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 Endocrine system consists of ductless endocrine glands
that are scattered throughout the body.
 Though Endocrine glands are not connected
anatomically, they constitute a system in functional
sense.
 Endocrinology is the study of homeostatic chemical
adjustments and other activities that hormones
accomplish.
 Even though the blood distributes hormones
throughout the body, only specific target cells can
respond to each hormone because only the target cells
have receptors for binding with particular hormone.
 A single endocrine gland may produce multiple hormones. The
anterior pituitary, for example, secretes six different hormones,
each under a different control mechanism and having distinct
functions.
 A single hormone may be secreted by more than one endocrine
gland. For example, both the hypothalamus and pancreas
secrete the hormone somatostatin, and somatostatin acts as a
paracrine in the stomach.
 The rate of secretion of some hormones varies considerably
over the course of time in a cyclic pattern. Therefore, endocrine
systems also provide temporal (time) coordination of function.
e.g. Endocrine control of reproductive cycles.
In its regulatory role, the endocrine system exerts wide-
ranging effects throughout the body, including:
1. Regulating organic metabolism and H2O and electrolyte
balance, which are important collectively in maintaining a
constant internal environment.
2. Inducing adaptive changes to help the body cope with
stressful situations.
3. Promoting smooth, sequential growth and development.
4. Controlling reproduction.
5. Regulating red blood cell production.
6. Along with the autonomic nervous system, controlling and
integrating activities of both the circulatory and digestive
systems.
 A single hormone has more than one type of target cell and
therefore can induce more than one type of effect, typically by
binding with different subtypes of receptors. For example,
vasopressin promotes H2O re-absorption by the kidney tubules
by binding with V2 (vasopressin 2) receptors on the distal and
collecting tubular cells and causes vasoconstriction of arterioles
throughout the body by binding with V1 receptors on arteriolar
smooth muscle. Sometimes hormones that have multiple
target-cell types can coordinate and integrate the activities of
various tissues toward a common end. For example, the effects
of insulin on muscle, liver, and fat all act in concert to store
nutrients after absorption of a meal.
 The same chemical messenger may be either a hormone or a
neurotransmitter, depending on its source and mode of
delivery to the target cell. Norepinephrine, which is secreted as
a hormone by the adrenal medulla and released as a
neurotransmitter from sympathetic postganglionic nerve fibres.
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 A single target cell may be influenced by more than one
hormone. Some cells contain an array of receptors for responding
in different ways to different hormones. e.g. Insulin promotes the
conversion of glucose into glycogen within liver cells by
stimulating one particular hepatic enzyme, whereas another
hormone, glucagon, by activating yet another hepatic enzyme,
enhances the degradation of glycogen into glucose within liver
cells.
 Some organs are exclusively endocrine in function (they
specialize in hormone secretion alone, the anterior pituitary
being an example), whereas other organs of the endocrine
system perform non-endocrine functions in addition to secreting
hormones. For example, the testes produce sperm and also
secrete the male sex hormone testosterone.
 Some hormones regulate the production and secretion of
another hormone. A hormone that has its primary function
in the regulation of hormone secretion by another
endocrine gland is classified functionally as a tropic
hormone (tropic means “nourishing”). Tropic hormones
stimulate and maintain their endocrine target tissues.
 For example, the tropic hormone thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH), from the anterior pituitary, stimulates
thyroid hormone secretion by the thyroid gland and also
maintains the structural integrity of this gland. In the
absence of TSH, the thyroid gland atrophies (shrinks) and
produces very low levels of its hormones.

Plasma 1 – For all Hormones

 The hormones that have not been fully qualified as 2 – For a few hormones
Endocrine Hormone Bound to 3- For Lipophilic Hormones
hormones because Gland Plasma Protein 4 – For all Hormones
◦ Either they don’t quite fit the classical definition of hormone
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◦ Or their hormonal status has not yet been conclusively Binding
(Lipophilic 2
documented. Hormones)
1 Activation (Some
◦ Examples include Epidermal Growth factor, Nerve Growth
Secretion Free, Biologically Active Hormones)
Factor etc.
Hormone

Metabolism in
Target Cells Liver or other
Tissues
4
Inactivation
Physiological
Response Excretion in Urine

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 To maintain homeostasis , the secretion of hormones
must be turned on and off as needed.
 Adjustments are accomplished by
◦ Neural Mechanisms – Pre-ganglionic sympathetic nerves
synapse on adrenal medulla and cause secretion of
catecholamines into circulation.
◦ Feedback Mechanisms – Some element of physiologic
response to a hormone ”feed backs”, either directly or
indirectly, on the endocrine gland that secreted the
hormone, changing its secretion rate. Feedback can
either positive or negative. Positive feedback is rare.
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 It is the mechanism in which some features of hormone action,
directly or indirectly inhibits further secretion of hormone.
 A feedback mechanism exists between hypothalamus in
relation to anterior pituitary, which is in relation to peripheral
endocrine gland.
 The hormones of peripheral endocrine gland feedback on
anterior pituitary and hypothalamus to inhibit their hormonal
secretion through Long-Loop negative Feedback.
 Anterior pituitary hormones feeds back on hypothalamus to
inhibit their hormonal secretion via Short-Loop negative
Feedback.
 There is a third possibility called as ultra-short loop negative
feedback, in which hypothalamic hormone inhibits its own
secretion (Not shown in the diagram).
 It is uncommon.
 Estrogens on the secretion of Follicle stimulating
hormone and Luteinizing hormone by anterior
pituitary.
 Dilation of cervix causes the posterior pituitary to
secrete oxytocin, which causes further dilation of the
cervix.
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 Secretion of hormones rhythmically fluctuate up and

down as function of time.
 Common endocrine rhythms are
◦ Diurnal (Day-night) or
◦ Circadian (Around a day)
 Endogenous oscillators (external cues, light-dark
cycle)control this rhythm.

 Cortisol secretion rises

during the night, reaching
peak in the morning, before
a person gets up and falls
throughout the day to its
lowest level at bed time.

 The hormones are metabolically inactivated in liver and some

are inactivated in kidneys, blood or target cells.

 In some cases, the metabolism of a hormone can actually

activate it, e.g. after thyroid hormone thyroxin (T4) is
secreted, it is converted into a more powerful hormone (T3).

 Hydrophilic hormones are easy targets for blood and tissue

enzymes, so they remain in blood briefly (few minutes to
hours).

 Lipophilic hormones bind to plasma proteins make them less

vulnerable to metabolic inactivation. These are removed
slowly (Steroids in hours and thyroid hormones in a week)

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 Primary hypo-secretion occurs when an endocrine gland is secreting too

little of its hormone because of an abnormality within that gland.
 Secondary hypo-secretion takes place when an endocrine gland is normal
but is secreting too little hormone because of a deficiency of its tropic
hormone.
The following are among the many different factors that may cause primary
hypo-secretion:
(1) Genetic (inborn absence of enzyme that catalyzes synthesis of the
hormone)
(2) Dietary (lack of iodine, which is needed for synthesis of thyroid hormone)
(3) Chemical or toxic (certain insecticide residues destroy the adrenal cortex)
(4) Immunologic (autoimmune antibodies destroy body’s own thyroid tissue)
(5) Other disease processes (cancer may destroy endocrine glands)
(6) Iatrogenic (physician induced, surgical removal of a cancerous thyroid
gland)
(7) Idiopathic (meaning the cause is not known).
 The most common method of treating hormone hypo-
secretion is to administer a hormone that is the same as (or
similar to, such as from another species) the deficient or
missing one.
 Such replacement therapy seems straightforward, but the
hormone’s source and means of administration involve some
practical problems. The sources of hormone preparation for
clinical use include
(1) Endocrine tissues from domestic livestock
(2) Placental tissue
(3) Laboratory synthesis of hormones
(4) “Hormone factories,” or bacteria into which genes coding
for the production of hormones have been introduced.

 Hyper-secretion by a particular endocrine gland is designated as

primary or secondary depending on whether the defect lies in that  There are several ways of treating hormonal hyper-
gland or results from excessive stimulation from the outside, secretion.
respectively.
 If a tumor is the culprit, it may be surgically removed or
 Hyper-secretion may be caused by
destroyed with radiation treatment.
(1) Tumors that ignore the normal regulatory input and continuously
 In some instances, hyper-secretion can be limited by
secrete excess hormone and
drugs that block hormone synthesis or inhibit hormone
secretion.
(2) Immunologic factors, such as excessive stimulation of the thyroid
gland by an abnormal antibody that mimics the action of TSH, the
thyroid tropic hormone. Excessive levels of a particular hormone
may also arise from substance abuse, such as the outlawed
practice among athletes of using certain steroids that increase
muscle mass by promoting protein synthesis in muscle cells.

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 The hypothalamus and posterior pituitary form a neuro-endocrine system that
consists of a population of neuro-secretory neurons whose cell bodies lie in two
well-defined clusters in the hypothalamus, the supraoptic and paraventricular
nuclei. The axons of these neurons pass down through the thin connecting stalk to
terminate on capillaries in the posterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary consists
of these neuronal terminals plus glial-like supporting cells known as pituicytes.
Functionally as well as anatomically, the posterior pituitary is simply an extension
of the hypothalamus. The posterior pituitary does not actually produce any
hormones. It simply stores and, on appropriate stimulation, releases into the blood
two small peptide hormones, vasopressin and oxytocin, which are synthesized by
the neuronal cell bodies in the hypothalamus. Both these hydrophilic peptides are
made in both the supraoptic and the paraventricular nuclei, but a single neuron
can produce only one of these hormones. The synthesized hormones are packaged
in secretory granules that are transported by motors down the cytoplasm of the
axon and stored in the neuronal terminals within the posterior pituitary. Each
terminal stores either vasopressin or oxytocin, but not both. Thus, these hormones
can be released independently as needed. On stimulatory input to the
hypothalamus, either vasopressin or oxytocin is released into the systemic blood
from the posterior pituitary by exocytosis of the appropriate secretory granules.
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 Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH) has two major effects that
correspond to its two names:
(1) it enhances retention of H2O by the kidney nephrons during urine
formation (an anti-diuretic effect), and
(2) it causes contraction of arteriolar smooth muscle (a vessel pressor
effect). The first effect has more physiologic importance. Under
normal conditions, vasopressin is the primary endocrine factor that
regulates urinary H2O loss and overall H2O balance. In contrast,
typical levels of vasopressin play only a minor role in regulating blood
pressure by means of the hormone’s pressor effect.
The major control for hypothalamic-induced release of vasopressin
from the posterior pituitary is input from hypothalamic
osmoreceptors, which increase vasopressin secretion in response
to a rise in plasma osmolarity. A less powerful input from the left
atrial volume receptors increases vasopressin secretion in response
to a fall in ECF volume and arterial blood pressure.s
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 Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the uterine smooth

muscle to help expel the infant during childbirth, and
 It promotes ejection of the milk from the mammary glands
during milk-feeding.
 Appropriately, oxytocin secretion is increased by reflexes
that originate within the birth canal during childbirth and
by reflexes that are triggered when the infant suckles the
breast.
 In addition to these two major physiologic effects, oxytocin
has recently been shown to influence a variety of
behaviours, especially maternal behaviours. For example,
this hormone facilitates bonding, or attachment, between a
mother and her infant.

Hormones
of Anterior
Pituitary

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1. The type of anterior pituitary cells known as somatotropes

secrete growth hormone (GH, somatotropin), the primary
hormone responsible for regulating overall body growth (somato
means “body”). GH also exerts important metabolic actions.
2. Thyrotropes secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH,
thyrotropin), which stimulates secretion of thyroid hormone
and growth of the thyroid gland.
3. Corticotropes produce and release adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH, adrenocorticotropin), the hormone that
stimulates cortisol secretion by the adrenal cortex and
promotes growth of the adrenal cortex.

4. Gonadotropes secrete two hormones that act on the gonads (reproductive

organs, namely the ovaries and testes)—Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
helps regulate gamete (reproductive cells, namely ova and sperm) production
in both sexes. In females it stimulates growth and development of ovarian  Non Functional Pituitary Tumors
follicles, within which the ova, or eggs, develop. It also promotes secretion of
the hormone estrogen by the ovaries. In males, FSH is required for sperm
production. — Luteinizing hormone (LH) helps control sex hormone secretion  Pan hypo pituitarism
in both sexes, among other important actions in females. In females, LH is
responsible for ovulation and luteinization (that is, the formation of a
hormone-secreting corpus luteum in the ovary following ovulation). LH also  Diabetes Inspidus
regulates ovarian secretion of the female sex hormones, estrogen and
progesterone. In males the same hormone stimulates the interstitial cells of
Leydig in the testes to secrete the male sex hormone, testosterone. Note that
both FSH and LH are named for their functions in females.
5. Lactotropes secrete prolactin (PRL), which enhances mammary gland
development and milk production (that is, lactation) in females. Its function in
males is uncertain, although evidence indicates that it may induce the
production of testicular LH receptors. Furthermore, recent studies suggest that
prolactin may enhance the immune system and support the development of
new blood vessels at the tissue level in both sexes— both actions totally
unrelated to its known roles in reproductive physiology.