009; Li, Yu & Ding, 2010). Both the ICE and the battery
can drive the train individually, as shown in Fig. 6(a). Both the ICE and
the electrical motor are coupled to the driving shaft via two clutches.
The ICE is directly connected to the mechanical shaft of the drive train
to propel the vehicle (Adams et al., 2018). As there are no intermedi-
ate conversion stages between ICE and the drive train, the efficiency of
PHEV is greater when compared to SHEV. For long distance range, a
PHEV is a viable solution due to no intermediate conversion state as in
SHEV. Hence, the vehicle is fuel efficient (Olson & Sexton, 2000).
In a PHEV, there are three different ways to utilize the ICE and bat-
tery, as shown in Fig. 6(b). In motor mode, the battery is utilized to
power the train, which is a viable solution for lower speeds. In fuel
mode, the ICE runs at an optimal speed to drive the train at high speed.
During braking or deceleration operations, the traction motor acts as a
4
Power Electronic Devices and Components 1 (2022) 100001
generator to charge the battery in regenerative braking mode (Miller &
Webster, 1997).
In PHEV, the lowest DC voltage is boosted by a bidirectional DC-DC
converter to feed the high voltage DC bus. The function of the three-
phase inverter is to convert the constant DC voltage into variable AC
voltage and frequency to maintain the torque and speed of the traction
motor.
2.3.3. Series-Parallel hybrid electric vehicle
The Series-Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle (SPHEV) configura-
tion incorporates the features of SHEV and PHEV (Gruosso, 2014;
Gurkaynak et al., 2009; Zhang & Williamson, 2008). In SPHEV, the gen-
erator is introduced in between ICE and the battery to charge the battery
as compared to PHEV and ICE is directly connected to the mechanical
shaft to drive the vehicle as compared to SHEV as shown in Fig. 7(a).
From the architecture, it is clear that SPHEV is more complicated and
expensive as compared to the other two HEV (Khaligh & Dusmez, 2012).
There are five different ways to utilize the ICE and battery to pro-
pel the vehicle and other electrical equipment function, as shown in
Fig. 7(b). In fuel mode, the ICE works to drive the vehicle. However,
the propelling power is received from the battery in the battery mode.
During split mode, the ICE transfers power to the traction motor, and
the excess power is utilized to charge the battery. Both the ICE and the
battery provides power to the traction motor in combine mode. During
braking and deceleration operations, the traction motor acts as a gen-
erator and supplies power to the battery in regenerative braking mode.
The most adopted strategy for effective utilization of battery and ICE in
SPHEV is that the battery is utilized to start operation and propel at low
speed after the ICE works alone to drive at high speed, which increases
the vehicle’s fuel efficiency. When acceleration is needed, the battery
mode is in an active state to give extra power along with the ICE (Kim
& Kum, 2016).
2.3.4. Role of PECs in hybrid electric vehicle
As discussed earlier, the HEVs work on electric energy generated
from the battery, mechanical energy from the ICE, and from both battery
and ICE (Adams et al., 2018; Awasthia et al., 2017). The PECs maintain
and control the flow of energy from the battery or ICE to the traction
motor and the traction motor to the battery with the help of a voltage
and traction controller. The low voltage from the battery is supplied
to the low voltage rated DC equipment such as mobile chargers and
auto start-up. The AC-DC rectifier adopted converts the variable AC to a
constant DC voltage during regenerative braking mode. In battery mode,
high DC voltage is converted into variable AC quantities to maintain
the required torque and speed. The control schemes of SHEV, PHEV and
SPHEV are shown in Fig. 8(a)–(c), respectively.
P.K. Maroti, S. Padmanaban, M.S. Bhaskar et al. Power Electronic Devices and Components 1 (2022) 100001

Fig. 6. PHEV (a) Typical structure of PHEV (b) Different operating mode of PHEV.

Fig. 7. SPHEV (a) Typical structure of SPHEV (b) Different working mode of SPHEV.

Fig. 8. Control schemes of (a) SHEV, (b) PHEV and (c) SPHEV.

2.4. Plug-In electric vehicles
2.4.1. Architecture of plug-in electric vehicle
The PEV is a type of HEV in which the battery is charged from an
external source. The ICE is not sufficient to convert the fuel energy
to mechanical energy to drive the shaft. Most of the energy is lost as
heat during conversion (Li & Williamson, 2007; Li, Sharkh & Walsh,
2011; Mwasilu, Justo & Kim, 2014). Moreover, the ICE emits green-
house gases as a by-product. To overcome the drawback of ICE, ICE is
replaced by the battery. PEV has less maintenance cost due to fewer
moving parts. The typical structure of PEV is shown in Fig. 9(a) and it
is similar to SHEV. PEVs have an external charge unit for charging the
battery, whereas SHEVs have it on board (Li, Lopes & Williamson, 2009;
Williamson, 2007). The PEV works on the electrical supply, where the
battery is charged at the battery charging station. The charging station
may be at home or grid. Conceptually, PEV works in two modes, grid to
the vehicle (G2V), in which the battery charges from the grid, and the
other is the vehicle to grid (V2G), where the battery injects power into
the grid, as shown in Fig. 9(b).
In the V2G concept (Subramaniam et al., 2019), battery energy can
be injected into the grid to solve the overloading problem of the grid. In
G2V mode, the power from the grid is utilized to drive the vehicle and
charge the battery, mostly during no-load conditions on the grid line
through various PECs. In regenerative braking mode, the traction motor
acts as a generator to charge the battery. In V2G mode, the charged bat-
tery from either regenerative braking or from the grid is utilized to inject
power into the grid power line to overcome the problem of peak load
overvoltage and ancillary services, or used as an uninterrupted power
supply during blackouts (Awasthia et al., 2017).
2.4.2. Role of PECs in plug-in electric vehicle
In a PEV, the power from the grid is transferred to the traction motor
to propel the vehicle and charge the battery. Alternatively, the energy
from the battery is injected into the grid. In both cases, to transfer the
energy from one end to the other end, voltage conversion should be
done in between the two ends. The rectifier unit is utilized to convert
the three-phase or single-phase power to constant DC power to charge
the battery through a step-down DC-DC converter (Adams et al., 2018;

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P.K. Maroti, S. Padmanaban, M.S. Bhaskar et al. Power Electronic Devices and Components 1 (2022) 100001

Fig. 9. PEV (a) Typical structure of PEV, (b) Different operating mode of PEV.

load (Amjadi & Williamson, 2010; Cabezuelo, Andreu & Kortabarria,

2017; Chan & Chau, 1997; Elnozahy & Salama, 2014; Emadi, Lee & Ra-
jashekara, 2008; Helsper & Ruger, 2014; Hofmann, Schäfer & Ackva,
2014; Naghizadeh & Williamson, 2013; Onar, Kobayashi & Khaligh,
2013; Rajashekara, 2003). In fuel mode, the voltage from the fuel cell
is not sufficient to drive the vehicle. Therefore, it is boosted by the
unidirectional boost converter (Jafri & Gupta, 2016). Various electri-
cal/electronic loads are present on the vehicle, which increase the lux-
urious features and comfort of the vehicle, as shown in Fig. 11.
Some electrical loads require high AC voltage, such as air conditioner
and power windows, which receive power from a DC-AC converter. Mir-
Fig. 10. Control scheme of PEV.
ror adjustment and drive seat adjustment work on a DC motor feed from
Table 1 a battery or fuel cell through a DC-DC converter. All these electrical
Operating Modes of Evs. loads operate at different voltage ratings (Adams et al., 2018). The pro-
jector lamp requires 42 V for projecting the light, and the interior lamp
Types of Mode of energy flow
requires 12 V for its operation. Electronic loads such as sensors, com-
Vehicle
Fuel Battery Split Combine Regenerative munication systems and tacho-metre require low voltage for their op-
√ √ eration. The need of different rated voltage supplies increases as the
BEV
√ √ √ √ √
FCEV electrical/electronic load increases on the vehicle, which is not possible
√ √
SHEV
√ √ √ √ from a single battery supply as discussed in previous sections. The num-
PHEV ber of DC-DC converters increases with increasing different rated loads,
√ √ √ √ √
SPHEV
√ √ which results in a lower efficiency of a single battery structure vehicular
PEV
system. According to Adams et al. (2018), two types of architecture are
adopted in the hybrid automobile system. One is a vehicular system that
works on ICE or a fuel cell with a single battery (36 V). Another is the
Awasthia et al., 2017). For maintain the speed and torque of the traction
ICE, or fuel cell, which works with a double battery (14 V and 42 V).
motor, traction control is adopted. The voltage controller controls the
The typical structure of the dual battery system is shown in Fig. 12.
power flow from the battery in/out directions. In PEV, the bidirectional
In the dual battery system (Cabezuelo et al., 2017), dual voltage is gen-
DC-DC converter plays a vital role in controlling the bidirectional flow of
erated from a generator in HEV or from the grid in a PEV. The 36 V
energy. It operates in step-up mode during V2G mode and acts as a step-
battery is utilized for mid voltage applications and the 12 V battery for
down converter in G2V mode. The operating mode of the bidirectional
low voltage applications. However, 36 V from the battery is boosted
DC-DC converter is controlled by the voltage controller, as shown in
to 42 V for the drive and high voltage applications. The typical elec-
Fig. 10 (Elnozahy & Salama, 2014; Yong, Ramachandaramurthy & Tan,
trical system of EVs is shown in Fig. 13. The voltage generated from
2015b).
the generator optimizes to charge the battery with the help of the rec-
tifier and unidirectional DC-DC converter in SHEV and SPHEV, to drive
2.5. Summary of electric vehicles
the vehicle in PHEV and FCEV (Elnozahy & Salama, 2014; Yong et al.,
2015b). The voltage from the fuel cell and the battery is boosted by
As discussed above, five different operating modes in EVs that de-
the unidirectional and bidirectional DC-DC converters, respectively. The
scribe the flow of power from the battery, fuel cell, or ICE to the vehicle
boosted voltage supplies to high voltage DC applications and is con-
and from the vehicle to the battery or grid are articulated in Table 1. As
verted into the variable frequency and voltage with the help of a three-
per the operating modes of EVs, the different types of PECs utilized for
phase inverter. Advanced EVs can utilize the wasted energy during de-
specific operations are articulated in Table 2. The bidirectional DC-DC
celeration and braking to charge the battery. In regenerative braking
converter is adopted in EVs to allow regenerative braking to charge the
mode, the three-phase converter works as a three-phase rectifier. The
battery.
rectified output is converted to the battery voltage with the help of a
bidirectional DC-DC converter (Amjadi & Williamson, 2010; Choubey
3. Power electronics converters in electric, hybrid and fuel cell
& Lopes, 2017; Chung, Chow & Hui, 2000; Di Napoli, Crescimbini &
vehicle
Solero, 2002; Dobbs & Chapman, March, 2003; Dusmez, Hasanzadeh &
Khaligh, 2014; Emadi, 2005; Emadi, Lee & Rajashekara, 2008; Ha, Lee
3.1. Existing power electronics converter in EVs
& Hwang, 2012; Khaligh, 2008; Khaligh & Li, 2010; Khan, Ahmed & Hu-
sain, 2015; Kuo, Lo & Chiu, 2014; Lulhe & Date, 2015; Ni, Patterson &
In EVs, the power from battery/ultra-capacitor, fuel cell or ICE is uti-
lized to drive the vehicle and functions of onboard electrical/electronic

6
P.K. Maroti, S. Padmanaban, M.S. Bhaskar et al. Power Electronic Devices and Components 1 (2022) 100001

Table 2
Utilization of PEC in EVs.

Types of Vehicle Power Electronics Converters

DC-DC converter
Rectifier Inverter
Uni-directional Bi-directional
√ √ √
BEV
√ √ √
FCEV
√ √ √
HEV SHEV
√ √ √
PHEV
√ √ √
SPHEV
√ √ √
PEV G2V
√ √ √
V2G

Fig. 11. Electrical appliances of EVs.

Fig. 12. Dual battery scheme for EVs.

Hudgins, 2012; Onwuchekwa & Kwasinski, 2011; Waffler & Kolar, 2009;
Wu, Lu, Shi & Xing, 2012; Yang, Guan, Zhang, Jiang & Huang, 2018).
In a recent vehicular system, a three-phase converter acts as an in-
verter during fuel, battery, split and combine mode whereas rectifier
in regenerative mode. The selection of converter mode is sophisticated
and controlled by the traction controller unit. The traction controller
generates the controlled pulses for the three-phase converter according
to the received signal from the traction motor and vehicle drivers. The
controlled pulse decides the operation of the three-phase converter as
an inverter or rectifier. The voltage control unit controls the SOC of
the battery at the maximum and minimum level. The voltage controller
continuously receives the SOC level signal from the battery and com-
pare it with the reference voltage signal, consistent with this controlled
pulse generate for DC-DC converter to maintain the SOC of the battery
to increase its lifespan and avoid power wastage.
Fig. 13. General electrical structure of EVs.
3.2. Classification of power electronics converters
The general classification of PECs is shown in Fig. 14. As discussed in
the previous section, each converter has its own functional/role. In this
section, we will discuss the existing non-isolated bidirectional DC-DC
converters for EVs. The bidirectional DC-DC converter is a basic conver-
sion unit in EVs. It acts as a boost converter from low voltage to high
voltage side direction and a buck converter from high voltage to low
voltage side direction.

7
P.K. Maroti, S. Padmanaban, M.S. Bhaskar et al. Power Electronic Devices and Components 1 (2022) 100001

Fig. 14. Classification of Power Electronics Converters.

& Kolar, 2009; Wu et al., 2012) is shown in Fig. 16(c). It can main-
tain the SOC of the battery and recuperate the braking energy from the
electrical motor.
However, it has double the number of active components as com-
pared to the conventional bidirectional buck-boost converter. The bidi-
rectional CUK and SEPIC with Luo converter are shown in Fig. 17(a)
and (b), respectively (Amjadi & Williamson, 2010). The converter can
operate in both buck and boost mode. The input and output current rip-
ple are reduced in the CUK converter. In SEPIC with a Luo converter,
the SEPIC converter works as a boost converter, and the Luo converter
Fig. 15. Universal Bidirectional DC-DC Converter (Onar et al., 2013). works as a buck converter. The disadvantage of SEPIC with the Luo
converter is the discontinuous output current.
Table 3 The numbers of active and passive components in single input non-
Operating Modes of Bidirectional DC-DC Converter. isolated bidirectional DC-DC converters are articulated in Table 4, where
L represents the inductor, C for the capacitor, S for the active switch,
Direction Mode S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
and D represents the diode. In addition to the single input topologies,
VDC to V1 Boost ON OFF OFF ON PWM multiple-input topologies are also adopted for bi-directional power flow
VDC to V1 Buck PWM OFF OFF ON OFF
V1 to VDC Boost OFF ON ON OFF PWM
in EVs. Fig. 18 shows the existing non-isolated bidirectional DC-DC con-
V1 to VDC Buck OFF ON PWM OFF OFF verter with multiple inputs. The input may be the battery, fuel cell,
or ultra-capacitor. The response from a fuel cell or ICE to the DC bus
is slower as compared to battery (Khan et al., 2015). The battery and
ultra-capacitor are utilized to provide the power for DC bus, as shown in
The universal bidirectional DC-DC converter in Onar et al. (2013) is Fig. 18(a). By utilization of two sources in one application permits the
shown in Fig. 15. The converter operates in both buck and boost mode relatively low voltage from each source and controls the current from
with non-inverting output. The different operating modes are articu- multiple inputs. Fig. 18(b) represents the multi-input hybrid conversion
lated in Table 3. Apart from the universal bidirectional converter, sin- topology (Khaligh, 2008; Khan et al., 2015).
gle input, multi-input, multistage, and multiphase non-isolated con- The presented topology is capable of diversifying the energy amongst
verters are adopted for bi-directional power flow. Fig. 16(a)–(c) and the different energy sources with different voltage-current characteris-
Fig. 17(a),(b) shows the single input non-isolated bidirectional DC-DC tics. The advantage of the multiple-input bidirectional converters is the
converter. Amjadi and Williamson (2010) Represent the buck-boost least number of components and a positive output voltage without the
bidirectional converter for EV applications, as shown in Fig. 16(a). It transformer. The circuit works as a buck, boost, or buck-boost indepen-
works in both modes depending upon the switching pattern. It consists dently. Fig. 18(c) represents a multi-input cascaded boost converter for
of two active and two passive components with lower electrical and ther- FCEV. According to Marchesoni and Vacca (2007), the multi-input hy-
mal stress. It has the disadvantage of higher ripple current, which dam- brid boost converter has the advantage of three controlled power devices
ages the battery, and discontinuous output current during boost mode as compared to conventional boost converter.
mode, which the size of output capacitors. Fig. 16(b) represents the The limitation of representing topology is that the voltage sum
improved buck-boost converter (Emadi, 2005) where the anti-parallel of two energy sources should be less than a DC link bus. The effi-
diode reduces the stress across the power MOSFET and eventually in- ciency is higher if the power of both sources is in the same direction.
creases the efficiency of conversion. The cascaded bidirectional buck- In Di Napoli et al. (2002); Dusmez et al. (2014); Onwuchekwa and
boost converter (Choubey & Lopes, 2017; Lulhe & Date, 2015; Waffler

8
P.K. Maroti, S. Padmanaban, M.S. Bhaskar et al. Power Electronic Devices and Components 1 (2022) 100001

Fig. 16. Single input non-isolated bidirectional DC-DC Converters (a) buck-boost converter (Amjadi & Williamson, 2010), (b) improved buck-boost Converter
(Emadi, 2005), (c) full bridge converter (Waffler & Kolar, 2009).

Fig. 17. Single input non-isolated bidirectional DC-DC Converters (a) bidirectional CUK converter (Amjadi & Williamson, 2010) and (b) bidirectional SEPIC with
Luo converter (Z. Amjadi & Williamson, 2010).

Table 4
The number of components in Single Input converters.

Passive Components Active Components

Converter
L C S D

Conventional Buck-boost Amjadi and Williamson (2010) 1 2 2 0

Improved Buck-boost Emadi (2005) 1 2 2 4
Cascaded Buck-boost Waffler and Kolar (2009) 1 2 4 0
CUK (Amjadi and Williamson (2010) 2 3 2 0
SEPIC with Luo Amjadi and Williamson (2010) 2 3 2 0

Table 5
Number of components in Multiple Input converters.

Passive Components Active Components

Converter
L C S D

Multi input Buck-boost Khan et al. (2015) 2 0 4 0

Multi input boost Khaligh (2008) 2 1 3 0
Multi input converter Marchesoni and Vacca (2007) 1 0 3 0
MI-PEC Di Napoli et al. (2002) 2 3 4 0

Kwasinski (2011) MI-PEC represents for the EV application shown in
Fig. 18(d) in which VH represents DC power from different energy
sources to the DC bus and operates in step-down mode to transfer power
from the DC bus to the bus voltage. The MI-PEC works in step-up mode
to transfer charge to the battery or ultra-capacitor. In Table 5, the num-
ber of components of multi-input non-isolated bidirectional DC-DC con-
verters is articulated. As the number of active and passive components
increases, it affects the efficiency of conversion. In Table 5, L represents
the inductor, C represents the capacitor, S represents the active switch,
and D represents the diode. Fig. 19 shows the multiphase non-isolated
bidirectional DC-DC converters for EVs applications. Fig. 19(a) repre-
sents the three-phase interleaved boost converter (Khaligh & Li, 2010;
Yang et al., 2018). The multiphase converter overcomes the draw-
backs of the conventional bidirectional DC-DC converter by reducing
the input-output current ripples. Several phases increase the ripple con-
tent in the current decreases, but eventually, it decreases the efficiency
by increasing the number of active and passive components per phase.
Fig. 19(b) shows the different structures of the interleaved boost con-
verter (Ni et al., 2012). Several phases increase, the size of the input and
output filter decreases. The represented topology has a greater number
of active and passive components as compared to the topology shown
in Fig. 19(a).
Fig. 20 shows the Switched Capacitor (SC) structure topologies
for EVs. In Amjadi and Williamson (2010); Chung et al. (2000);
Ni et al. (2012), SC topology was explained, and the structure is shown
in Fig. 20(a). The SC structure offers the features of step-up, step-down,
and both for bidirectional flow of power. The topology works in two
modes, A and B. The efficiency of the represented topology is 85% in
mode-A and 80% in mode-B. Fig. 20(b) and (c) show zero current switch-
ings switched capacitor quasi-resonant converter with single-level and
two-level configurations, respectively (Lee & Chiu, 2005). The configu-
ration improves the problem of current stress during the bidirectional
flow using SC structure and one inductor. With the help of L and C, the
converter achieves zero switching currents and reduces the losses. The
semiconductor device MOSFET is turned ON and OFF in a zero current

9
P.K. Maroti, S. Padmanaban, M.S. Bhaskar et al. Power Electronic Devices and Components 1 (2022) 100001

Fig. 18. Multiple input non-isolated bidirectional DC-DC converters (a) Multi input buck-boost converter (Khan et al., 2015), (b) Multi input converter
(Khaligh, 2008), (c) multi input cascaded boost converter (Marchesoni & Vacca, 2007) and (d) MI-PEC (Di Napoli et al., 2002) .

Fig. 19. Multiphase non-isolated bidirectional DC-DC converters (a) Multiphase interleaved boost converter (Yang et al., 2018), (b) 16 Phase IBC (Ni et al., 2012).

Fig. 20. Switched Capacitor Topologies (a) Switched bidirectional converter (Amjadi & Williamson, 2010) (b) zero current switching switched capacitor quasi
resonant converter with single level (Lee & Chiu, 2005) (c) zero current switching switched capacitor quasi resonant converter with two level (Lee & Chiu, 2005).

10
P.K. Maroti, S. Padmanaban, M.S. Bhaskar et al.
state, which reduces the EMI problem. The converter gives 93% effi-
ciency. The number of switched-capacitor stages increases to achieve a
higher voltage conversion ratio.
4. Challenges in power electronics vehicular system
4.1. Improve efficiency
Firstly, in EVs, mechanical and hydraulic shaft are replaced by an
electric motor for propelling operation. In HEV, selecting the perfect
combination of ICE and fuel cell or battery in the proper way helps to
improve the efficiency. In the battery or fuel mode, PECs play a signif-
icant role to improve efficiency by selecting a proper power converter.
The selection of PECs, switching strategies of converters, system inte-
gration and packing of individual units are essential to achieve the goal
of power electronics in the vehicular system. The converters are selected
according to the load demand and input supply. The efficiency of PEC
depends on the number of components, control strategies, and EMI ef-
fects.
4.2. Increase the durability of EVs
The durability of EVs depends on the life of the electrical unit present
in EVs. The durability of the battery increases by continuously main-
taining the charging and discharging level with the help of the voltage
controller. The life span of PEC depends on semiconductor devices. The
converter should need to be withstood for high vibration and thermal
condition at extreme condition. The challenges lie in selecting the proper
converter with high efficiency, rigidness, low cost, and small size.
4.3. Increase the performance of EVs
Fast and high-power industrial motion control is a demanding trend
in the modern automobile system. The PE technique is combined with
Digital Signal Processing (DSP) to achieve the high performance of EVs.
4.4. Increase the luxurious feature
Today’s advanced EVs are more focused on making high comfort
EVs. Some high comfort applications are shown in Fig. 20. Each ap-
plication requires a different voltage rating to work. The multistage or
multi-output DC-DC converter provide different ratings power supply
for DC appliances. The AC load receives power from the three-phase
inverter.
4.5. Increase the safety in EVs
Apart from power conversion and propelling control, monitoring the
condition of the traction motor to detect any failure like stator, rotor,
and bearing faults are essential. In advance EVs, ABS and airbags require
high power actuators. The PEC with DSP technique can increase the
safety features in EVs in the future.
4.6. Decrease the overall cost of EVs
The number of power conversion unit and component uses, decide
the cost of the vehicular electrical system in EVs. As the luxurious load
increases on the vehicle, it is responsible for demanding a higher number
of PEC. The challenge is to reduce the cost of the vehicle by selecting a
smaller number of power conversion units for a more significant number
of luxurious loads.
5. Conclusion
A state-of-the-art review of the current status and opportunities of
PECs in electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles is presented. This paper
11
Power Electronic Devices and Components 1 (2022) 100001
summarized the impact of PECs on cost, efficiency, and performance of
EVs. From the review of EVs, the SPHEV has the perfect combination
of two energy sources for propelling and other functions. With the ad-
vancement in the vehicular electrical system, the demand for different
ratings of supply increases, which is not fulfilled by one battery or two
battery structure. The bidirectional DC-DC converter plays a vital role in
the power conversion process of EVs. The existing non-isolated bidirec-
tional DC-DC converter topologies are discussed with a comprehensive
review and comparison along with the advantages and disadvantages
of PEC in the present vehicular system in detail. Finally, the paper ex-
plains the various challenges for PECs to improve efficiency, durability,
performance, and cost reduction.
Declaration of Competing Interest
We authors confirm article has no conflict of interest. The article
is solemnly presented to Power Electronics Devices and Components,
Elsevier Journal, for publication.
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