Introduction To Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards PDF

ntroduction to Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards
Introduction
This page intentionally left blank
I N T R O D U C T I O N TO
Veterinary Anatomy
Physiology F L A S H C A R D S
AND
Victoria Aspinall
Melanie Cappello
Sally Bowden
First published 2009, © Elsevier Limited. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, in-
cluding photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Rights Department: phone: (+1) 215 239 3804 (US) or (+44)
1865 843830 (UK); fax: (+44) 1865 853333; e-mail: healthpermissions@elsevier.com. You may also complete your request
online via the Elsevier website at http://www.elsevier.com/permissions.
ISBN 978-0-7020-2937-0 (Part 9996061337)
Notice
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our knowledge,
changes in practice, treatment and drug therapy may become necessary or appropriate. Readers are advised to check the
most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to be adminis-
tered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of administration, and contraindications. It
is the responsibility of the practitioner, relying on their own experience and knowledge of the patient, to make diagnoses,
to determine dosages and the best treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions. To
the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the Authors assumes any liability for any injury and/or damage to
persons or property arising out of or related to any use of the material contained in this book.
The Publisher
Commissioning Editor: Rita Demetriou-Swanwick, Robert Edwards
Development Editor: Louisa Welch
Project Manager: Andrew Palfreyman
Designer/Design Direction: Stewart Larking
Illustrators Manager: Merlyn Harvey
Illustrators: Debbie Maizels, Samantha Elmhurst The
publisher's
policy is to use
paper manufactured
from sustainable forests
Printed in China
Contents
238 CARDS
Cell Biology ............................................................ Cards 1 to 11
Tissues and Body Cavities ......................................................... Cards 12 to 17
Skeletal System ......................................................... Cards 18 to 42
Muscular System ......................................................... Cards 43 to 60
Nervous System ......................................................... Cards 61 to 85
Endocrine System ......................................................... Cards 86 to 91
Vascular System .......................................................Cards 92 to 114
Respiratory System ....................................................Cards 115 to 130
Digestive System ....................................................Cards 131 to 147
Urinary System ....................................................Cards 148 to 155
Reproductive System ....................................................Cards 156 to 184
Common Integument ....................................................Cards 185 to 190
Birds ....................................................Cards 191 to 203
Mammals ....................................................Cards 204 to 213
Reptiles and Fish ....................................................Cards 214 to 222
The Horse ....................................................Cards 223 to 238
This page intentionally left blank
CELL BIOLOGY Anatomical Definitions 1
Anatomical planes and directional planes.

Reprinted from Clinical Anatomy and Physiology for Veterinary Technicians, T Colville and JM Bassett, 2002,
with permission from Elsevier Science.
Identify terms labelled 1 to 15
6
3 4
1
7
15
11
10
14 9
13 12 8
1 CELL BIOLOGY Anatomical Definitions
© 2009, Elsevier Limited. All rights reserved.
1 – Rostral
2 – Caudal
3 – Cranial
4 – Caudal
5 – Dorsal
6 – Median plane
7 – Dorsal plane
8 – Plantar
9 – Lateral
10 – Medial
11 – Ventral
12 – Transverse planes
13 – Palmar
14 – Distal
15 – Proximal
CELL BIOLOGY The mammalian cell - anatomy 2
Components of the mammalian cell.

16
15
14 2
3
13 4
5
6
12
7
11
10
9
8
2 CELL BIOLOGY The mammalian cell - anatomy
1 – Free ribosomes
2 – Nuclear envelope
3 – Nucleus
4 – Nucleolus
5 – Mitochondrion
6 – Ribosomes
7 – Cilia
8 – Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
9 – Rough endoplasmic reticulum
10 – Plasma membrane
11 – Centrosome
12 – Lysosome
13 – Cilia
14 – Golgi apparatus
15 – Flagellum
16 – Centrioles
CELL BIOLOGY The mammalian cell - function 3
What are the functions of each component of the mammalian cell?

Nucleus
Nucleolus
Nuclear envelope
Plasma or cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Centrosome and centrioles
Cilia and flagella
3 CELL BIOLOGY The mammalian cell - function
Each component of a mammalian cell plays a part in the overall function of a cell.
Component Function
Nucleus Information centre – controls all cellular activities. Contains chromosomes made of DNA
Nucleolus May be several at a time. Responsible for formation of ribosomes
Nuclear envelope Surrounds the nucleus and controls what enters and leaves the nucleus.
Plasma or cell Separates the cell from the external environment and controls the passage of substances
membrane into and out of the cell.
Cytoplasm Fills the cell and contains all the chemicals necessary for effective function and all the
components of the cell
Mitochondria Responsible for cell respiration, energy formation and storage.
Ribosomes Synthesis of cellular proteins
Endoplasmic Network of interconnected tubes and cavities. Rough ER is lined by ribosomes and trans-
reticulum (ER) ports proteins around the cell. Smooth ER does not contain ribosomes and synthesizes
and transports lipids and steroids.
Golgi apparatus Stacks of flattened plates. Modifies proteins and forms lysosymes
Lysosomes Sacs of lysosymes which act as digestive enzymes for materials taken into the cell
by phagocytosis or endocytosis.
Centrosome and Involved in cell division.
centrioles
Cilia and flagella Extensions of the plasma membrane seen on some cells. Move fluid and debris over the
cell surface. The flagellum of spermatozoa are responsible for moving the cells along the
reproductive tracts – both male and female.
Mitosis
Identify phases labelled 1 to 6
What is the result of cell division by mitosis?
1 2
3 4
5 6
CELL BIOLOGY Cell division

4
4 CELL BIOLOGY Cell division
1 – Interphase
2 – Prophase
3 – Metaphase
4 – Anaphase
5 – Telophase
6 – Daughter cells
‘Mitosis occurs in the somatic cells and results in the production of two identical daughter cells each of
which is identical to the parent cell and contains the diploid number of chromosomes.’
The order of the phases of mitosis spells the word IPMAT
Meiosis
Identify phases labelled 1 to 9
What is the result of cell division by meiosis?
1 2 3
4/5
CELL BIOLOGY Cell division

7 8
9
5
5 CELL BIOLOGY Cell division
1 – Interphase
2 – Prophase
3 – Metaphase I
4 – Anaphase I
5 – Telophase I
6 – Prophase II
7 – Metaphase II
8 – Anaphase II
9 – Telophase II
‘Meiosis occurs in the germ cells ie. ova and spermatozoa and results in the production of four identi-
cal daughter cells each of which is non-identical to the parent cell and contains the haploid number of
chromosomes.
The order of the phases of meiosis spells out the word IPMAT/ProMAT
CELL BIOLOGY Body composition - water loss 6
How much water is lost from the body via these routes in 24 hours?
1 – Urine 1 – 20 ml/kg body wt
2 – Faeces 2 – 10-20 ml/kg body wt
3 – Respiration and sweat 3 – 20 ml
4 – Total 4 – Total
6 CELL BIOLOGY Body composition - water loss
1 – 20 ml/kg body weight

3 – 10-20 ml/kg body weight
5 – 50-60 ml/kg body weight
CELL BIOLOGY Atoms, ions and electrocytes 7
Provide a definition for each of the following descriptions.

1 – Atoms with a positive charge
2 – Atoms with a negative charge
3 – Substances which break down into ions when dissolved in water
4 – Atoms with a charge
5 – Found in the body in the form of ions
Electrons
Protons and
neutrons in
nucleus
7 CELL BIOLOGY Atoms, ions and electrocytes
1 – Cations
2 – Anions
3 – Electrolytes
4 – Ions
5 – Minerals
CELL BIOLOGY Homeostatic mechanisms 8
What are the normal body parameters of a healthy dog and cat?
Measurement Dog Cat
Body temperature
pH of body fluids
Urine output
Specific gravity of urine
Fluid intake
Blood pressure
8 CELL BIOLOGY Homeostatic mechanisms
Measurement Dog Cat
Body temperature 38.3–38.7°C 38.0–38.5°C

pH of body fluids 7.4 7.4
Urine output 1–2 mL/kg/24 hrs 1–2 ml/kg/24 hrs
Specific gravity of urine 1.0152–1.045 1.020–1.040
Fluid intake 50 ml/kg/24 hrs 50 ml/kg/24 hrs
Blood pressure <165/95 <190/40
CELL BIOLOGY General function and structure of a cell 9
Identify each organelle by its description.

1 – Made up of two centrioles, concerned with cell reproduction
2 – A space in the cytoplasm, often caused by engulfed particles
3 – The outer lining of the cell, which is semipermeable. Substances are transported across by a number of
methods
4 – Membranes responsible for surrounding and removing harmful material from the cell
5 – Tubes that store substances, e.g. lysosomal enzymes
6 – Rough—the site of protein synthesis by ribosomes. Smooth—the site of lipid synthesis
7 – Jelly-like substance that gives the cell its shape. Contains nucleus and other substances such as glucose and
salts
8 – Membranes responsible for energy release in the cell
9 – Contains chromosomes that carry genetic information and a nucleolus that manufactures ribosomes.
Absent in mature erythrocytes
9 CELL BIOLOGY General function and structure of a cell
1 – Centrosome
2 – Vacuole
3 – Cell membrane
4 – Lysosomes
5 – Golgi complex
6 – Endoplasmic reticulum
7 – Cytoplasm
8 – Mitochondria
9 – Nucleus
CELL BIOLOGY Cell division - meiosis 10
Arrange the statements in the order in which they occur to describe the process of meiosis.
1 – Metaphase I—the chromosome pairs (bivalents) line up along the equator of the cell. Spindle fibres form
and the bivalents separate.
2 – Spermatogenesis results in four spermatids, which will become sperm.
3 – In the diploid germ cell, homologous pairs of chromosomes are separate.
4 – Telophase II—cell membrane divides; the second meiotic division is complete.
5 – Metaphase II—the chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell and separate into two chromatids.
Spindle fibres form.
6 – Telophase I—cell membrane divides; the first meiotic division is complete.
7 – Oogenesis results in one ovum and three polar bodies.
8 – Prophase I—chromosomes double up and thicken. Homologous pairs find their partner (forming a biva-
lent) and ‘crossing over’ of genetic information occurs.
9 – Anaphase II—chromatids are pulled apart and move towards opposite edges of the cell.
10 – Prophase II—chromosomes thicken once again.
11 – Anaphase I—chromosomes move to the edge of the cell.
10 CELL BIOLOGY Cell division - meiosis
3 – In the diploid germ cell, homologous pairs of chromosomes are separate.

8 – Prophase I—chromosomes double up and thicken. Homologous pairs find their partner (forming a biva-
lent) and ‘crossing over’ of genetic information occurs.
1 – Metaphase I—the chromosome pairs (bivalents) line up along the equator of the cell. Spindle fibres form
and the bivalents separate.
11 – Anaphase I—chromosomes move to the edge of the cell.
6 – Telophase I—cell membrane divides; the first meiotic division is complete.
10 – Prophase II—chromosomes thicken once again.
5 – Metaphase II—the chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell and separate into two chromatids.
Spindle fibres form.
9 – Anaphase II—chromatids are pulled apart and move towards opposite edges of the cell.
4 – Telophase II—cell membrane divides; the second meiotic division is complete.
2 – Spermatogenesis results in four spermatids, which will become sperm.
7 – Oogenesis results in one ovum and three polar bodies.
CELL BIOLOGY Meiosis and mitosis 11
Complete the table below to depict the differences between the two types of cell division.
Feature Mitosis Meiosis
Site in body
Rounds of division
Number of daughter cells
Number of chromosomes
in each daughter cell
Occurrence of ‘crossing over’
Appearance of daughter cells
in relation to each other
11 CELL BIOLOGY Meiosis and mitosis
Feature Mitosis Meiosis
Site in body everywhere but the gonads gonads

Rounds of division one round two rounds
Number of daughter cells two four
Number of chromosomes diploid haploid
in each daughter cell
Occurrence of ‘crossing over’ does not occur occurs during Prophase l
Appearance of daughter cells identical non-identical
in relation to each other
The different types of epithelium found in the body
Identify each type of epithelium labelled 1 to 6
Where in the body can you find these different types of epithelium?
TISSUES AND BODY CAVITIES Epithelial tissue

3
6
12
12 TISSUES AND BODY CAVITIES Epithelial tissue
1 – Simple cuboidal
2 – Simple squamous
3 – Simple columnar
4 – Cilated
5 – Glandular
6 – Stratified
Different types of epithelium are found in different areas of the body:
Epithelium type Location in the body
Simple cuboidal Renal nephrons

Simple squamous Capillaries, lymphatics, lining the body cavities
Simple columnar Gastro-intestinal tract
Ciliated columnar Respiratory tract
Stratified squamous Epidermis
Stratified keratinized Claws, footpads.
Transitional Ureters, bladder and urethra.
TISSUES AND BODY CAVITIES The Body Cavities - anatomy 13
Longitudinal section through the three body cavities.

Identify each term labelled 1 to 4
2 3
4
13 TISSUES AND BODY CAVITIES The Body Cavities - anatomy
1 – Thoracic cavity
2 – Diaphragm
3 – Pelvic cavity
4 – Abdominal cavity
TISSUES AND BODY CAVITIES The Body Cavities 14
Each body cavity is lined by a serous membrane –

what are these called?
14 TISSUES AND BODY CAVITIES The Body Cavities
Each body cavity is lined by a thin layer of epithelium which secretes a small amount of serous fluid which lubri-
cates the outer surface of the organs within the cavities allowing movement. All organs within each cavity are also
covered in these serous membranes which are named according to their location.
Name Location
Thoracic cavity Pleura

Thoracic surface of the diaphragm Diaphragmatic pleura
Inside of ribs Costal pleura
Over the lungs Pulmonary pleura
Lining the mediastinum Mediastinal pleura
Abdominal cavity Peritoneum
Suspension of organs within the cavity Mesentery
Over the stomach Greater omentum attached to greater curvature, lesser omentum
attached to lesser curvature
Over duodenum Mesoduodenum
Over ovary Mesovarium
Over uterus Mesometrium
TISSUES AND BODY CAVITIES The glands 15
All glands are made from epithelial tissue and produce a secretion. The prefix denoting a gland is aden -. There are
two main types of gland – exocrine and endocrine. Identify the differences between the two types of gland.
Exocrine Endocrine
General name for secretions

Method of reaching site of action
Proximity to site of action
15 TISSUES AND BODY CAVITIES The glands
Exocrine Endocrine
General name for secretions no general name hormones

Method of reaching site of action via a duct via the bloodstream
Proximity to site of action near site of action not necessarily near site of action
TISSUES AND BODY CAVITIES Exocrine glands 16
The different shapes of the exocrine gland.

Reproduced with kind permission from CAW et al 2005.
Identify the exocrine glands by their shape. State whether each is a simple or compound gland and give an exam-
ple of where in the body each is found.
A B C D E
16 TISSUES AND BODY CAVITIES Exocrine glands
(a), (b) and (c) are simple glands.

(a) Tubular glands found in the wall of the stomach and small intestine.
(b) Saccular gland, e.g. the sebaceous glands in the skin. These are also called alveolar glands.
(c) Coiled gland, e.g. the sweat glands in the nose and foot pads.
(d) and (e) are compound glands.

(d) Alveolar glands, e.g. salivary glands.
(e) Tubular glands, e.g. duodenal glands.
TISSUES AND BODY CAVITIES Connective tissue 17
State whether the following are comprised of hyaline, fibro or elastic cartilage.
Epiglottis
Pinnae
Costal cartilage
Early fetal skeleton
Intervertebral disc
Joint sockets
Articular surfaces of joints
Rhinarium
17 TISSUES AND BODY CAVITIES Connective tissue
Epiglottis Elastic
Pinnae Elastic
Costal cartilage Hyaline
Early fetal skeleton Hyaline
Intervertebral disc Fibro
Joint sockets Fibro
Articular surfaces of joints Hyaline
Rhinarium Elastic
SKELETAL SYSTEM The skeleton 18
The skeleton of the dog showing the major bones.

Reproduced with kind permission from Colville & Bassert 2002.
1. –––––––––
2. –––––––––
3. –––––––––
4. ––––––––– 6. –––––––––
5. ––––––––– 7. –––––––––
26. –––––––––
8. –––––––––
25. –––––––––
24. –––––––––
23. –––––––––
15. ––––––
. ––––––––– 14. ––––––
16.
16 –––––––
21. ––––––––– 13. –––––––
20. ––––––––– 12. –––––––
9. ––––––––
11. –––––––
19. –––––––––
10. ––––––––
17. –––––––––
18. –––––––––
18 SKELETAL SYSTEM The skeleton
1 – C1, atlas
2 – C2, axis
3 – Ligamentum nuchae
4 – T1 first thoracic vertebra
5 – L1 first lumbar vertebra
6 – Sacrum
7 – Cd1 first verteba (coccygeal)
8 – Os coxae (pelvis)
9 – Calcaneus (point of hock)
10 – Metatarsal bones
11 – Tarsal bones
12 – Fibula
13 – Tibia
14 – Patella
15 – Femur
16 – Caudal end (xiphoid) of sternum
17 – Metacarpal bones
18 – Proximal, middle, and distal phalanges
19 – Carpal bones
20 – Ulna
21 – Radius
22 – Olecranon (point of elbow)
23 – Humerus
24 – Cranial end of sternum (manubrium)
25 – Scapula
26 – C7 last cervical vertebra
SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone structure 19
Structure of a typical long bone.

1. ––––––––––––
3. ––––––––––––
4. ––––––––––––
5. ––––––––––––
6. ––––––––––––
7. ––––––––––––
8. ––––––––––––
2. ––––––––––––
9. ––––––––––––
10. ––––––––––––
11. ––––––––––––
19 SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone structure
1 – Epiphysis
2 – Diaphysis
3 – Hyaline articular cartilage
4 – Compact bone
5 – Epiphyseal lines
6 – Cancellous bone trabeculae
7 – Metaphysis
8 – Diaphysis (shaft)
9 – Compact bone
10 – Marrow cavity (medullary cavity)
11 – Periosteum
SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone structure - shapes 20
Bones can be categorized by their shape. What are

these shapes and can you provide examples of each?
20 SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone structure - shapes
Bones can be categorized according to their shape.

Bone shape Example
Long Femur, humerus, radius, ulna, tibia, fibula, metacarpals and metatarsals
Short Carpus and tarsus
Flat Scapula, ribs, many bones of the skull
Irregular Vertebrae
Sesamoid Patella and fabellae
Pneumatic Frontal and maxillary
Splanchnic Os penis
SKELETAL SYSTEM The skull 21
Identify each term labelled 1 to 21 Ventral view of the dog skull

Lateral view of the dog skull
5
14
4 6
3
2
15
1
7
8 16
9
13 12 11 10 17
18
19
21
20
21 SKELETAL SYSTEM The skull
1 – Incisive bone
2 – Nasal bone
3 – Lacrimal bone
4 – Orbit
5 – Frontal bone
6 – Parietal bone
7 – Occipital bone
8 – Occipital condyles
9 – External auditory meatus
10 – Temporal bone
11 – Sphenoid complex
12 – Zygomatic bone
13 – Maxilla
14 – Incisive bone
15 – Maxilla
16 – Palatine bone
17 – Zygomatic arch
18 – Jugular process
19 – Occipital condyle
20 – Foramen magnum
21 – Occipital bone
SKELETAL SYSTEM Mandible 22
5
Lateral and medial view of the dog mandible
6
2 3 4
1
8 9
10 11
12
14 13
22 SKELETAL SYSTEM Mandible
1 – Incisors
2 – Canine tooth
3 – Premolars
4 – Molars
5 – Coronoid process
6 – Mandibular notch
7 – Condylar process
8 – Masseteric fossa
9 – Angular process
10 – Condylar process
11 – Ramus
12 – First molar or Carnassial tooth
13 – Mandibular symphysis
14 – Body
SKELETAL SYSTEM The canine skull 23
The three basic shapes of dog skull

As a result of selective breeding the shape of the dog’s skull has changed - can you list the different types and
provide examples of the different breeds that show them?
3
23 SKELETAL SYSTEM The canine skull
1 – Brachycephalic
2 – Mesaticephalic
3 – Dolichocephalic
The shape of the skull varies between species and breed:

Skull shape Example
Apple shaped All cat breeds

Mesaticephalic Average shaped dog breeds eg. beagle, spaniel, labrador
Dolicocephalic Long nosed dog breeds eg borzoi, greyhound, saluki
Brachycephalic Short nosed dog breeds eg. bulldog, boxer, pug, King Charles spaniels
SKELETAL SYSTEM Vertebral structure 24
Basic structure of a typical vertebra

8 3
6 5
24 SKELETAL SYSTEM Vertebral structure
1 – Spinous process
2 – Cranial articular surface
3 – Mamillary process
4 – Costal fovea of transverse process
5 – Vertebral foramen
6 – Body of vertebra
7 – Transverse process
8 – Neural arch
Variations in the shape of vertebrae
Identify each vertebral type labelled A to H
Each region of the vertebral column contains a characteristic number of
vertebrae – can you identify how many in each region?
A B C
SKELETAL SYSTEM Vertebral shape

D E F
G H
25
25 SKELETAL SYSTEM Vertebral shape
A – Atlas
B – Axis
C – Cervical vertebra
D – Thoracic vertebra
E – Lumbar vertebra
F – Sacral vertebra
G – Proximal coccygeal vertebra
H – Distal coccygeal vertebra
Each region of the vertebral column is made up of a characteristic number of vertebrae.
Vertebral region Number of vertebrae
Cervical 7
Thoracic 13
Lumbar 7
Sacrum 3 (fused)
Caudal or coccygeal 15–21 (average). Varies according to the length of the tail
Structure of the canine rib.

Reprinted from Clinical Anatomy and Physiology for Veterinary Technicians, T Colville
and JM Bassett, 2002, with permission from Elsevier Science.
2
8
12
11 9
SKELETAL SYSTEM The ribs

10
26
6
26 SKELETAL SYSTEM The ribs
1 – Tubercle
2 – Head
3 – Neck
4 – Angle
5 – Body
6 – Costal cartilage
7 – Costochondral junction
8 – Thoracic vertebra
9 – Vertebra of same number as rib
10 – Intervertebral disc
11 – Head
12 – Tubercle
The rib cage of the dog.
13
14
15
16
17
SKELETAL SYSTEM The ribs

18
19
27
20
27 SKELETAL SYSTEM The ribs
13 – Manubrium
14 – First rib
15 – Sternebra
16 – Costochondral junction
17 – Xiphoid process
18 – Xiphoid cartilage
19 – Costal arch
20 – ‘Floating’ rib
SKELETAL SYSTEM Humerus and radius 28
The dog humerus The dog radius and ulna
2 10
13
1 3 12
11
14
8 4
5
7
9
6 15
28 SKELETAL SYSTEM Humerus and radius
1 – Greater tubercle
2 – Head
3 – Lesser tubercle
4 – Olecranon fossa
5 – Medial epicondyle
6 – Trochlea
7 – Lateral epicondyle
8 – Supratrochlear foramen (dog)
9 – Medial styloid process
10 – Olecranon
11 – Lateral and medial coronoid processes
12 – Trochlear noch
13 – Anconeal process
14 – Olecranon
15 – Lateral styloid process
Bones of the distal forelimb in the dog
23 1
22 2
21
3
20
4
19 5
18 6
SKELETAL SYSTEM Distal forelimb

7
17
8
16
15 10
14
13
11
29
12
29 SKELETAL SYSTEM Distal forelimb
1 – Ulna
3 – Ulna carpal bone
4 – CIV
5 – Base
6 – MCIII
7 – MCIV
8 – MCV
9 – Body
10 – Head
11 – Digit V
12 – Distal phalanx
13 – Middle phalanx
14 – Proximal phalanx
15 – MCII
16 – MCI (dew claw)
17 – CIII
18 – CII
19 – CI
20 – Sesamoid bone
21 – Radial carpal bone
22 – Medial styloid process
23 – Radius
SKELETAL SYSTEM Pelvis 30
Bones and bony features of the dog pelvis

20 21 1 2
19
18
15
17 4
5
16
10
14 6
8
13 7
11
12
9
30 SKELETAL SYSTEM Pelvis
1 – Median sacral crest

2 – Wing of the sacrum
3 – Iliac wing
4 – Iliac shaft
5 – Iliopubic eminences
6 – Symphysis pubis
7 – Symphysis ischii
8 – Pubis symphysis
9 – Ischial arch
10 – Pubis
11 – Ischium
12 – Ischial tuberosity
13 – Obturator foramen
14 – Lesser ischial (sciatic) notch
15 – Ilium
16 – Ischiatic spine
17 – Greater ischial (sciatic) notch
18 – Body of the sacrum
19 – Gluteal surface of the ilium
20 – Iliac crest
21 – Sacroiliac joint
The dog femur The dog tibia and fibula
11
10 1
23 12
9 22 13
8
21 14
15
SKELETAL SYSTEM Femur, tibia and fibula

20
16
6
2
19
5 3
4 18 17
31
31 SKELETAL SYSTEM Femur, tibia and fibula
1 – Greater trochanter
2 – Lateral epicondyle
3 – Lateral femoral condyle
4 – Trochlea
5 – Medial femoral condyle
6 – Medial epicondyle
7 – Femoral shaft
8 – Lesser trochanter
9 – Neck
10 – Head
11 – Tibial plateau
12 – Intercondylar eminence
13 – Medial tibial condyle
14 – Tibial tuberosity
15 – Cranial tibial border (tibial crest)
16 – Tibial shaft
17 – Medial malleolus
18 – Lateral malleolus
19 – Fibular shaft
20 – Extensor groove
21 – Fibular head
22 – Lateral tibial condyle
23 – Cranial intercondylar area
SKELETAL SYSTEM Tarsus 32
The dog tarsus or hindpaw Medial Lateral

Identify each term labelled 1 to 20 8
1
9
2 10
3 11
4 12
5
13
6 14
15
16
18
7 19 17
20
32 SKELETAL SYSTEM Tarsus
1 – Tibia
2 – Head of talus
3 – Central tarsal bone
4 – TII
5 – TI
6 – MTI
7 – Second digit
8 – Fibula
9 – Groove for peroneus longus tendon
10 – Calcaneus
11 – TIV
12 – TIII
13 – MTV
14 – MTIV
15 – MTIII
16 – MTII
17 – Fifth digit
SKELETAL SYSTEM Synovial joint - anatomy 33
Structure of a typical synovial joint

1
12
2
11
10 5
9
33 SKELETAL SYSTEM Synovial joint - anatomy
1 – Bone
2 – Joint cavity
3 – Joint capsule
4 – Fibrous layer of joint capsule
5 – Ligament
6 – Synovial membrane
7 – Subsynovial tissue
8 – Meniscuc – not present in all joints
9 – Bone
10 – Articular cartilages
11 – Ligament
12 – Periosteum
SKELETAL SYSTEM Main synovial joints 34
Describe the major synovial joints of the fore and

hind limbs.
34 SKELETAL SYSTEM Main synovial joints
The major synovial joints of the limbs are:

Joint Description
Shoulder Joins the forelimb to the trunk. Formed by the glenoid cavity of the scapula and proximal
humerus. Ball and socket joint which allows flexion and extension and a small amount of
rotation.
Elbow Formed by the distal humerus and proximal radius and ulna. Hinge joint which allows
flexion and extension.
Hip Joins the hind limb to the pelvic girdle. Formed by the proximal end of the femur and the
acetabulum of the pelvis. Ball and socket joint which allows flexion, extension and a small
amount of rotation.
Stifle Formed by the distal femur and proximal tibia and fibula. The patella and a pair of fabellae
assist the pull of the associated ligaments. Hinge joint which allows flexion and extension.
SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone tissue - categories of joints 35
Identify the category of each joint

1 – Sutures of the skull
2 – Temporomandibular joint
3 – Atlanto-occipital joint
4 – Junction of L2 and L3
5 – Junction of T5 and T6
6 – Elbow
7 – Hip
8 – Pelvic symphysis
9 – Stifle
35 SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone tissue - categories of joints
1 – fibrous
2 – synovial
3 – synovial
4 – cartilaginous (amphiarthrosis)
5 – cartilaginous (amphiarthrosis)
6 – synovial
7 – synovial
8 – cartilaginous (synarthrosis)
9 – synovial
SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone tissue - joints and their components 36
Identify the bones that make up each joint

1 – Shoulder
2 – Elbow
3 – Carpus
4 – Hip
5 – Stifle
6 – Hock
36 SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone tissue - joints and their components
1 – scapula, humerus
2 – humerus, radius, ulna
3 – radius, ulna, carpal bones
4 – ilium, ischium, pubis, acetabular bone, femur
5 – femur, tibia, fibula, patella, fabellae
6 – tibia, fibula, tarsal bones
SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone tissue – skeletal system 37
Which of the following statements are true. Can you correct the false statements?
1 – The forelimb has no bony attachment to the body
2 – The mandibular symphysis is a synovial joint
3 – The clavicle is rarely found in the dog
4 – There are nine sternebrae
5 – The radiocarpal joint rotates to a greater degree in the cat than the dog
6 – The tibial tarsal bone is also known as the talus
7 – The os penis is part of the appendicular skeleton
8 – The tympanic bullae are found on the ventral aspect of the skull
37 SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone tissue – skeletal system
1 – true
2 – false (the mandibular symphysis is a cartilaginous joint)
3 – true
4 – false (there are eight sternebrae)
5 – true
6 – true
7 – false (the os penis is part of the splanchnic skeleton)
8 – true
Haversian Systems in bone tissue – cross section
through a bone.
Identify the structures numbered 1-5
Articular cartilage
Nutrient arteriole
Haversian canal
Compact bone
Periosteum
SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone tissue

Lacunae containing
osteocytes
Marrow cavity
Metaphyseal artery
Region of
epiphyseal plate
(metaphysis)
38
38 SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone tissue
1 – Haversian canal
2 – Osteocyte
3 – Lacuna
4 – Lamellae
5 – Calcified matrix
Endochondral ossification.
Reproduced with kind permission from Lane & Cooper 1999.
Match the statements to the diagram to describe each stage in the ossification
process
Cartilage Primary Secondary

model ossification ossification
centre centre
A B C
Proximal growth
plate still open
SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone tissue

Growth plates or
epiphyseal plates Medullary
cavity
Mature bone
Distal growth
plate fused
D E F
First growth plate fuses. Medullary Cartilage model in foetus Ossification begins from primary
cavity continues into epiphysis. centre of ossification in shaft
Growth is only now possible at (diaphysis)
proximal growth plate
Proximal growth plate fuses. Bone Ossification continues in diaphysis Ossification in shaft continues.
growth ceases and epiphyses. Osteoclasts begin to Secondary centres of ossification
break down bone in shaft to form appear in epiphyses
39
marrow cavity
39 SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone tissue
(a) Cartilage model in foetus

(b) Ossification begins from primary centre of ossification in shaft (diaphysis)
(c) Ossification in shaft continues. Secondary centres of ossification appear in epiphyses
(d) Ossification continues in diaphysis and epiphyses. Osteoclasts begin to break down bone in shaft to form
marrow cavity
(e) First growth plate fuses. Medullary cavity continues into epiphysis. Growth is only now possible at proximal
growth plate
(f) Proximal growth plate fuses. Bone growth ceases
SKELETAL SYSTEM Features of bones 40
Identify each bony feature by its description

1 – Another name for the joints of the flat bones
2 – A small depression in the bone; often contains structures within it or is an area for muscle attachment
3 – A small nodule or rounded prominence on a bone
4 – A rounded prominence found at the end of a bone, which articulates with another bone
5 – A cleft or groove
6 – A bony projection
7 – A dip or dent in the bone, often an area for articulation with another bone
8 – A hole in the bone through which blood vessels or nerves pass
9 – A long narrow ridge of bone
10 – An air filled cavity within a bone
40 SKELETAL SYSTEM Features of bones
1 – Suture
2 – Fossa
3 – Tubercle
4 – Condyle
5 – Notch
6 – Process
7 – Sulcus
8 – Foramen
9 – Crest
10 – Sinus
SKELETAL SYSTEM Terminology of the ribs and sternum 41
Identify each feature of the ribs or sternum by its description

1 – Sternebra number 1
2 – Term used to describe rib pair 13
3 – The name of the muscles found between the ribs
4 – Terms used to describe rib pairs 1 to 9
5 – Sternebra number 8
6 – Terms used to describe rib pairs 10 to 13
41 SKELETAL SYSTEM Terminology of the ribs and sternum
1 – Manubrium
2 – Floating rib
3 – Intercostal
4 – Sternal or true ribs
5 – Xiphoid process or xiphisternum
6 – Asternal or false ribs
SKELETAL SYSTEM Key bones 42
Identify each feature of the ribs or sternum by its description

1 – A bone of the thoracic limb, my proximal end forms part of the elbow joint. Distally, my end is concave
and has the styloid process extending into the carpal area.
2 – I am a very large straight bone. Proximally, the greater trochanter lies laterally. Distally, the lateral and
medial condyles form part of the stifle joint.
3 – My proximal end is triangular in cross-section and a crest of bone projects cranially. Distally, I articulate with
the tarsus.
4 – I am a large bone with a twist in my diaphysis. Distally, a large supracondylar foramen can be found into
which slots the anconeal process of the ulna.
5 – I am a very thin bone, which lies caudal to the tibia at my proximal end and lateral to the tibia at my distal
end.
6 – The longest bone in the body, I lie on the caudal aspect of the limb proximally and on the lateral aspect
distally. The surface, which forms part of the elbow joint, has a distinctive shape due to the half-moon-shaped
trochlear notch.
42 SKELETAL SYSTEM Key bones
1 – radius
2 – femur
3 – tibia
4 – humerus
5 – fibula
6 – ulna
Basic structure of a Structure of a bursa (a) and

muscle a synovial sheath (b)
7
8
1 2
9
MUSCULAR SYSTEM The muscle and bursa

10
3
4 A
11
12
13
14
6
B
43
43 MUSCULAR SYSTEM The muscle and bursa
1 – Bone
2 – Origin
3 – Muscle belly
4 – Connective tissue between muscle fibres
5 – Tendon
6 – Insertion
7 – Fibrous tissue
8 – Tendon
9 – Bursa – filled with synovial fluid
10 – Bone
11 – Fibrous tissue
12 – Tendon
13 – Synovial sheath enclosing tendon
14 – Bone
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Mastication 44
The muscles of mastication

Describe the actions of the muscles of mastication.
3
44 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Mastication
1 – Temporalis
2 – Digastricus
3 – Masseter
The actions of the muscles of mastication are:
Muscle Action
Digastricus Opens the jaw

Masseter Closes the jaw
Temporalis Closes the jaw
Medial and lateral pterygoids (not shown – deep muscles which lie medial
to the mandibles) Close the jaw.
Structure of the diaphragm
The diaphragm is perforated by three openings – what are they called and which
structures pass through them?
7 1
MUSCULAR SYSTEM The diaphragm

3
5 4
45
45 MUSCULAR SYSTEM The diaphragm
1 – Left crus
2 – Aorta (aortic hiatus)
3 – Oesophagus (oesophageal hiatus)
4 – Tendinous centre
5 – Sternal part of diaphragm
6 – Caudla vena cava (caval foramen)
7 – Right crus
The diaphragm is perforated by three openings which allow structures to pass from the thorax into the
abdomen. These are:
Opening Structures
Aortic hiatus Aorta, azygous vein and thoracic duct

Oesophageal hiatus Oesophagus and vagus nerve
Caval foramen Caudal vena cava
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Passage through the diaphragm 46
How do each of the following structures pass through the diaphragm?

1 – Aortic
2 – Oesophagus
3 – Caudal vena cava
4 – Vagus nerve
5 – Thoracic duct
6 – Azygos vein
46 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Passage through the diaphragm
1 – Aortic hiatus
2 – Oesophageal hiatus
3 – Caval foramen
4 – Oesophageal hiatus
5 – Aortic hiatus
6 – Aortic hiatus
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Upper forelimb - anatomy 47
Muscles of the upper forelimb

1
7
2
8
4 9
6 10
47 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Upper forelimb - anatomy
1 – Trapezius
2 – Infraspinatus
3 – Supraspinatus
4 – Biceps brachii
5 – Triceps
6 – Brachialis
7 – Supraspinatus
8 – Infraspinatus
10 – Brachialis
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Upper forelimb - actions 48
What are the actions of these muscles?

Trapezius
Infraspinatus
Supraspinatus
Biceps brachii
Triceps
Brachialis
48 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Upper forelimb - actions
The actions of the muscles of the upper forelimb are:

Muscle Actions
Trapezius Raises the foreleg and draws the leg forwards

Infraspinatus Flexes and stabilizes the shoulder
Supraspinatus Extends and stabilizes the shoulder
Biceps brachii Extends the shoulder and flexes the elbow
Triceps Extends the elbow
Brachialis Flexes the elbow
Some of the muscles of the lower forelimb
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Lower forelimb – anatomy

2
4
49
49 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Lower forelimb – anatomy
2 – Extensor carpi radialis
3 – Common digital extensor
4 – Lateral digital extensor
5 – Flexor ulnaris lateralis
6 – Flexor carpi ulnaris
7 – Triceps brachii
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Lower forelimb - actions 50
What are the actions of these muscles

Biceps brachii
Triceps
Extensor carpi radialis
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexor ulnaris lateralis
Common digital extensor
Lateral digital extensor
50 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Lower forelimb - actions
The actions of the muscles of the lower forelimb are:

Muscle Actions
Biceps brachii Extends the shoulder and flexes the elbow

Triceps Extends the elbow
Extensor carpi radialis Extends the carpus
Flexor carpi ulnaris Flexes the carpus
Flexor ulnaris lateralis Flexes the carpus
Common digital extensor Extends the carpus and the digits
Lateral digital extensor Extends the carpus and digits
NB. Flexors lie on the caudal aspect of the limb; extensors lie on the cranial aspect of the limb.
Superficial muscles of the left lateral thigh area
8 1
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Lateral Thigh - anatomy

3
6
4
5 51
51 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Lateral Thigh - anatomy
1 – Superficial gluteal (aponeurosis cut)

2 – Semimembranosus
3 – Semitendinosus
4 – Biceps femoris
5 – Fascia lata
6 – Cranial belly of sartorius
7 – Tensor fasciae latae
8 – Middle gluteal
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Lateral Thigh – actions 52

Middle and superficial gluteals
Sartorius
Biceps femoris
Semitendinosis
Semimembranosus
52 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Lateral Thigh - actions
The actions of the muscles of the upper hind limb are:

Muscle Actions
Middle and superficial gluteals Extend the hindlimb and provide the main propulsive
force of the hind limb
Sartorius Adducts the hindlimb
Biceps femoris Extends the hip, flexes the stifle and extends the hock
Semitendinosis Extends the hip, flexes the stifle and extends the hock
Semimembranosus Extends the hip and flexes the stifle
NB. The biceps femoris, semitendinosus and semimembranosus form the hamstring group of muscles.
The biceps femoris, semitendinosus form part of the Achilles tendon.
Muscles of the medial aspect of the left thigh
12
11
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Medial thigh - anatomy

3
10
5
8
6
7 53
53 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Medial thigh - anatomy
1 – Rectus femoris
2 – Borders of the femoral triangle
3 – Vastus medialis
4 – Pectineus
5 – Sartorius, cranial part
6 – Sartorius, caudal part
7 – Gastrocnemius
8 – Semitendinosus
9 – Semimembranosus
10 – Gracilis
11 – Adductor
12 – Superficial inguinal ring
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Medial thigh - actions 54

Adductor
Gracilis
Sartorius
Pectineus
Semimembranosus
Semitendinosis
Vastus medialis
Rectus femoris
Gastrocnemius
54 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Medial thigh - actions
The actions of the muscles of the medial thigh are:

Muscle Actions
Adductor Adducts the hind limb

Gracilis Adducts the hind limb
Sartorius Adducts the hind limb
Pectineus Adducts the hind limb
Semimembranosus Extends the hip and flexes the stifle
Semitendinosis Extends the hip, flexes the stifle and extends the hock
Vastus medialis Extends the stifle
Rectus femoris Extends the hip and flexes the hip
Gastrocnemius Extends the stifle and flexes the hock
NB. The adductor, gracilis, sartorius and pectineus are known as the adductor group. The
gastrocnemius forms part of the Achilles tendon.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Lower hindlimb - anatomy 55
Muscles of the lower hind limb

5
55 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Lower hindlimb - anatomy
1 – Gastrocnemius
2 – Superficial digital flexor
3 – Deep digital flexor
4 – Tuber calcis
5 – Long digital extensor
6 – Anterior tibial
7 – Fibularis longus
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Lower hindlimb - actions 56

Gastrocnemius
Fibularis longus
Anterior tibial
Long digital extensor
Superficial digital flexor
Deep digital flexor
56 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Lower hindlimb - actions
The actions of the muscles of the lower hind limb are:

Muscle Actions
Gastrocnemius Extends the stifle and flexes the hock

Fibularis longus Flexes the hock
Anterior tibial Flexes the hock
Long digital extensor Extends the digits
Superficial digital flexor Flexes the digits. Also flexes the stifle and extends the hock
Deep digital flexor Flexes the digits
NB. The superficial digital flexor forms part of the Achilles tendon.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Muscle types 57
For each area, state whether the type of muscle tissue found is cardiac, involuntary or voluntary
Bladder wall
Stomach wall
Jugular vein
Stifle flexor
Cephalic vein
Carpal flexor
Myocardium
Small intestine
Muscles of facial expression
57 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Muscle types
Bladder wall – Involuntary

Stomach wall – Involuntary
Jugular vein – Involuntary
Stifle flexor – Voluntary
Cephalic vein – Involuntary
Carpal flexor – Voluntary
Myocardium – Cardiac
Small intestine – Involuntary
Muscles of facial expression – Voluntary
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Muscle tissue - terminology 58
Identify the correct term using the description provided

1 – One nerve fibre innervating several muscle fibres
2 – A type of contraction where the length of the muscle changes but not the tone
3 – A muscle restricted to one body part, which changes the shape of that part
4 – Term for the muscles found beneath the vertebral column
5 – A type of contraction where the tone of the muscle changes but not the length
6 – An individual contractile unit of which skeletal muscle is composed
7 – Term for the muscles found above the vertebral column
8 – A muscle that spans more than one body part and changes the position of that part in relation to the rest
of the body
9 – The cell membrane that encloses muscle cells
58 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Muscle tissue - terminology
1 – Motor unit
2 – Isotonic
3 – Intrinsic
4 – Hypaxial
5 – Isometric
6 – Sarcomere
7 – Epaxial
8 – Extrinsic
9 – Sarcolemma
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Muscle tissue - tendons 59

1 – Tendon responsible for supporting caudal abdomen and aiding defaecation and parturition
2 – Tendon inserting on the olecranon
3 – Aponeurosis of the abdominal midline
4 – Tendon made up of the gastrocnemius, biceps femoris, semitendinosus and digital flexors
59 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Muscle tissue - tendons
1 – Prepubic tendon
2 – Tendon of triceps brachii
3 – Linea alba
4 – Achilles tendon
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Muscle tissue - muscles 60
Name the muscles described

1 – I lie on the lateral surface of the ramus of mandible and my action closes the mouth
2 – I am the largest muscle of the head and arise mainly from the parietal bone. My action closes the mouth
3 – I am a flat, wide muscle that lies on either side of the linea alba. My fibres run longitudinally
4 – A muscle of the thoracic limb, I arise on the scapula and cross the shoulder joint to insert on the cranial
surface of the humerus. I am an elbow flexor and shoulder extensor
5 – I am a long muscle running from the ischial tuberosity to the mid-tibia on the caudal aspect. I am essentially
an extensor but also play a part in foot placement and positioning
60 MUSCULAR SYSTEM Muscle tissue - muscles
1 – masseter
2 – temporalis
3 – rectus abdominis
4 – biceps brachii
5 – biceps femoris
NERVOUS SYSTEM Neurons 61
The structure of a neuron.

1. –––––––––––
2. –––––––––––
3. –––––––––––
4. –––––––––––
5. –––––––––––
6. –––––––––––
7. –––––––––––
8. –––––––––––
61 NERVOUS SYSTEM Neurons
1 – Dendrite
2 – Cell body
3 – Nucleus
4 – Axon
5 – Schwann cell
6 – Myelin sheath
7 – Axon branch (collateral axon)
8 – Node of Ranvier
NERVOUS SYSTEM Neurons 62
The variation in shape of neurons

Identify terms labelled A to D
Where can you find the different types of neuron shown in the diagram?
A B
62 NERVOUS SYSTEM Neurons
A – Bipolar
B – Pseudounipolar
C – Multipolar
D – Purkinje fibres
Different types of neuron are found within different areas of the body
Neuron type Location
Bipolar Rare. Found in the ear, nose and eye.

Pseudounipolar Peripheral nervous system
Multipolar Most common form. Found in most areas.
Purkinje fibres Extreme form of multipolar neurons. Found within the ventricle
walls and in the cerebellum of the brain.
NERVOUS SYSTEM Synapses - structure 63
The structure of a synapse.

Reproduced with kind permission from Lane & Cooper 1999.
9
63 NERVOUS SYSTEM Synapses - structure
1 – Nerve impulse
2 – Terminal branch of an axon
3 – Neurofibrils
4 – Mitochondrion
5 – Synaptic vesicles
6 – Presynaptic membrane
7 – Synaptic cleft
8 – Transmitter substance diffusing across the cleft
9 – Regenerated nerve impulse
NERVOUS SYSTEM Synapses - function 64
What is the function of a synapse?

What does the transmission of a nerve impulse rely on?
64 NERVOUS SYSTEM Synapses - function
A synapse is a button-like structure found at the end of an axon. Its function is to transmit the nerve impulse on
to the next neuron. Where an axon ends on a muscle fibre the synapse is known as a neuromuscular junction or
motor end plate.
Transmission of a nerve impulse relies on the use of a chemical transmitter which carries the impulse across
the synapse. The most common chemical transmitter is acetyl choline but others include adrenaline, serotonin
and dopamine
NERVOUS SYSTEM The function of the ear 65
Complete the paragraph on hearing and balance by filling in the gaps using the correct words from the selection
below.
• saccule • utricle • vestibulocochlear
• maculae • ossicles • semicircular
• crista • pinna • Corti
• tympanic • cochlear • endolymph
Hearing
Sound waves are channelled towards the auditory canal by the _____________, which can change shape and
direction. The sound waves pass through the _____________ membrane and across the middle ear via the audi-
tory _____________. Once into the inner ear, the waves move through the endolymph in the _____________
duct to be detected by the organ of _____________, which contains sensory hairs. These hairs react to different
frequencies, and impulses are then sent to the brain via cranial nerve VIII, the _____________ nerve.
Balance
In the inner ear, three mutually perpendicular _____________ canals are situated. As _____________ moves
to and fro in the canals, sensory _____________ detect the direction of the movement and transmit impulses
to cranial nerve VIII. The semicircular canals join together at a base called the _____________. Further down,
towards the cochlea, is another sac, the _____________. Both the utricle and the saccule contain sensory
_____________, which detect orientation.
65 NERVOUS SYSTEM The function of the ear
Hearing
Sound waves are channelled towards the auditory canal by the pinna, which can change shape and direction. The
sound waves pass through the tympanic membrane and across the middle ear via the auditory ossicles. Once
into the inner ear, the waves move through the endolymph in the cochlea duct to be detected by the organ of
Corti, which contains sensory hairs. These hairs react to different frequencies, and impulses are then sent to the
brain via cranial nerve VIII, the vestibulocochlear nerve.
Balance
In the inner ear, three mutually perpendicular semicircular canals are situated. As endolymph moves to and
fro in the canals, sensory crista detect the direction of the movement and transmit impulses to cranial nerve VIII.
The semicircular canals join together at a base called the utricle. Further down, towards the cochlea, is another
sac, the saccule. Both the utricle and the saccule contain sensory maculae, which detect orientation.
NERVOUS SYSTEM Nervous system anatomy 66
Identify the anatomical definition using the description provided

1 – Short projections that receive impulses
2 – Long projections that transmit impulses
3 – Cells that produce the myelin sheath
4 – Gaps in the myelin sheath that allow the passage of oxygen and nutrients
5 – The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus
6 – The membrane surrounding the nerve cell
7 – Dense connective tissue holding nerve fibres together
8 – Group of cell bodies found in the peripheral nervous system
9 – The space between two neurons
10 – The space between a neuron and a muscle fibre
11 – A chemical that allows the transmission of a nervous impulse
66 NERVOUS SYSTEM Nervous system anatomy
1 – Dendrites
2 – Axons
3 – Schwann cells
4 – Nodes of Ranvier
5 – Cell body
6 – Neurilemma
7 – Neuroglia
8 – Ganglion
9 – Synapse
10 – Neuromuscular junction
11 – Neurotransmitter
NERVOUS SYSTEM Cerebrospinal fluid 67
Complete the paragraph on cerebrospinal fluid by using the correct words from the selection below.
• blood plasma • cushions • protein
• ventricles • subarachnoid space • central canal
• cisterna magna • atlanto-occipital • CSF
Cerebrospinal fluid is often abbreviated to _____________. It is similar in colour and composition to
_____________ but is lower in ____________. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the brain _____________ and
is found in the _____________ of the spinal cord and surrounding the CNS in the _____________. Cerebrospinal
fluid protects and _____________ the brain and spinal cord. Samples of cerebrospinal fluid may be obtained
from the _____________ by inserting a needle in the _____________ region of the animal.
67 NERVOUS SYSTEM Cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid is often abbreviated to CSF. It is similar in colour and composition to blood plasma but
is lower in protein. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the brain ventricles and is found in the subarachnoid
space of the spinal cord and surrounding the CNS in the central canal. Cerebrospinal fluid protects and cush-
ions the brain and spinal cord. Samples of cerebrospinal fluid may be obtained from the cisterna magna by
inserting a needle in the atlanto-occipital region of the animal.
NERVOUS SYSTEM The autonomic nervous system 68
For each body function or part, name the effect of each part of the autonomic nervous system
Heart rate
Respiratory rate
Blood vessels
Intestinal movement
Pupils
68 NERVOUS SYSTEM The autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic Parasympathtic
Heart rate increases decreases

Respiratory rate increases decreases
Blood vessels dilate constrict
Intestinal movement reduces increases
Pupils dilate constrict
Left lateral view of the canine brain
12 11 6
10
7
9 8
View of the ventral surface of the canine brain
NERVOUS SYSTEM The brain

16 17 18 19 20
14 15
21
22
23
24
13
26 25
31
69
30 29 28 27
69 NERVOUS SYSTEM The brain
1 – Cerebral hemisphere 25 – Spinal cord

2 – Cerebellar hemisphere 26 – First cervical nerve
3 – Vagus nerve 27 – Vestibulo-cochlear
4 – Medulla oblongata 28 – Facial
5 – Accessory nerve 29 – Abducens
6 – Hypoglossal nerve 30 – Optic chiasma
7 – Vestibulochochlear nerve 31 – Optic nerve
8 – Facial nerve
9 – Trigeminal nerve
10 – Pons
11 – Optic nerve
12 – Olfactory bulb
13 – Olfactory nerve
14 – Olfactory bulb
15 – Cerebral hemisphere
16 – Pituitary
17 – Occulomotor
18 – Trochlear
19 – Trigeminal
20 – Cerebellum
21 – Glossopharyngeal
22 – Vagus
23 – Accessory
24 – Hypoglossal
NERVOUS SYSTEM The cranial nerves 70
Name the cranial nerves and their functions.

70 NERVOUS SYSTEM The cranial nerves
Cranial nerves are those nerves that leave the brain. They are numbered using Roman numerals and may be
sensory, motor or mixed nerves.
Cranial nerve Function
I Olfactory Sensory. Carries sensation of smell or olfaction from the nasal

mucosa
II Optic Sensory. Carries sensation of sight from the eye.
III Oculomotor Motor. Supplies muscles of the eye
IV Trochlear Motor. Supplies muscles of the eye
V Trigeminal Mixed. Supplies muscles of mastication and carries sensation from the
skin around the eye and the face.
VI Abducens Motor. Supplies muscles of the eye
VII Facial Motor. Supplies muscles of facial expression
VII Vestibular-cochlear or auditory Sensory. Carries sensation of balance and hearing from the inner ear.
IX Glossopharyngeal Mixed. Supplies muscles of tongue and pharynx. Carries sensation
of taste or gustation.
X Vagus Mixed. Carries sensation from pharynx and larynx and supplies
organs in neck, thorax and abdomen.
XI Accessory Motor. Supplies muscles of neck and shoulder
XII Hypoglossal Motor. Supplies muscles of tongue.
NERVOUS SYSTEM Meninges - anatomy 71
Cross section through the cerebral hemispheres to show the meninges of the
brain.
3
10
4
5
8 6
7
71 NERVOUS SYSTEM Meninges - anatomy
1 – Suture between bony plates of skull

2 – Bones of skull
3 – Blood sinus
4 – Subdural space
5 – Subarachnoid space (filed with CSF)
6 – Grey matter (cortex)
7 – White matter
8 – Pia mater
9 – Arachnoid mater
10 – Dura mater
NERVOUS SYSTEM The brain - protection 72
The brain is a vital organ which must be protected

against chemical and mechanical damage - list the
structures which protect the brain?
72 NERVOUS SYSTEM The brain - protection
A fully functioning brain is essential for the survival of any animal. The structure that protect the brain are:
Structure Function
Bones of the cranium Bones provide a hard covering to protect the soft tissue of the brain from
mechanical damage
Meninges Three layers of tissue wrapped around the brain to protect from mechanical
damage
Ventricular system System of interconnecting canals and cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid
which provides nutrition for the tissue and acts as a shock absorber against
sudden movements.
Blood brain barrier Neuroglial cells form a protective barrier around the blood capillaries entering
the brain creating a selective layer to protect the brain from harmful chemicals
eg. urea, antibiotics. It allows substances such as oxygen and glucose to pass
through for brain metabolism
NERVOUS SYSTEM Meninges – form and function 73
Link these facts to the dura mater, the arachnoid mater or the pia mater. There are 3 facts about each
1 – The inner membrane
2 – Space below is filled with cerebrospinal fluid: the subarachnoid space
3 – Not closely connected in the vertebral column to form the epidural space
4 – A vascular membrane
5 – A web-like membrane
6 – The outer membrane
7 – Closely follows the contours of the brain
8 – The middle membrane
9 – A tough fibrous membrane
73 NERVOUS SYSTEM Meninges – form and function
1 – Pia mater
3 – Dura mater
4 – Pia mater
6 – Dura mater
7 – Pia mater
9 – Dura mater
NERVOUS SYSTEM Spinal cord - anatomy 74
Transverse section through the spinal cord showing a reflex arc.

11
1 2
10
4
9
6
8
7
74 NERVOUS SYSTEM Spinal cord - anatomy
1 – White matter
2 – Grey matter
3 – Dorsal root
4 – Ventral root
5 – Central canal – CSF
6 – Intercalated neuron
7 – Muscle
8 – Efferent neuron
9 – Dorsal root ganglion
10 – Afferent neuron
11 – Skin
NERVOUS SYSTEM Spinal cord - reflex arc 75
Describe the pathway of the reflex arc involved when the web of a dog’s foot is pinched – the pedal reflex.
How can you change a reflex arc?
75 NERVOUS SYSTEM Spinal cord - reflex arc
1. Web of foot is pinched – this pressure and pain is detected by skin receptors.
2. Sensory information from the receptors travels to the spinal cord via sensory nerves and enters the cord
via the dorsal root.
3. Within the grey matter of the spinal cord the sensory nerve synapses with a motor nerve.
4. A nerve impulse travels along the motor nerve leaving via the ventral root of the spinal cord to the flexor
muscles of the limb.
5. The limb flexes and the foot is pulled away from the source of pain.
A reflex arc is defined as a fixed involuntary response to certain stimuli – the response is rapid, automatic and
always the same. However a reflex can be changed or conditioned ie. overcome by conscious thought eg.
the dog could ignore the pain of the web pinch and leave its foot in the original position. Reflexes can also be
conditioned by changing the original stimulus and this form of conditioning is used in clicker training. The classic
example of a conditioned reflex is Pavlov’s dogs.
NERVOUS SYSTEM The eye – structure 76
Structure of the canine eye.

Identify terms labelled A to R
Posterior chamber
Eyelid and eyelashes Ciliary body Retina
Iris Choroid
Conjunctiva
Sclera
Cornea
Pupil
Anterior
chamber Optic nerve
Lens
Blind spot or
Ciliary muscles
Suspensory Vitreous optic disc
Fornix ligament humour
76 NERVOUS SYSTEM The eye - structure
1 – Sclera
2 – Posterior chamber
3 – Ciliary body
4 – Iris
5 – Pupil
6 – Cornea
7 – Anterior chamber
8 – Ciliary body
9 – Suspensory ligaments
10 – Lens
11 – Choroid
12 – Retina
13 – Optic nerve
14 – Optic disc
NERVOUS SYSTEM Ocular anatomy 77
What structures do these statements describe?

1 – The vascular layer of the globe
2 – The collective name for the choroid, iris and ciliary body
3 – The convex structure that focuses light rays onto the retina
4 – The transparent surface at the front of the eye through which light rays pass
5 – The ‘blind spot’ on the retina
6 – The shiny inner surface of the choroid
7 – Photosensitive cells
8 – The hole in the centre of the iris
9 – The white, fibrous protective layer of the globe
77 NERVOUS SYSTEM Ocular anatomy
1 – Choroid
2 – Uvea
3 – Lens
4 – Cornea
5 – Optic disc
6 – Tapetum
7 – Rods and cones
8 – Pupil
9 – Sclera
NERVOUS SYSTEM The retina - anatomy 78
Structure of the retina

1 2 3 4 5
Direction
of light
8 7 6
9
78 NERVOUS SYSTEM The retina - anatomy
1 – Fibres to optic nerve

2 – Cone
3 – Rod
4 – Pigmented layer of retina
5 – Choroid
6 – Light-sensitive cells or photoreceptors
7 – Bipolar nerve cells
8 – Ganglion
9 – Section of the retina
NERVOUS SYSTEM The retina - functions 79
What are the functions of these structures

Choroid
Pigmented layer of retina
Rod cells
Cone cells
Bipolar nerve cells
Ganglion cells
79 NERVOUS SYSTEM The retina - functions
The functions of the structures within the retina of the eye are:
Structure Function
Choroid This is the pigmented vascular middle layer of the eye. Pigment prevents light
passing through the eye and the blood vessels provide oxygen and nutrition
for the tissues of the eye.
Pigmented layer of retina Prevents light passing through the eye
Rod cells A type of photoreceptor adapted to provide black and white and night vision
Cone cells A type of photoreceptor adapted to provide colour vision
Bipolar nerve cells Gather information from the photoreceptors and transmit it to the overlying
layer
Ganglion cells Nerve cells whose axons carry nerve impulses across the inner surface of the
eye. The nerve impulses leave the eye via the optic nerve and travel to the
brain where they are interpreted as an image.
NERVOUS SYSTEM The eye – external anatomy 80
External anatomy of the left eye.

1
9
8 2
7 3
Nose
6
4
5
80 NERVOUS SYSTEM The eye – external anatomy
1 – Upper eyelid
2 – Lacrimal gland
3 – Lateral canthus
4 – Lower eyelid
5 – Third eyelid
6 – Nasolacrimal duct
7 – Medial canthus
8 – Iris
9 – Pupil
NERVOUS SYSTEM The eye – protection 81
How is the outer surface of the eye protected?

81 NERVOUS SYSTEM The eye – protection
An animal’s survival depends on its ability to find food or to run away from predators. Sight plays a vital part in
this and the eyes must be protected from damage.
Structure Function
Bony orbit Two thirds of the eyeball lies within the orbit of the skull which provides a
hard protective cavity.
Conjunctiva Thin layer of epithelial tissue overlying the cornea.
Upper and lower eyelids Joined at the medial and lateral canthi. Made of palpebral muscle covered in
hairy skin and edged in eyelashes. The eyelids are able to close over the eyeball
to protect it from mechanical damage.
Third eyelid Lies within the medial canthus under the upper and lower eyelids. Provides an
extra layer of protection.
Lacrimal gland Lies on the dorsolateral surface of the eye, under the upper eyelid. Secretes
tears which flow over the eye washing the surface. Tears drain into the
nasolacrimal duct in the nose.
Meibomian glands Diffuse tissue lying under the eyelids. Secretions contribute to tears.
Harderian or nictitans gland Lies under the third eyelid. Secretions contribute to tears.
NERVOUS SYSTEM The function of the eye 82
Arrange the statements in the order in which they occur

1 – The amount of light let through the pupil depends on its size, which is determined by the iris.
2 – Bipolar receptor cells next to the photoreceptor cells send impulses to the brain via the optic nerve.
3 – The image is detected by the photoreceptor cells in the retina.
4 – Light rays enter through the cornea. Its shape starts to focus them onto the retina.
5 – Light that misses the photoreceptor cells is reflected back by the tapetum.
6 – The lens focuses light onto the retina. The muscular ciliary body alters the shape of the lens accordingly.
7 – The light rays are further refracted by the aqueous humour.
8 – Light is also refracted as it travels through the vitreous humour.
82 NERVOUS SYSTEM The function of the eye
4 – Light rays enter through the cornea. Its shape starts to focus them onto the retina.
7 – The light rays are further refracted by the aqueous humour.
1 – The amount of light let through the pupil depends on its size, which is determined by the iris.
6 – The lens focuses light onto the retina. The muscular ciliary body alters the shape of the lens accordingly.
8 – Light is also refracted as it travels through the vitreous humour.
3 – The image is detected by the photoreceptor cells in the retina.
2 – Bipolar receptor cells next to the photoreceptor cells send impulses to the brain via the optic nerve.
5 – Light that misses the photoreceptor cells is reflected back by the tapetum.
Section through the canine or feline ear
17
2
3
4
NERVOUS SYSTEM The ear

6
7
16
8
15
10
14
13
83
12
11
83 NERVOUS SYSTEM The ear
1 – Auditory ossicles
2 – Malleus
3 – Incus
4 – Stapes
5 – Semicircular acnals
6 – Utricle
7 – Perilymph
8 – Vestibulo cochlear nerve (carries information to the brain)
9 – Saccule
10 – Cochlea containing endolymph
11 – Eustachian tube
12 – Round window
13 – Oval window
14 – Tympanic membrane
15 – External auditory meatus (horizontal canal)
16 – External auditory meatus (vertical canal)
17 – Ear pinna
NERVOUS SYSTEM Aural anatomy 84
Identify the correct structure using the description provided

1 – The fluid surrounding the membranous labyrinth
2 – The sensory area in the cochlea
3 – The small sac joining the cochlea and the utricle
4 – The bulge at the base of a semicircular canal
5 – Sensory hairs in the ampulla
6 – The fluid inside the membranous labyrinth
7 – Sensory areas found in the utricle and saccule
8 – The base of the semicircular canals
84 NERVOUS SYSTEM Aural anatomy
1 – Perilymph
2 – Organ of Corti
3 – Saccule
4 – Ampulla
5 – Crista
6 – Endolymph
7 – Maculae
8 – Utricle
NERVOUS SYSTEM Functions of the tongue 85
Identify the correct function of the tongue using the description provided
1 – Panting to cool down
2 – The sense of taste
3 – Excessively long and cornified papillae in the cat are for this purpose
4 – The animal must move the food bolus to the pharynx in order to swallow
5 – Both dogs and cats drink in this way
6 – Food begins to be broken down by the teeth and tongue
7 – Some types of food can be taken into the mouth with the aid of the tongue
85 NERVOUS SYSTEM Functions of the tongue
1 – Evaporative heat loss

2 – Gustation
3 – Grooming
4 – Manipulation of food
5 – Lapping
6 – Mechanical digestion
7 – Prehension
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Endocrine glands 86
Locations of the important endocrine glands in the cat.

3
4
5 6
1 7
8
86 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Endocrine glands
1 – Thyroid gland
2 – Parathyroid gland
3 – Pituitary gland
4 – Kidney
5 – Adrenal gland
6 – Ovary
7 – Testis
8 – Pancreas
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Endocrine glands - hormones 87
Identify the endocrine glands and list the hormones

they secrete
The hormones secreted by the endocrine glands are:
87
Endocrine gland Hormone
Anterior pituitary Thyrotrophic stimulating hormone (TSH)
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Endocrine glands - hormones

Growth hormone
Adrenocorticotrophic stimulating hormone (ACTH)
Prolactin
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH)
Posterior pituitary Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin
Thyroid Thyroxin
Calcitonin
Parathyroid Parathormone
Pancreas Glucagon
Insulin
Somatostatin
Ovary Oestrogen
Progesterone
Testis Testosterone
Adrenal cortex Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
Sex hormones
Adrenal medulla Adrenaline
Noradrenaline
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Thyroid disease in dogs and cats 88
Hyperthyroidism is a common condition in cats, and hypothyroidism is sometimes seen in dogs. List the
symptoms seen with these conditions.
Heart rate
Respiratory rate
Skin condition
Coat condition
Bodyweight
General demeanour
88 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Thyroid disease in dogs and cats
Hyperthyroidism Hypothyroidism
Heart rate increased unchanged

Respiratory rate increased unchanged
Skin condition poor poor
Coat condition poor excessive growth and tangling, poor, alopecia in areas
Bodyweight decreases increases
General demeanour excitable, can be aggressive lethargic, sleep increases, gets cold easily
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Diabetes mellitus 89
Diabetes mellitus is a common condition in dogs, caused by little or no production of insulin, or an insensitivity
to insulin. List the symptoms seen with this condition along with their causes.
Appetite
Bodyweight
Blood
Urine
Thirst
89 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Diabetes mellitus
Symptom Reason
Appetite increased lack of insulin starves cells of energy

Bodyweight decreased lack of insulin starves cells of energy
Blood hyperglycaemia lack of insulin prevents uptake of glucose into cells from the
bloodstream
Urine glucosuria and polyuria presence of glucose increases osmotic gradient of urine
Thirst increased due to polyuria
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Target organs for hormones 90
For each hormone listed, identify its target organ and state its function
Gastrin
Prolactin
Thyroxin
Vasopressin
Relaxin
Oxytocin
Glucagon
Aldosterone
90 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Target organs for hormones
Target organ Function
Gastrin Stomach Stimulates release of gastric juices

Prolactin Mammary glands Stimulates formation of milk
Thyroxin Body tissues Controls metabolic rate
Vasopressin (ADH) Kidney Plays a part in osmoregulation
Relaxin Uterus Relaxes ligaments of pelvis ready for parturition
Oxytocin Uterus and mammary glands Strengthens uterine contractions. Allows milk
‘let down’
Glucagon Liver Releases stored glycogen to raise blood glucose
levels
Aldosterone Kidney Plays a part in osmoregulation
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM The endocrine system functions 91
True or false? If the statement is false, can you correct the statement?
1 – The anterior pituitary gland is also called the neurohypophysis
2 – The thyroid gland is a paired structure
3 – Parathormone causes an increase in blood calcium levels
4 – The adrenal cortex produces adrenaline
5 – The Islets of Langerhans produce pancreatic juice
6 – Testosterone is produced by the Leydig cells
7 – Oestrogen is produced by the corpus luteum
8 – The placenta produces chorionic gonadotrophin
91 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM The endocrine system functions
1 – false (this is the posterior pituitary)

2 – true
3 – true
4 – false (the adrenal medulla produces adrenaline)
5 – false (they produce insulin)
6 – true
7 – false (the ovaries produce oestrogen);
8 – true
VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood - composition 92
The composition of blood

Blood
Plasma (55–70%) Formed elements (cells)
Fibrinogen Leucocytes
1 (WBC) 2 3
Granular leucocytes Agranular leucocytes

(granulocytes) (agranulocytes)
4 5 6 7 8
92 VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood – composition
1 – Serum
2 – Erythrocytes
3 – Platelets
4 – Eosinophils
5 – Neutrophils
6 – Basophils
7 – Lymphocytes
8 – Monocytes
VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood – composition and function 93
Describe the functions of these components

Serum
Erythrocytes
Platelets
Eosinophils
Neutrophils
Basophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
93 VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood – composition and function
The functions of these components are:

Cell Function
Serum Liquid matrix which suspends the blood cells

Erythrocytes Red blood cells which carry oxygen bound to haemoglobin around the body
Platelets Thrombocytes or cellular fragments involved in the clotting process
Eosinophils Granulocytes involved in inflammation and allergies
Neutrophils Most abundant type of granulocyte. Able to phagocytose cellular debris and invading
bacteria as part of the inflammatory response.
Basophils Granulocytes involved in inflammation and anticoagulation.
Lymphocytes Agranulocytes responsible for the formation of lymphocytes needed for the specific
immune response.
Monocytes Agranulocytes which are able to phagocytose cellular debris and invading bacteria
VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood - function 94
Complete the paragraph on the functions of blood using the correct words from the selection
• transport • 7.4
• haemoglobin • heat
• defence • clotting
• albumin • 5–10
• hormones • oxygen
Blood makes up _________ % of bodyweight and is pH _________. It is red in colour due to the _________
content of erythrocytes. The higher the degree of _________ saturation of haemoglobin, the brighter the
colour. One of the main functions of blood is to _________ substances around the body, including oxygen,
carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste products. Blood is also the transport medium for the secretions of
endocrine glands (_________) and distributes _________ from the muscles and liver. The blood also con-
tains leucocytes, which are involved in body _________. If the vascular system is damaged in any way, it
will be repaired by the _________ mechanism. Blood osmotic pressure is maintained mainly by the plasma
protein _________.
94 VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood - function
Blood makes up 5–10% of bodyweight and is pH 7.4. It is red in colour due to the haemoglobin content of
erythrocytes. The higher the degree of oxygen saturation of haemoglobin, the brighter the colour. One of the
main functions of blood is to transport substances around the body, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutri-
ents and waste products. Blood is also the transport medium for the secretions of endocrine glands hormones
and distributes heat from the muscles and liver. The blood also contains leucocytes, which are involved in body
defence. If the vascular system is damaged in any way, it will be repaired by the clotting mechanism. Blood
osmotic pressure is maintained mainly by the plasma protein albumin.
The cellular components of blood.
1 2
VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood – cellular components

3
5 6 7
8
95
9 10 11
95 VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood – cellular components
1 – Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

2 – Platelets (thrombocytes)
3 – White blood cells (leucocytes)
4 – Granular leucocytes
5 – Basophil
6 – Neutrophil
7 – Eosinophil
8 – Agranular leucocytes
9 – Small leucocyte
10 – Large leucocyte
11 – Monocyte
The structure of the heart and direction of blood flow
To body
18
To body
To lungs 2
To lungs
From body
3
17
4
From lungs
From lungs
5
16
VASCULAR SYSTEM Heart – structure

From lungs
From lungs
15 6
14
7
13
8
12 9
10
From body
11
96
96 VASCULAR SYSTEM Heart - structure
1 – Aorta
2 – Left pulmonary artery
3 – Aortic valve
4 – Left atrium
5 – Left pulmonary veins
6 – Left atrioventricular valve
7 – Chordae tendinae
8 – Left ventricle
9 – Ventricular septum
10 – Papillary muscle
11 – Right ventricle
13 – Right atrioventricular valve
14 – Pulmonic valve
15 – Right atrium
16 – Right pulmonary veins
17 – Cranial vena cava
18 – Right pulmonary artery
VASCULAR SYSTEM Heart - blood flow route 97
Starting with the major veins of the body describe

the route taken by the blood as it flows through the
heart.
97 VASCULAR SYSTEM Heart - blood flow route
1. Blood enters the right atrium from the cranial and caudal venae cavae which collect venous blood
from the body
2. From the right atrium it goes into the right ventricle passing through the right atrioventricular or
tricuspid valve.
3. Blood then leaves the right ventricle by the pulmonary artery and goes to the lungs passing through the
pulmonic valve.
4. From the lungs blood travels back to the left atrium of the heart in the pulmonary vein.
5. Blood goes from the left atrium to the left ventricle passing through the left atrioventricular,
bicuspid or mitral valve.
6. It leaves the left ventricle via the aorta passing through the aortic valve. The aorta supplies arterial
blood to the whole body.
VASCULAR SYSTEM Heart - blood vessel structures 98
The structures of an artery, vein and capillary (not to scale). Adapted with
permission from Lane & Cooper 1999.
Identify the structures numbered 1–6
3. ––––––––––––
2. ––––––––––––
4. ––––––––––––
1. ––––––––––––
5. ––––––––––––
6. ––––––––––––
98 VASCULAR SYSTEM Heart - blood vessel structures
1 – Tunica media
2 – Tunica adventitia
3 – Artery
4 – Vein
5 – Tunica intima
6 – Capillary
VASCULAR SYSTEM Important cardiovascular structures 99
Name the structures described

1 – I am a blood vessel that drains into the right atrium
2 – I am a valve comprising two cusps; my other name is ‘mitral’
3 – I am the structure separating the left and right sides of the heart; in the fetus I am incomplete
4 – I am the chamber that blood leaves as it enters the aorta
5 – I am the vessel taking the blood to the lungs for oxygenation
6 – I am the fetal blood vessel that allows blood to bypass the pulmonary circulation
7 – I am the opposite end to the heart’s base
8 – I make up the outer layer of the myocardium and the innermost layer of the pericardium
9 – I am the pacemaker of the heart
10 – I am the pressure wave within an artery caused by contraction of the left ventricle
99 VASCULAR SYSTEM Important cardiovascular structures
1 – vena cava
2 – bicuspid or left atrioventricular valve
3 – ventricular septum
4 – left ventricle
5 – pulmonary artery
6 – ductus arteriosus
7 – apex
8 – epicardium
9 – sinoatrial node
10 – pulse
VASCULAR SYSTEM Contraction of the heart 100
Complete the paragraph on the contraction of the heart using the correct words from the selection below
• systole • fibrillation
• diastole • bundle
• atria • pacemaker
• Purkinje • myocardium
There are three specialized areas in the _________, which are linked by a conduction system made of _________
tissue:
• sinoatrial node, found in the wall of the right atrium and known as the _________
• atrioventricular node and atrioventricular _________, found between the atrium and ventricles.
Impulses move from the sinoatrial node across the _________ to cause their contraction. The impulses then
reach the atrioventricular node and bundle, causing ventricular contraction. Contraction of heart muscle is
known as _________ and relaxation of heart muscle is known as _________. A healthy heart will be synchro-
nized so that during atrial contraction there is ventricular relaxation and vice versa. Certain diseases sometimes
cause problems with this conduction system so that the muscle fibres within a certain area of the heart are not
contracting together; this is known as _________.
100 VASCULAR SYSTEM Contraction of the heart
There are three specialized areas in the myocardium, which are linked by a conduction system made of
Purkinje tissue:
• sinoatrial node, found in the wall of the right atrium and known as the pacemaker
• atrioventricular node and atrioventricular bundle, found between the atrium and ventricles.
Impulses move from the sinoatrial node across the atria to cause their contraction. The impulses then reach the
atrioventricular node and bundle, causing ventricular contraction. Contraction of heart muscle is known as sys-
tole and relaxation of heart muscle is known as diastole. A healthy heart will be synchronized so that during
atrial contraction there is ventricular relaxation and vice versa. Certain diseases sometimes cause problems with
this conduction system so that the muscle fibres within a certain area of the heart are not contracting together;
this is known as fibrillation.
Circulation of the blood around the body.
What is the route taken by the products of digestion on their way to the liver?
1
Lungs
15 2
14
Head and
forelimbs 3
16 17
5
13
VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood circulation

18
12 6
19
11
Liver
7
Intestines 8
10
Kidneys
101
9
Other organs
101 VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood circulation
1 – Pulmonary circulation
2 – Pulmonary veins
3 – Carotid arteries to head
4 – Brachial arteries to forelimb
5 – Aorta
6 – Hepatic artery
7 – Cranial and caudal mesenteric arteries
8 – Renal artery
9 – Systemic circulation
10 – Renal vein
11 – Hepatic portal vein
12 – Hepatic vein
15 – Pulmonary artery
16 – Right atrium
17 – Left atrium
18 – Left ventricle
19 – Right ventricle
Ingested food passes into the stomach and small intestine where it is digested into small chemical units eg. amino
acids and simple sugars. These are absorbed through the wall of the small intestine into the hepatic portal vein
which carries them to the liver for metabolism.
VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood vessels - types 102
Identify the correct vessel type using the description provided

1 – A small vein within the organ it is draining
2 – A fine vessel through whose walls gaseous exchange takes place
3 – Thick-walled vessel carrying blood away from the heart
4 – A small branching type of artery found only in the brain, heart and kidney
5 – Thin-walled vessel carrying blood to the heart
6 – A small artery within the organ it is supplying
102 VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood vessels - types
1 – Venule
2 – Capillary
3 – Artery
4 – End artery
5 – Vein
6 – Arteriole
VASCULAR SYSTEM Important blood vessels 103
Identify the correct blood vessel using the description provided

1 – We are the vessels that supply the muscle of the heart
2 – I drain the intercostal region. I run through the thoracic cavity to empty into the junction of the vena cava
and right atrium at a right angle
3 – I arise from the aorta in the abdomen and supply the liver, spleen and stomach
4 – I am the largest artery in the body
5 – I am the largest vein in the body
6 – l run from the small intestine to the liver. My purpose is to take absorbed nutrients directly to the liver
7 – l run down the hindlimb on the medial aspect. I am commonly used for pulse measurement
8 – I am a continuation of the axillary artery on the medial aspect of the proximal forelimb
9 – I arise from the brachiocephalic artery and run through the neck towards the head
10 – I am the only large superficial vein of the thoracic limb and lie on its dorsal aspect
103 VASCULAR SYSTEM Important blood vessels
1 – coronary arteries
2 – azygos vein
3 – coeliac artery
4 – aorta
5 – vena cava
6 – hepatic portal vein
7 – femoral artery
8 – brachial artery
9 – carotid artery
10 – cephalic vein
VASCULAR SYSTEM Arteries and veins 104
Differentiate between the properties of arteries and veins using the following criteria:
1 – Thickness of vessel wall
2 – Presence of valves along length
3 – Proximity to body surface
4 – Direction of blood flow in relation to heart
5 – Carrying oxygenated/deoxygenated blood
104 VASCULAR SYSTEM Arteries and veins
Arteries Veins
1 Thickness of vessel wall thick walled thinner walled

2 Presence of valves along length no yes
3 Proximity to body surface deeper more superficial
4 Direction of blood flow in relation to heart away from the heart towards the heart
5 Carrying oxygenated/deoxygenated blood oxygenated deoxygenated
VASCULAR SYSTEM Lymph ducts and nodes 105
Major lymph ducts and nodes.

1. ––––––––––––
2. ––––––––––––
4. ––––––––––––
3. ––––––––––––
5. ––––––––––––
12. –––––––––––– 6. ––––––––––––
11. –––––––––––– 7. ––––––––––––
10. –––––––––––– 9. –––––––––––– 8. ––––––––––––

105 VASCULAR SYSTEM Lymph ducts and nodes
1 – Parotid lymph node

2 – Retropharyngeal lymph nodes
3 – Tracheal duct
4 – Thoracic duct
5 – Cisterna chyli
6 – Mesenteric lymph nodes
7 – Superficial inguinal lymph nodes
8 – Popliteal lymph node
9 – Bronchial lymph nodes
10 – Axillary lymph node
11 – Prescapular lymph node
12 – Submandibular lymph node
VASCULAR SYSTEM Lymph nodes – location 106
List the palpable lymph nodes that can be used to

monitor the health of an animal and their location
106 VASCULAR SYSTEM Lymph nodes – location
The palpable lymph nodes are:

Lymph node Location
Submandibular 2-5 in a group lying at the edge of the angle of the jaw
Parotid Caudal to the temporo-mandibular joint of the jaw
Superficial cervical (prescapular) Two on each side which lie cranial to the shoulder joint at the base of the
neck
Superficial inguinal Two nodes on each side lying in the groin between the thigh and the
abdominal body wall.
Popliteal Within the tissue of the gastrocnemius muscle caudal to the stifle joint.
VASCULAR SYSTEM Erythrocyte production 107
Put these statements in the correct order to describe erythrocyte production

1 – More erythrocytes enter the bloodstream, so more haemoglobin is present.
2 – Erythropoietin factor converts a plasma protein into erythropoietin, which is needed for erythrocyte
production.
3 – Erythropoietin factor is released from the kidneys in response to poor oxygen supply.
4 – The oxygen deficit is reduced.
5 – Erythropoietin causes increased erythrocyte production in the myeloid tissue.
6 – Oxygen levels in the body tissues drop.
7 – Erythrocytes break down at the ends of their lives.
107 VASCULAR SYSTEM Erythrocyte production
7 – Erythrocytes break down at the ends of their lives.

6 – Oxygen levels in the body tissues drop.
3 – Erythropoietin factor is released from the kidneys in response to poor oxygen supply.
2 – Erythropoietin factor converts a plasma protein into erythropoietin, which is needed for erythrocyte
production.
5 – Erythropoietin causes increased erythrocyte production in the myeloid tissue.
1 – More erythrocytes enter the bloodstream, so more haemoglobin is present.
4 – The oxygen deficit is reduced.
VASCULAR SYSTEM Leucocytes 108
Match the description to the correct definition

1 – There are two main types: T-cells and B-cells. T-cells destroy diseased cells and B-cells Neutrophil
produce antibodies
2 – Phagocytic cell, which is also found in other body tissues, where it is called a macrophage Eosinophil
3 – Destroys foreign matter such as bacteria by phagocytosis. Present in large numbers in pus Basophil
4 – Phagocytic cell which increases in number during parasitic or allergic disease Lymphocyte
5 – Produces histamine which increases inflammation and heparin which is a natural Monocyte
anticoagulant
108 VASCULAR SYSTEM Leucocytes
1 – There are two main types: T-cells and B-cells. T-cells destroy diseased cells and B-cells Lymphocyte
produce antibodies
2 – Phagocytic cell, which is also found in other body tissues, where it is called a Monocyte
macrophage
3 – Destroys foreign matter such as bacteria by phagocytosis. Present in large numbers Neutrophil
in pus
4 – Phagocytic cell which increases in number during parasitic or allergic disease Eosinophil
5 – Produces histamine which increases inflammation and heparin which is a natural Basophil
anticoagulant
VASCULAR SYSTEM The coagulation cascade 109
Put the following statements in the correct order to describe the clotting process.
1 – The normal blood clotting time of dogs and cats is 2.5 to 5 minutes.
2 – Thrombin acts on another clotting factor, fibrinogen, to produce fibrin.
3 – Damage to the blood vessel wall.
4 – Thrombocytes stick to the wound site and produce the enzyme thromboplastin.
5 – Fibrin sticks to thrombocytes to form a mesh over the wound; this is a clot.
6 – Thromboplastin combines with calcium in the blood to turn the clotting factor prothrombin into the
enzyme thrombin.
109 VASCULAR SYSTEM The coagulation cascade
3 – Damage to the blood vessel wall.

4 – Thrombocytes stick to the wound site and produce the enzyme thromboplastin.
6 – Thromboplastin combines with calcium in the blood to turn the clotting factor prothrombin into the
enzyme thrombin.
2 – Thrombin acts on another clotting factor, fibrinogen, to produce fibrin.
5 – Fibrin sticks to thrombocytes to form a mesh over the wound; this is a clot.
1 – The normal blood clotting time of dogs and cats is 2.5 to 5 minutes.
VASCULAR SYSTEM Functions of the lymphatic system 110
Complete the paragraph by filling in the gaps using the correct words from the selection below.
• small intestine • fat • oedema
• fluid • macrophages • interstitial
• protein • proteins • lymphocytes
• antigens • lacteals • bacteria
Fluid and smaller _________ are constantly moving from the blood capillaries into the _________ spaces.
Although some fluid will move directly back into the capillaries, most will return via the lymphatic system;
_________ also returns via this route. This system enables the correct _________ balance within the tissue
spaces. If the lymphatic system does not function for some reason _________ will occur in that particular
body region.
Another substance transported via the lymphatic system to the bloodstream is digested _________,
which is absorbed through special lymphatic vessels in the _________ wall called _________. The lymphatic
system also plays a part in body defence. In the lymph node foreign material, such as _________, are pre-
vented from continuing any further by the presence of phagocytic cells _________, which engulf and destroy
them. Another function of the lymph node is to produce _________, which leave the node in the lymph and
eventually enter the bloodstream where they defend the body by reacting against _________.
110 VASCULAR SYSTEM Functions of the lymphatic system
Fluid and smaller proteins are constantly moving from the blood capillaries into the interstitial spaces. Although
some fluid will move directly back into the capillaries, most will return via the lymphatic system; protein also
returns via this route. This system enables the correct fluid balance within the tissue spaces. If the lymphatic
system does not function for some reason oedema will occur in that particular body region
Another substance transported via the lymphatic system to the bloodstream is digested fat, which is absorbed
through special lymphatic vessels in the small intestine wall called lacteals. The lymphatic system also plays a
part in body defence. In the lymph node foreign material, such as bacteria, are prevented from continuing any
further by the presence of phagocytic cells macrophages, which engulf and destroy them. Another function of
the lymph node is to produce lymphocytes, which leave the node in the lymph and eventually enter the blood-
stream where they defend the body by reacting against antigens.
VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood and lymph 111
Differentiate between blood and lymph using the following criteria:

Number of capillaries in body tissues
Direction of transport in relation to the heart
Presence of valves along length
Presence of smooth muscle in vessel wall
111 VASCULAR SYSTEM Blood and lymph
Lymph vessels Blood vessels
Number of capillaries in body more than blood vessels less than lymph vessels
tissues
Direction of transport in relation always carry lymph towards the carry blood both to and from the
to the heart heart heart
Presence of valves along length valves are present valves present in some veins
Presence of smooth muscle in no smooth muscle smooth muscle
vessel wall
VASCULAR SYSTEM Lymphatic ducts 112
State which lymphatic duct drains each of the following body regions:
Head and neck
Right forelimb
Left forelimb
Thorax
Abdomen
Right hindlimb
Left hindlimb
112 VASCULAR SYSTEM Lymphatic ducts
Cisterna chyli/thoracic duct Right lymphatic duct
Head and neck ✓

Right forelimb ✓
Left forelimb ✓
Thorax ✓ (left side) ✓ (right side)
Abdomen ✓
Right hindlimb ✓
Left hindlimb ✓
Cross section through a lymph node
1 2
VASCULAR SYSTEM Lymph node structure

3
6
5
4
113
113 VASCULAR SYSTEM Lymph node structure
1 – Afferent lymph vessels

2 – Connective tissue trabecula covered in lymphoid tissue
3 – Lymph spaces
4 – Efferent lymphatic vessel
5 – Hilus
6 – Capsule
VASCULAR SYSTEM Humoral immunity 114
Complete the paragraph by filling in the gaps using the correct words from the selection below.
• antigen • colostrum • passive
• antiserum • virus • vaccine
• antibodies • active • plasma cell
Humoral immunity is the type of immunity involving immunoglobulins, or _________. These are proteins pro-
duced by a type of lymphocyte, known as a B-lymphocyte, which matures into a _________. Antibodies are
produced in response to invasion by foreign matter, e.g. bacteria or a _________. The invading matter is called
the _________. Each antibody is specific to the antigen that triggered its production and is not effective against
other antigens. Antibodies work in a number of ways. They ‘bind’ to the foreign matter to prevent it damaging
the body’s cells; they make phagocytosis easier and also initiate the inflammatory response.
When antibodies are produced by the body in response to antigens, the immunity that results is called
_________; a _________ works on this principle. If an animal is actually given the antibodies, the immunity that
results is called _________; _________ works on this principle. The immunity that results from the newborn
animal taking its mother’s _________ is also passive.
114 VASCULAR SYSTEM Humoral immunity
Humoral immunity is the type of immunity involving immunoglobulins, or antibodies. These are proteins pro-
duced by a type of lymphocyte, known as a B-lymphocyte, which matures into a plasma cell. Antibodies are
produced in response to invasion by foreign matter, e.g. bacteria or a virus. The invading matter is called the
antigen. Each antibody is specific to the antigen that triggered its production and is not effective against other
antigens. Antibodies work in a number of ways. They ‘bind’ to the foreign matter to prevent it damaging the
body’s cells; they make phagocytosis easier and also initiate the inflammatory response.
When antibodies are produced by the body in response to antigens, the immunity that results is called active;
a vaccine works on this principle. If an animal is actually given the antibodies, the immunity that results is called
passive; antiserum works on this principle. The immunity that results from the newborn animal taking its
mother’s colostrum is also passive.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Upper respiratory tract – anatomy 115
Longitudinal section to illustrate the upper respiratory tract of the dog.

4
3
2 5
1
11 10 9
6
115 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Upper respiratory tract - anatomy
The functions of these structures are:

1 – Hard palate
2 – Turbinates
3 – Nasal cavity
4 – Frontal sinus
5 – Pharynx
6 – Oesophagus
7 – Trachea
8 – Larynx
9 – Epiglottis
10 – Soft palate
11 – Tongue
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Upper respiratory tract - function 116
What are functions of these structures:

Hard palate
Turbinates
Frontal sinus
Tongue
Soft palate
Pharynx
Epiglottis
Larynx
Trachea
Oesophagus
Nasal cavity
116 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Upper respiratory tract - function
The functions of these structures are:

Structure Function
Hard palate Bone which separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity.
Turbinates Delicate coiled bones covered in ciliated mucosa which warms filters and
moistens the inspired air. The mucosa contains nerve cells which detect smell.
Frontal sinus Air filled cavity lined in mucous membrane which warms, filters and moistens
the inspired air. Also reduces the weight of the bone.
Tongue Muscular organ which helps with ingestion and mastication of food. It is also
involved in thermoregulation, vocalization and in detection of taste.
Soft palate Plays a part in guiding food into the oesophagus and preventing it going down
the respiratory tract.
Pharynx Cavity at the back of the oral and nasal cavities. Acts as a cross-over between
the digestive and respiratory tracts.
Epiglottis Part of the larynx which covers the glottis during the passage of food down
the oesophagus.
Larynx Regulates the passage of air down the trachea and plays a part in vocalization.
Trachea Tube to conduct air up and down the respiratory tract.
Oesophagus Tube to conduct food down the digestive tract.
Nasal cavity Divided into two nasal chambers by the nasal septum. Provides an opening
through which air can enter and leave the body.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Trachea and lungs - anatomy 117
Diagram illustrating the trachea and lung positions.

Identify terms labelled A to G1 to 7
3 4
5
117 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Trachea and lungs - anatomy
1 – Nostril
2 – Nasal cavity
3 – Larynx
4 – Costal arch
5 – Median line of diaphragm
6 – Lung
7 – Trachea
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Trachea and lungs – air flow 118
Describe the passage of inspired air down into the

lung tissue.
118 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Trachea and lungs – air flow
1. Air enters the body through the external nares or nostrils.

2. It passes through the nasal chambers over the turbinates into the pharynx.
3. Air then passes through the glottis or entrance to the larynx and then down the trachea.
4. The trachea splits into the right and left bronchi each one leading to a lung.
5. Air passes from the bronchi into smaller bronchi and then into ducts known as bronchioles.
6. From the bronchioles air passes into alveolar ducts and then into the alveoli where gaseous exchange
between the air and the blood takes place.
This arrangement of ducts dividing into smaller and smaller branches is known as the bronchial tree.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The lungs - pleural cavity anatomy 119
The lungs within the pleural cavity

12 2
4
11
8
10 9
119 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The lungs - pleural cavity anatomy
1 – Trachea
2 – Mediastinum
3 – Pulmonary pleura – visceral pleura
4 – Bronchioles
5 – Mediastinal pleura
6 – Costal pleura – parietal pleura
7 – Pleural cavity or sac
8 – Thoracic cavity
9 – Diaphragmatic pleura
10 – Lung tissue
11 – Bronchus
12 – Walls of the thoracic cavity
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The lungs – breathing 120
How does an animal breathe?

120 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The lungs – breathing
Breathing requires that there is a vacuum within the pleural cavity and the actions of two sets of muscles:
• The external and intercostal muscles lying between the ribs
• The diaphragm
Breathing takes place in two stages:
1. Inspiration – an active process
The diaphragm contracts and flattens and the external intercostals contract and lift the ribs up and out. This
causes an increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity and a subsequent reduction in pressure so air rushes down
the trachea and fills the lungs.
2. Expiration – a passive process
The diaphragm relaxes and curves upwards. The external intercostals relax and the ribs drop down. This causes
a decrease in the volume of the thoracic cavity and a subsequent increase in pressure so the lungs collapse and
air is pushed up the trachea and out of the body.
NB the internal intercostal muscles are used only during forced expiration
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The lungs - terminal air passages anatomy 121
The terminal air passages.

1
3
7
4
6
121 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The lungs - terminal air passages anatomy
1 – Terminal bronchiole
2 – Pulmonary arteriole
3 – Pulmonary venule
4 – Capillaries
5 – Alveolar sac
6 – Alveoli
7 – Alveolar duct
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The lungs – gaseous exchange 122
Describe the process of gaseous exchange.

122 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The lungs – gaseous exchange
Gaseous exchange takes place within the lung tissue across the thin pulmonary membrane which lines the alveoli.
Oxygen in the inspired air diffuses from the alveoli across the pulmonary membrane into the blood capillaries
which cover the grape-like alveoli. These capillaries are part of the pulmonary circulation and they form the pul-
monary veins which lead to the left atrium of the heart. Simultaneously carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood in
the capillaries into the alveoli and it is then excreted in the expired air.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Gaseous exchange 123
Complete the paragraph using the correct words from the selection below.
• environment • adenosine triphosphate
• carbon dioxide • body tissues
• bloodstream • lungs
• gases • oxygen
• carbon dioxide
Respiration is essential for survival. Respiration involves the exchange of _____________, or ‘gaseous
exchange’, in this case _____________ and _____________. External respiration is gaseous exchange
between an animal and its _____________ and occurs in the _____________. Internal respiration is gaseous
exchange between the _____________ and _____________. Oxygen is necessary in order for the body’s
cells to obtain energy in the form of _____________ (ATP). An end-product of this process is the produc-
tion of _____________, which needs to be removed from the cells.
123 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Gaseous exchange
Respiration is essential for survival. Respiration involves the exchange of gases, or ‘gaseous exchange’, in this
case oxygen and carbon dioxide. External respiration is gaseous exchange between an animal and its envi-
ronment and occurs in the lungs. Internal respiration is gaseous exchange between the body tissues and
bloodstream. Oxygen is necessary in order for the body’s cells to obtain energy in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). An end-product of this process is the production of carbon dioxide, which needs to be
removed from the cells.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Upper respiratory tract - anatomy 124
Using the description provided identify the structure

1 – The structure dividing the nasal cavity into left and right sides
2 – The turbinate bones are lined with this tissue
3 – Another term for the nostrils
4 – The bone containing a large paranasal sinus
5 – The bone separating the nasal and cranial cavities
6 – The structure separating the nasal and oral cavities
7 – A flap of cartilage forming a protective bulb just inside the nostril
8 – The bulk of the rhinarium is made from this tissue
124 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Upper respiratory tract - anatomy
1 – Nasal septum
2 – Ciliated columnar epithelium
3 – Nares
4 – Frontal
5 – Ethmoid
6 – Hard palate
7 – Alar fold
8 – Elastic cartilage
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Laryngeal cartilages 125
Lateral view of dog’s laryngeal area, showing the cartilages of the hyoid
apparatus as they appear on X-ray.
The larynx is made up of several small cartilages. List the names of these cartilages
125 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Laryngeal cartilages
Epiglottis
Arytenoids
Interarytenoid
Thyroid
Cricoid
Mnemonic to remember the functions of the larynx.
The three Ps:
Passage of air
Protection of the respiratory tract
Phonation (sound production)
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The trachea and bronchi - anatomy 126
Diagram of the trachea and bronchi. Adapted with kind permission from
Reece 1997.
Identify the structures numbered on the diagram
1. –––––––––
3. –––––––––
2. –––––––––
4. ––––––––– 5. –––––––––
6. –––––––––
126 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The trachea and bronchi - anatomy
1 – Larynx
2 – Annular ligaments
3 – Hyaline cartilage rings
4 – Right principal bronchus
5 – Left principal bronchus
6 – Bifurcation of the trachea
Cross-section of the thorax at three different levels,
showing the positions of major structures. A Section
taken cranial to the heart. B Section taken through the
heart. C Section taken caudal to the heart.
Identify the structures contained within the mediastinum
2 13
1 3 14
4 15
5 16
17
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The mediastinum

6 18
7
19
8 20
9 21
10 22
11
12 B 23
A
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
127
32
C
127 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The mediastinum
1 – Brachiocephalic trunk 17 – Body wall

2 – Thoracic vertebra 18 – Parietal pleura
3 – Oesophagus 19 – Visceral pleura
4 – Trachea 20 – Mediastinum
5 – Cranial vena cava 21 – Parietal pericardium
6 – Lung 22 – Visceral pericardium
7 – Body wall 23 – Sternum
8 – Parietal pleura 24 – Thoracic vertebra
9 – Visceral pleura 25 – Aorta
10 – Mediastinum 26 – Body wall
11 – Thymus gland 27 – Parietal pleura
12 – Sternum 28 – Visceral pleura
13 – Thoracic vertebra 29 – Oesophagus
14 – Aorta 30 – Mediastinum
15 – Oesophagus 31 – Caudal vena cava
16 – Trachea 32 – Right phrenic nerve
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Components of air 128
Complete the chart by stating the percentages of gases that make up air
Component Inhaled air Exhaled air
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Water vapour Variable Increased by comparison
Other gases Trace Trace
128 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Components of air
Complete the chart by stating the percentages of gases that make up air
Component Inhaled air Exhaled air
Nitrogen 79% 79%

Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.04%; 5%.
Water vapour Variable Increased by comparison
Other gases Trace Trace
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Respiratory terminology 129
Using the following statements identify the correct term:

1 – The air that is breathed in and out during normal respiration
2 – The amount of air that is breathed in. Usually measured in mL/kg
3 – The amount of air needed to fill every part of the lung
4 – The amount of air that can be expired
5 – The air left in the lungs after forced exhalation
6 – The area of the respiratory tract not used for gaseous exchange
7 – The air left in the lungs after normal exhalation which allows gaseous exchange to continue
129 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Respiratory terminology

1 – Tidal air
2 – Tidal volume
3 – Total lung capacity
4 – Vital capacity
5 – Residual volume
6 – Anatomical dead space
7 – Functional residual capacity
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Respiratory rates 130
Lateral radiograph of a dog’s thorax.

State the normal respiratory rates for dogs and cats at rest. What common factors can affect respiratory rate?
130 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Respiratory rates
Dog 10–30 breaths per minute.

Cat 20–30 breaths per minute.
Factors include activity level (sleeping, exercising, etc.), stress, pain, anaesthesia, pathology and oxygen content
of air.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Digestive system – in situ 131
Organs of the digestive system of the dog

1 2 3 4 5
14
13 12 11 10 9
131 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Digestive system – organs
1 – Stomach
2 – Gall bladder
3 – Duodenum
4 – Transverse colon
5 – Descending colon
6 – Rectum
7 – Anal canal
8 – Caecum
9 – Ascending colon
10 – Jejunum and ileum
11 – Pancreas
12 – Liver
13 – Diaphragm
14 – Oesophagus
The digestive tract removed from the body
2
17 18
4
16
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Digestive system – removed

5
15
14 6
7
13
12
8
11
10
132
9
132 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Digestive system – removed
1 – Oesophagus
2 – Cardiac sphincter
3 – Stomach
4 – Spleen
5 – Pancreas
6 – Ileum and jejunum (not to scale)
9 – Anus
10 – Rectum
11 – Caecum
12 – Ileocaecal junction
14 – Pancreatic duct
15 – Common bile duct
16 – Gall bladder (lies between lobes of the liver)
17 – Duodenum
18 – Pyloric sphincter
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Dentition - anatomy 133
Skull of an adult dog showing the permanent dentition

4
10 8 6
9 7
133 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Dentition - anatomy
1 – 3 Incisors
2 – 1 Canine
3 – 4 Premolars
4 – 2 Molars
5 – Carnassial
6 – 3 Molars
7 – Carnassial
8 – 4 Premolars
9 – 1 Canine
10 – 3 Incisors
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Dentition – tooth function 134
What are the functions of each type of tooth in the

dentition of the dog and cat?
134 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Dentition – tooth function
There are four types of teeth each of which has a distinct function:
Tooth Shape and function
Incisors Small and pointed with a single root sitting in the incisive bone. Used for
delicate nibbling and cutting flesh off the bone.
Canines Larger, curved and pointed with a single root. One at each corner of the upper
and lower jaws. Used to hold prey in the mouth.
Premolars (cheek teeth) Flatter surface with several tubercles or cusps. May have two or three roots
arranged in a triangle to provide stability. Used with the teeth in the opposite
jaw to shear flesh off the bone and grind it up before swallowing.
Molars (cheek teeth) Larger than premolars but similar in shape. Usually have three roots. Used for
shearing and grinding.
Carnassials These are the first lower molar and the last upper premolar. Similar shape to
other cheek teeth but much larger and more powerful.
Shape and features of the teeth
4
1
5
10
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The teeth – anatomy

2
11
6
3
7
9 135
135 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The teeth – anatomy
1 – Crown
2 – Gum
3 – Root
4 – Enamel – shiny white outer covering
5 – Dentine – forms the main part of the tooth
6 – Cement – holds the tooth firmly in the gum
7 – Pulp cavity – contains blood capillaries and nerve fibres
8 – Cusps or tubercules
9 – Roots
10 – Gingival membrane
11 – Gum
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The teeth – dental formulae 136
Each species of animal has a characteristic

dental formula. What are the dental formulae for
the deciduous and permanent dentitions in the dog
and the cat?
136 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The teeth – dental formulae
Dog
Deciduous { I3/3 C1/1 PM 3/3 } x 2 = 28 teeth
Permanent { I3/3 C1/1 PM4/4 M2/3 } x 2 = 42 teeth
Cat
Deciduous { I3/3 C1/1 PM 3/2 } x 2 = 26 teeth
Permanent { I3/3 C1/1 PM 3/2 M 1/1 } x 2 = 30 teeth
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Salivary glands 137
Location of the salivary glands of the dog

Where would you find the salivary glands?
4 3
137 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Salivary glands
Salivary glands are paired glands lying around the oral cavity. They secrete saliva which consists of 99% water and
1% mucus. There are no digestive enzymes in the saliva of carnivores although that of herbivores and omnivores
may contain an amylase which breaks down starch. The function of saliva is to lubricate the food so that it is
easier to swallow. It also plays a part in thermoregulation.
Salivary gland Location
1 - Zygomatic Close to the eyeball within the orbit.

2 - Parotid Between the base of the ear and the mandibular glands.
3 - Mandibular Caudal to the angle of the jaw.
4 - Sublingual Medial to the mandible under the tongue.
Structure of the stomach
14 3
15
4
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The stomach - anatomy

13
6
12
7
11
9
138
10
138 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The stomach - anatomy
1 – Oesophagus
2 – Cardiac sphincter
3 – Cardiac region
4 – Internal surface folded into deep rugae
5 – Fundus
6 – Greater curvature
7 – Goblet cells
8 – Chief cells and parietal cells
9 – Gastric pit
10 – Cut section of coiled gastric gland
11 – Gastric mucosa
12 – Pyloric region
13 – Duodenum
14 – Pyloric sphincter
15 – Lesser curvature
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The stomach – gastric juices 139
The stomach wall secretes gastric juices. Which

types of cell do this?
139 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The stomach – gastric juices
Gastric juices are secreted in response to the hormone gastrin which is produced from the stomach wall as
food passes through the cardiac sphincter. They are responsible for the first part of the digestive process. They
consist of a cocktail of substances secreted by cells within the gastric pits which lie within the mucosa of the
stomach.
Cell type Function
Goblet cells Secrete mucus which lubricates the food and protects the stomach wall from
autodigestion by the digestive enzymes.
Parietal cells Secrete hydrochloric acid which breaks down the proteins and creates an acid
pH of 1.3 – 5.00 which facilitates protein digestion.
Chief cells Secrete pepsinogen which is converted to the active enzyme pepsin by hydro-
chloric acid. Pepsin acts on the proteins (polypeptides) to produce peptides.
The reactions within the stomach are:

Pepsinogen + HCl = pepsin
Pepsin + polypeptides = peptides.
The resulting liquid food is known as chyme and it is acidic when it spurts through the pyloric sphincter into the
duodenum.
Cross section through an area of intestine to show the
structure
2
20
3
4
19
5
18
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Intestinal structure - anatomy

6
17
7
9
16
10
11
12
140
13
15 14
140 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Intestinal structure - anatomy
1 – Mesentery
2 – Longitudinal smooth muscle
3 – Circular smooth muscle
4 – Nerve plexuses
5 – Lamina propria
6 – Muscularis mucosae
7 – Serosa
8 – Villus
9 – Lacteal (absorbs chyle)
10 – Epithelial layer with mucus-secreting cells
11 – Capillary network (leads to the hepatic portal vein)
12 – Submucosa
13 – Goblet cells secrete mucus
14 – Columnar epithelium
15 – ‘Brush border’ of microvilli
16 – Extrinsic gland e.g. pancreas
17 – Submucosa
18 – Lumen
19 – Epithelial layer
20 – Intrinsic gland e.g. Brunner’s glands
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Intestinal structure - processes 141
The majority of digestion occurs in the small

intestine. What are the processes involved?
141 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Intestinal structure - processes
Within the small intestine there are three sources of digestive enzymes. Each one is designed to act on a
particular substrate and break it down into small chemical units which can then be absorbed.
Enzyme Substrate and product
Bile salts – from the Emulsifies fats making them easier to breakdown
gall bladder in the liver.
Pancreatic juice Secreted in response to the hormones cholecystokinin from the duodenal wall
and gastrin from the stomach wall
It contains:
Bicarbonate Neutralises the acid in the chyme
Trypsinogen Converted to trypsin by enterokinase
Trypsin Protease. Acts on peptides to produce amino acids.
Activates other enzyme precursors
Lipases Activated by bile salts. Convert fats to fatty acids and glycerol
Amylases Convert starches to maltose
Intestinal juice Secreted by Brunner’s glands in the wall of the duodenum and the Crypts of
Lieberkuhn which secrete a cocktail of enzymes known as succus entericus.
It contains:
Maltase Converts maltose to glucose
Sucrase Converts sucrose to glucose and fructose
Lactase Converts lactose to galactose
Enterokinase Converts trypsinogen to trypsin
Aminopeptidase Converts peptides to amino acids
Lipase Converts fats to fatty acids and glycerol
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Digestion 142
What are the two processes illustrated here? They occur within the digestive tract and move the food along the
tract.
What is the result of digestion and what happens to the substances resulting from it?
Contracted
muscle
Direction of
food movement
Food bolus
Relaxed muscle
C
142 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Digestion
The left process is peristalsis which results from organized contraction of the circular and longitudinal muscles
within the walls of the digestive tract. This process pushes food along the tract.
The right process is rhythmic segmentation which occurs within the stomach. This process breaks up and
mixes the food boluses with the gastric juices.
During digestion basic food units are broken down into small molecules which can be absorbed through the
walls of the small intestine:
• Proteins (polypeptides) are converted to amino acids
• Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) are converted to simple sugars – mainly glucose
• Fats are converted to fatty acids and glycerol
During absorption:
• Amino acids and sugars are absorbed into the hepatic portal vein and carried to the liver and other cells for
metabolism.
Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the lacteal within the villi as chyle. This is carried to the cisterna chyli
and into the lymphatic system.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The liver - structure 143
Structural organization of the liver

3
2
8 7
143 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The liver - structure
1 – Blood flow to hepatic vein

2 – Sinusoids radiating from central vein
3 – Network of bile canaliculi between hepatocytes
4 – Central vein
5 – Branch of bile duct
6 – Interlobular vein (branch of hepatic portal vein)
7 – Branch of hepatic artery
8 – Blood flow into lobules
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The liver - functions 144
List the functions of the liver – there are 11!

144 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The liver - functions
The liver is the largest gland in the body and as it is the ‘factory’ of the body it is essential to normal health. Its
functions are:
1. Carbohydrate metabolism
2. Protein metabolism
3. Fat metabolism
4. Formation of bile
5. Destruction of old red blood cells
6. Formation of new red blood cells in the foetus
7. Storage of vitamins
8. Storage of iron
9. Regulation of body temperature and production of heat
10. Detoxification of certain substances eg. liver
11. Detoxification and conjugation of steroid hormones
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The pharynx 145
Lateral view of the dog’s head to show the pharynx and its associated
structures
List the structures which are adjacent to, or lead to or from the pharynx
4
3
145 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The pharynx
1 – Larynx
2 – Nasal cavity
3 – Oral cavity
4 – Tongue
5 – Oesophagus
6 – Auditory or Eustachian tubes (not shown)
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Structure of the small intestinal wall 146
Diagram of the small intestinal wall

In the following diagram of a cross-section through the small intestinal wall, identify the labelled terms
1 ––––––––––––
2 ––––––––––––
3 ––––––––––––
4 ––––––––––––
5 ––––––––––––
6 –––––––––––– 7 ––––––––––––
146 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Structure of the small intestinal wall
1 – Columnar epithelium
2 – Villus
3 – Crypt of Lieberkuhn
4 – Goblet cell
5 – Brunners gland
6 – Afferent blood supply
7 – Efferent blood supply
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Gastrointestinal transit time 147
State how long it takes food to reach each of the following organs from the oral cavity
Stomach
Small intestine
Rectum
147 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Gastrointestinal transit time
State how long it takes food to reach each of the following organs from the oral cavity
Stomach: 30 seconds to 1 minute after swallowing
Small intestine: 2 – 4 hours
Rectum: 12 – 24 hours
URINARY SYSTEM Urinogenital system 148

The position of the urinary system Ventrodorsal view of the
in the bitch urinogenital system of the bitch
1 2 3 4 23 9
22 10
21
11
5 12
8
20
19 13
14
18
15
17
7 6
16
148 URINARY SYSTEM Urinogenital system
1 – Right kidney
2 – Left kidney
3 – Ureters
4 – Rectum
5 – Vagina
6 – Urethral orifice
7 – Urethra
8 – Urinary bladder
9 – Left adrenal gland
10 – Common trunk of the caudal phrenic and cranial abdominal artery and vein
11 – Left renal artery and vein
12 – Left kidney
13 – Aorta
14 – Left ureter
16 – Urinary bladder (flipped forward)
17 – Uterine body
18 – Right uterine horn
20 – Right ovary
21 – Ovarian artery and vein
22 – Right kidney
23 – Right adrenal gland
URINARY SYSTEM The kidney - anatomy 149
Parasagittal section through the dog kidney

12 2
3
4
10
11
149 URINARY SYSTEM The kidney - anatomy
1 – Fibrous tissue capsule

2 – Arcuate artery and vein
3 – Medulla
4 – Interlobar artery and vein
5 – Cortex
6 – Renal artery
7 – Renal vein
8 – Hilus
9 – Renal pyramid
10 – Ureter
11 – Area of pyramid
12 – Pelvis
URINARY SYSTEM The kidney – surface structure 150
On the cut surface of a kidney you can see several

distinct layers with the naked eye. What are they
called and what structures do they contain?
150 URINARY SYSTEM The kidney – surface structure
The macroscopic appearance of a kidney show the following layers from the outside to the inside
Kidney layer Contents
Capsule Made of irregular dense connective tissue forming a protective outer layer
Cortex Dark red in colour. Contains the glomerular capsules, the glomeruli and the convoluted
tubules of the renal nephrons
Medulla Slightly paler red. May be possible to see the renal pyramids containing the loops of
Henle with the collecting ducts between them
Pelvis May appear whitish due to the high content of fibrous connective tissue. Basin-shaped
structure which drains the urine from the collecting ducts into the single ureter.
A renal nephron
2
1
3
4
5 6
19
18
URINARY SYSTEM Microscopic structure

17 7
9 8
16
15
14 10
12
13
11
151
151 URINARY SYSTEM Microscopic structure
1 – Branch of renal artery

2 – Branch of renal vein
3 – Afferent arteriole
4 – Efferent arteriole
5 – Glomerulus
6 – Distal convoluted tubule
7 – Cortex
8 – Medulla
9 – Collecting duct
10 – Urine passes to top of kidney pyramid
11 – Blood capillary network
12 – Loop of Henle
13 – Ascending limb
14 – Descending limb
15 – Blood flow
16 – Flow of filtrate
17 – Proximal convoluted tubule
18 – Glomerular capsule or Bowman’s capsule
19 – Pressure filtration
URINARY SYSTEM Microscopic structure – the renal nephron 152
Each part of the renal nephron plays a part in the

modification of the glomerular filtrate to form
urine – describe these functions.
Each kidney contains about a million nephrons. They are responsible for filtering
152
the blood and then modifying it in line with the current status of the extracel-
lular fluid (ECF) to produce urine. Each part of the nephron contributes to this
overall function:
URINARY SYSTEM Microscopic structure – the renal nephron

Part of the nephron Function
Glomerular capsule Cup shaped capsule containing a knot of blood

or Bowman’s capsule vessels – the glomerulus. Plasma from the blood is
forced through small pores in the capsule but larger
particles are held back eg. plasma proteins and blood
cells. This is a process of ultrafiltration and resulting
liquid is the glomerular filtrate
Proximal convoluted 65% of all the resorptive processes occur here:
tubule • Resorption of Na+ and Cl−
• Resorption of glucose
• Secretion of toxins and certain drugs eg. penicillin
• Concentration of nitrogenous waste eg urea
Loop of Henle Regulates concentration and volume of the urine by
changing the water content of the filtrate
Distal convoluted tubule Final adjustments are made to the composition of
the urine:
• Reabsorption of Na+ and secretion of K+ − under
the control of the hormone aldosterone from the
adrenal cortex.
• Regulation of acid/base balance by excretion of © 2009, Elsevier Limited. All rights reserved.
H+ ions
Collecting ducts Each collecting duct receives urine from several
nephrons. Final adjustments are made to the volume of
the urine.The hormone antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
from the posterior pituitary gland is able to change the
permeability of the duct walls to water so that water
is either retained or excreted in line with the status of
the ECF.
URINARY SYSTEM Renal structures 153
Using the description provided, identify the following structures

1 – The cup-shaped extensions of the renal pelvis within the kidney
2 – The fibrous connective tissue outer membrane of the kidney
3 – The collecting ducts empty into this area
4 – The outer layer of the kidney where the glomeruli are found
5 – The cone-shaped masses that form the renal medulla
6 – The blood vessel that arises directly from the aorta and supplies each kidney
7 – The inner region of the kidney where the loops of Henle are found
8 – The ‘dent’ in the kidney where the ureter and blood supply is attached
9 – The duct that transports urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder
10 – The area where the collecting ducts merge
153 URINARY SYSTEM Renal structures
1 – Calyces of the kidney

2 – Renal capsule
3 – Renal pelvis
4 – Renal cortex
5 – Renal pyramids
6 – Renal artery
7 – Renal medulla
8 – Renal hilus
9 – Ureter
10 – Renal crest
URINARY SYSTEM The function of the nephron 154
Complete the paragraph on the function of the nephron using the correct words from the selection below.
• Bowman’s • collecting
• selective • glomerulus
• proteins • urea
• ECF • ultrafiltrate
At the _________, fluid from the bloodstream is filtered through the blood vessel wall and into the
_________ capsule. This fluid is called _________ of plasma (or glomerular filtrate). It is very similar to blood
plasma except that it does not contain blood cells or the larger plasma _________. The filtrate then moves along
the nephron. As it progresses, certain of its constituents are taken back into the bloodstream via the capillar-
ies surrounding the nephron. This is called _________ reabsorption. Only the constituents necessary to the
body are reabsorbed such as glucose, amino acids and sufficient of others to maintain optimal conditions in the
_________, such as sodium and water. Metabolic waste products, such as ___________ and excess amounts
of water, sodium, etc., remain in the nephron and pass into the _________ ducts where they move down the
ureter into the bladder as urine.
154 URINARY SYSTEM The function of the nephron
At the glomerulus, fluid from the bloodstream is filtered through the blood vessel wall and into the Bowman’s
or glomerular capsule. This fluid is called the ultrafiltrate of plasma (or glomerular filtrate). It is very simi-
lar to blood plasma except that it does not contain blood cells or the larger plasma proteins. The filtrate then
moves along the nephron. As it progresses, certain of its constituents are taken back into the bloodstream via
the capillaries surrounding the nephron. This is called selective reabsorption. Only the constituents necessary
to the body are reabsorbed such as glucose, amino acids and sufficient of others to maintain optimal conditions
in the extracellular fluid (ECF), such as sodium and water. Metabolic waste products, such as urea and excess
amounts of water, sodium, etc., remain in the nephron and pass into the collecting ducts where they move
down the ureter into the bladder as urine.
URINARY SYSTEM Normal urine parameters 155
Identify the normal ranges for canine and feline urine for each item listed below
Canine urine Feline urine
Colour
Odour
Consistency
pH
Specific gravity
Output (ml/kg/hr)
155 URINARY SYSTEM Normal urine parameters
Canine urine Feline urine
Colour straw straw

Odour nil to mild, male urine nil to mild, male urine
may smell stronger may smell stronger
Consistency clear liquid clear liquid
pH 5.2–6.8 5–7
Specific gravity 1.015–1.045 1.020–1.040
Output (ml/kg/hr) 1–2 1–2
Reproductive system of the dog

1 2 3
17
5
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Dog and tomcat - anatomy

16
6
15
7
14
8
13 12 11 10
Reproductive system of the tomcat

18 19 20 21 22
23
156
28 27 26 25 24
156 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Dog and tomcat - anatomy
1 – Prostate 25 – Glans penis covered in papillae

2 – Outline of pelvic girdle 26 – Pubic symphysis
3 – Ureter 27 – Deferent duct
4 – Bladder 28 – Bladder
5 – Os penis
6 – Urethra
7 – Glans penis
8 – Prepuce
9 – Glans penis
10 – Bulb of glans penis
11 – Os penis
12 – Deferent duct
13 – Testis in scrotum
14 – Epididymis
15 – Urethra
16 – Root of penis
17 – Anus
18 – Ureter
19 – Preprostatic urethra
20 – Prostate gland
21 – Urethra
22 – Bulbourethral gland
23 – Testis in scrotum
24 – Epididymis
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Dog and tomcat – anatomical differences 157
Differentiate between the reproductive tracts of the two species

Dogs Cats
Position of testes
Hair distribution on scrotum
Presence of bulbo-urethral glands
Position of the penis and prepuce
Presence of os penis
Texture of penis surface
Length and shape of urethra
157 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Dog and tomcat – anatomical differences
Dogs Cats
Position of testes ventral, between the hindlegs caudal, beneath the anus
Hair distribution on scrotum sparse good hair covering
Presence of bulbo-urethral glands absent present
Position of the penis and prepuce ventral, pointing cranially caudal, pointing caudally
Presence of os penis bony os penis present no bone present
Texture of penis surface smooth barbed
Length and shape of urethra long and curved shorter and straighter
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Dog and tomcat – reproductive differences 158
Although the reproductive systems of the dog and

the tomcat are basically the same, there are some
differences – what are they?
158 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Dog and tomcat – reproductive differences
The differences between the reproductive tracts of the dog and the tomcat are:
1. The tomcat has a pair of bulbo-urethral glands close to the tip of the penis – the dog does not.
2. The tip of the tom cat penis has a covering of barbs which cause a moment of pain on withdrawal after
mating and stimulate the queen to ovulate about 36 hours later. The penis of the dog is smooth.
3. The penis of the tomcat points backwards while that of the dog points forwards.
4. The os penis within the tissue of the tomcat penis lies ventral to the urethra while in the dog it lies dorsal
to the urethra.
Testis within the scrotum (A), scrotum removed (B),
cross-section through the semiferous tubules (C)
12
2
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Testis - anatomy

4
Testis
11
10 9
A
5
8 6
159
C 7
159 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Testis - anatomy
1 – Spermatic cord (deferent duct, blood vessels and nerves)

2 – Blood and lymph vessels and nerves
3 – Deferent duct
4 – Epididymis
5 – Lumen of seminiferous tubule
6 – Spermatogenic cells
7 – Cells of Leydig – interstitial cells
8 – Sertoli cells
9 – Seminiferous tubules
10 – Visceral layer of tunica vaginalis
11 – Parietal layer of tunica vaginalis
12 – Skin of the scrotum
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Testis – anatomy 160
Using the description provided identify the structure

1 – Connective tissue divisions in the testis
2 – The structure containing the deferent duct
3 – The site of sperm production
4 – A double layer of peritoneum, which lines the testis
5 – The site of sperm storage
6 – The ducts carrying sperm from the testis to the epididymis
160 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Testis - anatomy
1 – Septa
2 – Spermatic cord
3 – Seminiferous tubules
4 – Tunica vaginalis
5 – Epididymis
6 – Efferent tubules
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Testis - spermatozoa 161
What is the route taken by spermatozoa during

ejaculation?
161 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Testis - spermatozoa
Spermatozoa are formed in their millions by the spermatogenic cells which line the seminiferous tubules
within the testicular tissue. Fluid which helps to maintain the correct environment for sperm survival is also
secreted by seminiferous tubules. The newly formed sperm travel along the tubules until they reach the
epididymis. This coiled tubule lies on the dorso-lateral border of the testis. The cauda epididymis or tail of
the epididymis is attached to the caudal extremity of the testis and it is here that the sperm undergo a matura-
tion process and are now capable of fertilization of the ova. This area acts as reservoir for sperm which empties
during ejaculation.
During ejaculation the sperm are propelled out of the testis up the deferent duct (also called the vas def-
erens or ductus deferens) to the point where it joins the urethra close to the neck of the bladder. This area is
surrounded by the prostate gland which produces large volumes of seminal fluid which help to wash the sperm
into the female reproductive tract. In the tomcat, pair of bulbourethral glands close to the tip of the penis
also contribute to seminal fluid. The sperm within the fluid travel along the urethra within the penis whose func-
tion is to introduce sperm into the female tract.
Structure of the penis
Using this diagram, can you identify the two areas most likely to block up with
urethral calculi in the dog?
1
6
2
4
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The penis - anatomy

5
A
7
10
8
9
B
15
14
162
13
11
12
162 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The penis - anatomy
1 – Ureters
2 – Pelvis
3 – Pelvic part of urethra
4 – Penile part of urethra
5 – Transverse section of the urethra
6 – Bladder
7 – Ischial arch
8 – Bulb of the penis
9 – T.S. through Corpus spongiosum penis surrounding the urethra
10 – Corpus spongiosum penis
11 – Crus
12 – Body of the penis
13 – T.S. through Corpus cavernosum penis
14 – Glans penis
15 – Corpus cavernosum penis
Formation of calculi or ‘bladder stones’ is a relatively common condition in the dog and is known as urolithiasis.
If the calculi move out of the bladder down the urethra they may become stuck in two areas:
1. As the urethra runs over the bony ischial arch. At this point the urethra may be unable to dilate sufficiently
to allow the calculi to pass along.
2. As the urethra passes through the os penis. This bone which represents the splanchnic skeleton lies dorsal
to the urethra which runs through its tunnel-like structure. The urethra may be unable to dilate sufficiently
to allow passage of the calculi to the outside.
Dorsal view of the reproductive tract of the bitch.

2 1
14
3
13
4
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The bitch - anatomy

5
12
11
10
9
163
8
163 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The bitch - anatomy
1 – Ovary and oviduct in the ovarian bursa

2 – Infundibulum
3 – Corpus luteum
4 – Uterine horn
5 – Ureters
6 – Vagina
7 – Clitoris
8 – Vulva
9 – Urethral orifice
10 – Cervix
11 – Body of uterus
12 – Urinary bladder
13 – Ovary
14 – Oviduct
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The bitch - anatomy 164
Anatomy of the ovarian region of the bitch.
15
16 23
17
18 26
19
24
25
20
21
22
Lateral view Medial view

164 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The bitch - anatomy
15 – Suspensory ligament of the ovary

16 – Descending oviduct
17 – Mesosalpinx
18 – Ovary
19 – Mesovarium
20 – Left uterine horn
21 – Mesometrium
22 – Round ligament of the uterus
23 – Ascending uterine tube
24 – Ovarian ligament
25 – Uterine horn
26 – Opening of the ovarian bursa
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The bitch - reproductive tract 165
List the parts of the female reproductive tract

165 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The bitch - reproductive tract
The parts of the female reproductive tract are:

• Ovary
• Oviduct (also called the uterine tube or Fallopian tube)
• Uterine horn
• Uterus
• Cervix
• Vagina
• Vestibule
• Vulva
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The ovaries - anatomy 166
Longitudinal section through an ovary to show ovarian activity

1
8
7
2
6
3
5
4
166 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The ovaries - anatomy
1 – Primary follicles
2 – Maturing follicles
3 – Graafian follicle (oestrogen)
4 – Ruptured follicle and ovum
5 – Corpus luteum (progesterone)
6 – Retrogressive corpus luteum
7 – Corpus albicans
8 – Ovarian artery and vein
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Ovulation 167
Arrange the statements in the correct order to describe the process of ovulation
1 – The same process occurs whether or not the animal is pregnant.
2 – Each corpus luteum continues to develop for approximately 30 days. This is known as the luteal phase.
3 – Some bleeding occurs in the follicles, which then become solid structures and secrete progesterone, the
hormone that maintains pregnancy.
4 – A number of immature follicles in the ovary begin to mature under the hormonal influence of follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
5 – The released ova move down the oviduct where fertilization will take place if mating has occurred.
6 – The maturing follicles enlarge and fill with fluid. They begin to move towards the edge of the ovary.
7 – These solid structures are corpora lutea (singular, corpus luteum).
8 – After this each corpus luteum begins to degenerate until it cannot secrete enough progesterone to maintain
pregnancy. This occurs at day 63–65 after ovulation and is one of the triggers for parturition.
9 – The fully mature (Graafian) follicles protrude from the edge of the ovary and, under the influence of a
surge of LH, they rupture to release the ova inside.
167 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Ovulation
4 – A number of immature follicles in the ovary begin to mature under the hormonal influence of follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
6 – The maturing follicles enlarge and fill with fluid. They begin to move towards the edge of the ovary.
9 – The fully mature (Graafian) follicles protrude from the edge of the ovary and, under the influence of a
surge of LH, they rupture to release the ova inside.
5 – The released ova move down the oviduct where fertilization will take place if mating has occurred.
3 – Some bleeding occurs in the follicles, which then become solid structures and secrete progesterone, the
hormone that maintains pregnancy.
7 – These solid structures are corpora lutea (singular, corpus luteum).
2 – Each corpus luteum continues to develop for approximately 30 days. This is known as the luteal phase.
8 – After this each corpus luteum begins to degenerate until it cannot secrete enough progesterone to maintain
pregnancy. This occurs at day 63–65 after ovulation and is one of the triggers for parturition.
1 – The same process occurs whether or not the animal is pregnant.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The mammary glands - anatomy 168
Section through a mammary gland

How many pairs of mammary glands are there in the bitch and queen?
6
7
168 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The mammary glands - anatomy
1 – Mammary gland
2 – Secretory tissue
3 – Gland sinus
4 – Teat sinus
5 – Teat
6 – Teat canal
7 – Teat orifices
The bitch has five pairs of mammary glands while the queen only has four pairs. Mammary glands are modified
cutaneous glands which lie on the ventral body wall of the abdomen and thorax on either side of the midline.
They are present in both sexes in the dog and cat. Their function is to secrete milk to feed the neonate until it
is weaned.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The mammary glands – hormones during lactation 169
What hormones are involved in the process

of lactation?
169 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The mammary glands - lactation
The secretion of milk or lactation is controlled by several reproductive hormones:

• Progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum within the ovary causes enlargement of the mammary glands
during the oestrous cycle and during pregnancy.
• Prolactin secreted by the anterior pituitary gland during the last third of pregnancy, stimulates the
production of milk by the glands.
• Oxytocin secreted by the posterior pituitary gland during the final day of pregnancy and for a few days after
parturition, promotes the ‘let down’ of milk in response to suckling by the neonates.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The mammary glands – composition of milk 170
What is the composition of milk?

170 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The mammary glands – composition of milk
The first milk secreted by the dam is colostrum. This contains high proportions of antibodies which provide
the neonates with maternal immunity against diseases that the dam has encountered. These last for about 10-12
weeks.
After the production of colostrum ceases within about 48 hours, the composition of milk remains constant.
It varies between species but there are certain common constituents in all mammals:
Constituent Quantity
Water 70-90%
Fat 0-30%
Protein 1-15%
Carbohydrate 3-7%
Minerals 1.5 – 1% includes calcium phosphate, magnesium, sodium,
potassium and chloride. Milk is deficient in iron and cop-
per but contains traces of iodine, cobalt, tin and silica.
Vitamins A,B2 B5 E,K but low in vitamins C and D
Phases of the oestrous cycle of the bitch
Identify timings for each stage of the cycle
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The oestrous cycle of the bitch – stages

Day 10 – ovulation
Day 1
Pro-oestrus
Oestrus
Metoestrus I
171
Metoestrus II
Anoestrus
171 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The oestrous cycle of the bitch – stages
Pro-oestrus – approx. 9 days

Oestrus – approx. 9 days
Metoestrus I – approx. 20 days
Metoestrus II – approx. 70 days
Anoestrus – wide variation
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The oestrous cycle of the bitch - behavioural and external signals 172
What are the behavioural and external signs of the

oestrous cycle of the bitch?
172 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The oestrous cycle of the bitch - behavioural and external signals
The behavioural and external signs of the oestrous cycle are as follows:
Phase and timing Signs
Proestrus – approx. 9 days Vulva becomes enlarged; blood stained vaginal discharge; increased
frequency of urination. Bitch is flirtatious with dogs and very excitable.
She may try to escape to find a dog. At this stage the bitch will not allow
a dog to mount her.
Oestrus – approx. 9 days Vulva becomes even more enlarged; vaginal discharge becomes straw
coloured. Flirty behaviour continues and the bitch will allow mating to
take place
Metoestrus I – approx. 20 days External signs gradually reduce, discharge dries up and vulva returns to
normal size. Behaviour returns to normal
Metoestrus II – approx. 70 days Nothing visible externally but corpus luteum continues to secrete proges-
terone so the body remains in a pregnancy-like state. During this phase
there may be signs of a false pregnancy in some individuals.
Anoestrus – lasts for 3-9 months No external or behavioural signs – bitch is perfectly normal. Towards the
end of this phase follicles will develop in the ovary and when levels of
oestrogen are great enough the signs of proestrus begin.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The oestrous cycle of the cat - stages 173
Schematic of the oestrous cycle of the cat

Identify timings for each stage of the cycle
Dioestrus
Oestrus
Mating
No conception
Pseudo-
pregnancy
Conception
Pregnancy
Anoestrus
173 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The oestrous cycle of the cat - stages
Dioestrus – 14 days
Oestrus – 4-10 days
No conception (pseudo pregnancy) – 36 days
Conception (pregnancy) – 63 days
Anoestrus – 4 months
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The oestrous cycle of the cat - behavioural and external signals 174
What are the behavioural and external signs of the

oestrous cycle of the queen?
174 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The oestrous cycle of the cat - behavioural and external signals
The behavioural signs of the oestrous cycle are as follows:

Phases and timings Signs
Oestrus – 4-10 days There are no physical signs but behavioural signs include rolling, rubbing
against objects, very affectionate, lordosis (putting rump in the air). The queen
will also produce a loud persistent yowling known as ‘calling’. If a tom cat
approaches she will crouch down and allow mating
Dioestrus – approx. 14 days Behaviour returns to normal. Towards the end of this phase new follicles are
developing in the ovary and secreting oestrogen so the signs of oestrus begin
again.
Anoestrus – approx. 4 months Some cats never show this phase and may cycle all year. This falls between
September and January. The queen is normal until new follicles begin to
develop at the end of the phase and she goes into oestrus again.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The oestrous cycle of the dog and cat 175
How do the oestrous cycles of the bitch and queen

differ?
175 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The oestrous cycle of the dog and cat
Bitch Queen
monoestrous - only one period of oestrus seasonally polyoestrous - several periods of oestrus
during each cycle of ovarian activity, and only two during breeding season which runs from January to
oestrous cycles a year September
no recognised breeding season - may come into long day breeder - she will come into season as the days
season at any time of the year lengthen and the environmental temperature rises.
sexually mature at around 6 months of age but sexually mature during the first spring after her birth
timing varies with breed – large breeds mature
later
spontaneous ovulator – she will ovulate at the induced ovulator - she ovulates as a result of the stimulus
same time of her cycle and without the stimulus of mating
of mating.
A normal spermatozoon
1
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Spermatozoon - anatomy

5
Fertilization of the ovum
9
10
6 11
8 12
A B
176
C D
176 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Spermatozoon - anatomy
1 – Acrosome
2 – Head
3 – Neck
4 – Midpiece
5 – Tail
6 – Zona pellucida
7 – Ovum
8 – Sperm
9 – Female nucleus
10 – Male nucleus
11 – Zona pellucida becomes impermeable to other sperm
12 – Sperm tail left outside the ovum
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Fertilisation 177
Where does fertilization occur?

How does cell division occur after fertilization?
What is the first stage after fertilization called?
How would you define a morula and a blastocyst?
Which part of the blastocyst becomes the embryo?
177 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Fertilisation
Fertilisation of the ovum by the sperm occurs in the oviduct of the female tract. The outer acrosome of the
sperm contains enzymes which break down the zona pellucida of the ovum and the nuclei of the sperm and
ovum fuse. Immediately there is a fertilization reaction which prevents any further sperm from penetrating the
ovum.
After fertilization cell division begins and this is by mitosis.
Fusion of the sperm with the egg forms the zygote.
Cell division continues to form a morula which is defined as the stage at which cells are too numerous to
count. A fluid filled cyst develops in the morula and the ball of cells is then known as a blastocyst.
The part of the blastocyst which forms the embryo is known as the inner cell mass.
Early embryonic development
1 1
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Development of the embryo - stages

2
3 5
4 6
13 8
12
14 9
15
17 16 11
18
10
19
20
21
178
22
23
178 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Development of the embryo - stages
1 – Mitosis
2 – Inner cell mass
3 – Ectoderm (inner cell mass)
4 – Endoderm
5 – Ectoderm
6 – Mesoderm
7 – Endoderm (yolk sac)
8 – Ectoderm
9 – Mesoderm
10 – Endoderm (yolk sac)
11 – Yolk sac
12 – Amniotic cavity
13 – Chorion
14 – Amnion
15 – Primitive gut tube
16 – Allantois
17 – Yolk sac
18 – Villi of the placenta
19 – Amnion
20 – Amniotic cavity
21 – Primitive gut tube
22 – Allantois
23 – Chorioallantois
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Development of the embryo – embryo formation 179
Describe briefly how the embryo forms from the

inner cell mass?
179 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Development of the embryo – embryo formation
The cells of the inner cell mass begin to form three germ cell layers which eventually differentiate into the
different parts of the embryo:
• Ectoderm – outer layer which forms the skin and nervous system
• Mesoderm – middle layer which forms the musculoskeletal system and other internal organs.
• Endoderm – inner layer which forms the lining of the digestive tract and other visceral systems
Organogenesis occurs within the first 35 days of gestation. Prior to its completion the developing ball of cells
is known as an embryo. When organogenesis is complete the embryo becomes a foetus.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Development of embryonic membrane 180
How do the extra embryonic membranes develop?

180 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Development of embryonic membrane
The extra embryonic membranes surround and protect the developing embryo.
• Yolk sac – forms from the endodermal cells but shrivels to nothing before birth.
• Chorion – formed from the trophoblast and the outer layer of mesodermal cells.
• Amnion – eventually this forms a fluid filled cavity around the embryo. The foetus is born within this and it
may have to broken during parturition.
Allantois – this is a balloon-like diverticulum which develops from endodermal cells from the primitive gut. It
collects primitive urine and is attached to the foetal bladder by the urachus. Eventually it surrounds the foetus
and its inner surface becomes part of the amnion while its outer surface fuses with the chorion and becomes the
chorioallantois – this membrane is the first ‘bag’ to rupture during parturition.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Deoxyribonucleic acid 181
Double helical structure of deoxyribonucleic acid

What do the letters A, T, G and C stand for and which one pairs with which to form the base pairs of amino
acids
A T
C
G C
C G
A T
G C
T
C G
181 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Deoxyribonucleic acid
The letters stand for:

A – adenine
T – thymine
G – guanine
C – cytosine
Cytosine always pairs with guanine.

Adenine always pairs with thymine.
This pairing gives rise to the genetic code for proteins which are the building blocks of the body.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Breeding strategies 182
What would happen if you were to mate a

homozygous black spotted dalmation dog to
a homozygous liver spotted dalmation bitch?
182 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Breeding strategies
Let the gene for black spots be represented as the letter B

Let the gene for liver spots be represented as the letter b
Mate a homozygous black spotted dog to a homozygous liver spotted bitch
ie BB x bb
Using a grid known as a Punnett square we can work out the genotypes for the first filial generation referred to
as the F1 generation.
Genes from the female (in the ova)
B B
b Bb Bb
b Bb Bb
Genes from the male (in the sperm)

The F1 generation will consist entirely of puppies with the Bb genotype and their phenotype will be black
spotted.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Breeding strategies 183
The gene for albinoism is a recessive gene. Suppose

you mate an albino male mouse with a coloured
female mouse what would the offspring look like?
183 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Breeding strategies
Let the gene for albinoism be represented as ‘a’

Let the gene for colour be represented by ‘A’
Mate a male albino mouse with a coloured female mouse

The male mouse must be aa as the gene is recessive. The female mouse could be either Aa or AA as the coloured
gene is dominant.
1. Suppose the female is Aa
Then the cross will be aa x Aa
The F1 generation will be:
Male
a a
Female A Aa Aa
a aa aa
The offspring will be 50:50 albino mice to coloured mice

2. Suppose the female is AA
Then the cross will be aa x AA
The F1 generation will be:
Male
a a
A Aa Aa
Female
A Aa Aa
The offspring will all be coloured mice.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM General sexing terminology 184
Identify the terms used to describe male and female of each species
Dog
Cat
Rabbit
Guinea Pig
Ferret
Horse
184 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM General sexing terminology
Male Female
Dog Dog Bitch

Cat Tom Queen
Rabbit Buck Doe
Guinea Pig Boar Sow
Ferret Hob Jill
Horse Stallion Mare
COMMON INTEGUMENT The epidermis - anatomy 185
Structure of the epidermis of the skin

(magnified part of the diagram)
4
185 COMMON INTEGUMENT The epidermis - anatomy
1 – Stratum corneum – keratinisation incomplete

2 – Stratum lucidum – loss of nuclei
3 – Stratum granulosum – cells start to flatten
4 – Stratum germinativum – with melanocytes between cells
COMMON INTEGUMENT The epidermis – microscopic structure 186
How would you distinguish the layers of the epidermis microscopically?

Stratum germinativum or stratum basale
Stratum granulosum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum corneum
186 COMMON INTEGUMENT The epidermis – microscopic structure
The top layer of the skin is the epidermis and its thickness varies with the area of the body. In areas covered in fur
eg. flank it may only be a few cells thick; on the nosepad and footpads the epidermis may be very much thicker.
When examining skin cells under a microscope you can clearly see the different layers:
Layer of epidermis Description
Stratum germinativum Lowest layer consisting of cells dividing by mitosis. It should be possible to see ‘mitotic
or stratum basale bodies’ in which the nuclei are much darker indicating division. The dividing cells move
up into the layer above.
Stratum granulosum Middle layer of the epidermis. Cells become more flattened and the cytoplasm
becomes filled with keratin which appears granular.
Stratum lucidum Cells lose their nuclei and the cytoplasm becomes clearer as the keratin hardens.
Stratum corneum Most superficial layer of the skin. Cells are dead. They have no nuclei and are
completely flattened. These are known as squames and are constantly shed from
the skin forming a large proportion of house dust.
COMMON INTEGUMENT The skin - structure 187
Structure of the skin

12
4
3
5
11
6
10
9 8
7
187 COMMON INTEGUMENT The skin - structure
1 – Hairshaft
2 – Epidermis
3 – Dermis
4 – Sensory nerve
5 – Arrector pili muscle
6 – Sweat gland
7 – Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
8 – Adipose tissue
9 – Artery
10 – Vein
11 – Motor nerve
12 – Sebaceous gland
COMMON INTEGUMENT The skin - components 188
Within the dermis and hypodermis are many

structures each of which has a different function
contributing to the overall function of the skin.
List the structures and their functions.
188 COMMON INTEGUMENT The skin - components
The dermis of the skin is composed of dense connective tissue with irregularly arranged bundles of collagen and
elastic fibres. The hypodermis or subcuticular layer is a layer of loose connective tissue and fat. It also contains
elastic fibres which gives skin its flexibility.
The structures found in the skin lie mainly within the dermis and they are:
Structure Function
Hair follicles Originate from epidermal pegs which dip down into the dermis. At the base of each
follicle is a dermal papilla which supplies nutrients for the developing hair shaft.
Arrector pili muscle Band of smooth muscle attached to each hair follicle. Responsible for piloerection or
raising the hairs to help insulate the skin or to make the animal look bigger.
Sweat glands also called Simple coiled glands whose secretions evaporate and cause cooling. In the dog and cat
sudoriferous glands they are only found on the nose and footpads.
Sebaceous glands Associated with the hairs and opening into the follicles. They secrete sebum which
provides a waterproof coating to the hair and keeps the skin supple. It also contains
the precursor of Vitamin D which is activated by the action of UV light.
Sensory nerves Used to detect sensations of pain, pressure, temperature and touch. Information is
then carried towards the CNS.
Motor nerves Nerve impulses from the CNS supply the structures within the dermis and initiate a
response eg. piloerection, twitching of the skin to dislodge a fly or secretion of sweat.
Adipose tissue Found mainly in the hypodermis. Acts as an insulating and protective layer. Also acts an
energy source.
COMMON INTEGUMENT The claw and foot - anatomy 189
Structure of a claw Footpads on the fore and hind limb of

the dog.
1 2
3
Forelimb Hindlimb
15 4
5
14
6 16 20
13
17
21
12
7
18
11
19
9
10
T.S. through claw
189 COMMON INTEGUMENT The claw and foot - anatomy
2 – Ungual crest
3 – Claw fold
4 – Coronary border
5 – Wall
6 – Ungual process
7 – sole
8 – Wall
10 – Sole
11 – Digital cushion
12 – Epidermis
15 – Dermis
16 – Digital pads
17 – Metacarpal pads
18 – Digital pad
19 – Carpal pad or stop pad
20 – Digital pads
21 – Metatarsal pad
COMMON INTEGUMENT The claw and foot - footpads 190
Which structures are protected by the footpads?

190 COMMON INTEGUMENT The claw and foot - footpads
The dog and cat have seven pads on each forepaw and only five on the hind paws. Their function is to protect
the underlying joints of the foot and to provide grip during locomotion. The pads of the cat are much smoother
than those of the dog.
Each pad covers a particular joint within the foot:
Pad Underlying structure
Digital (5) Cover the interphalangeal joints including the one associated with the dew claw. Dew claw
is usually absent in the hind paw.
Metacarpal Covers the phalangeal-metacarpal joint. Heart shaped in the dog; round in the cat.
Carpal or Lies distal to the carpal bones. Protects the area when the animal is running at high speed.
stop pad Not present in the hind leg.
Skeleton of a typical bird.
1
23 2
22 3
21 24 25 4
5
20
19 6
18 9
BIRDS Skeleton – standing

10
17
12 11
16
13
14
15
191
191 BIRDS Skeleton – standing
1 – Alula (first digit) 21 – Lower mandible

2 – Major metacarpal 22 – Upper mandible
3 – Second digit 23 – Orbit
4 – Ulna 24 – Scapula
5 – Radius 25 – Humerus
6 – Thoracic vertebrae
7 – Uncinate process
8 – Synsacrum
9 – Coccygeal vertebrae
10 – Pygostyle
11 – Ischium
12 – Pubis
13 – Femur
14 – Tarsometatarsus
15 – Hallux
16 – Tibiotarsus
17 – Complete rib
18 – Sternum or keel
19 – Coracoid
20 – Cervical vertebrae
CLASSIFICATION Classes/orders 192
Link each species to the corresponding class and order

Ferrets Mammalia- rodentia
Guinea Pigs Mammalia- lagomorpha
Parrots Mammalia- carnivora
Rabbits Reptilia- squamata
Pigeons Reptilia- chelonia
Finches Aves- psittaciforme
Lizards Aves- columbiforme
Tortoises Aves- passeriforme
192 CLASSIFICATION Classes/orders
Guinea Pigs Mammalia- rodentia

Rabbits Mammalia- lagomorpha
Ferrets Mammalia- carnivora
Lizards Reptilia- squamata
Tortoises Reptilia- chelonia
Parrots Aves- psittaciforme
Pigeons Aves- columbiforme
Finches Aves- passeriforme
Bird in flight showing the structure of the wing
13
3
12 4
11 6
BIRDS Skeleton – in flight

7
10
9
193
193 BIRDS Skeleton – in flight
1 – Phalanges
2 – Radius
3 – Ulna
4 – Humerus
5 – Scapula
6 – Coracoid
7 – Clavicle
8 – Keel (sternum)
9 – Ribs
10 – Contour feathers
11 – Secondary wing feathers
12 – Feather shafts
13 – Primary wing feathers
General structure of a feather.
BIRDS Feathers - structure

3
4
5
194
194 BIRDS Feathers - structure
1 – Vane
2 – Rachis
3 – Barbule
4 – Barb
5 – Hooklet
Type of feather
List the 3 types of feather, their location on the bird’s body and their function.
BIRDS Feathers - types
1 2 3
195
195 BIRDS Feathers - types
Feathers are the distinctive feature of the Class Aves or the birds. They develop from keratin in a similar way to
the hairs of mammals. Feathers all have a similar structure but there are four distinct types which have different
functions:
Type of feather Details
1. Flight Long and rigid and attached to the wings and the tail.
a. Primaries Attached to digit 3 and to the fused metacarpal bones of the wing. Usually 11 in total
b. Secondaries but number varies with the species. Provide the major thrust during flight.
Attached to the ulna. Shorter than the primaries.
Contour or coverts Cover the remains of the wing and also form the outermost layer of the body to pro-
duce a smooth outline. Shorter and more flexible than the flight feathers and the lower
part of the vane (closest to the skin) is fluffy.
2. Down Lie closest to the body underneath the contour feathers. The have no barbs so they
are fluffy and create an insulating layer.
3. Filoplume Similar unbarbed structure but they are designed to break up into ‘feather dust’. This
absorbs sweat and dust and keeps the bird clean.
The respiratory system of the bird.
BIRDS The respiratory system - structure

1
4
5
6
12
11
10
9
7
A In Situ
8
196
B
Removed from body
196 BIRDS The respiratory system - structure
1 – Air sac
2 – Lung
3 – Syrinx
4 – Trachea
5 – Cervical air sac
6 – Interclavicular air sac
7 – Lung
8 – Abdominal air sac
9 – Posterior thoracic air sac
10 – Anterior thoracic air sac
11 – Air sac in humerus
12 – Syrinx
BIRDS The respiratory system – air flow 197
Describe the route by which air passes into and out

of the bird’s body during respiration
197 BIRDS The respiratory system – air flow
Air enters the bird via the glottis in the floor of the oral cavity and passes into the larynx. From here it travels
down the trachea which bifurcates into the right and left bronchi leading into the lung tissue. Within the
lungs the bronchi divide into smaller and smaller parabronchi which are surrounded by the pulmonary blood
capillaries. It is here that gaseous exchange takes place.
Leading from the lungs are the thin walled air sacs which occupy most of the free space within the body cav-
ity. They are not involved in gaseous exchange but act as a reservoir of air and have a bellows effect pushing air
back through the lungs and out.
The avian circulatory system
26
25
24
23 1 2
22 3
21
19
20
18 4
17 5
16 6
BIRDS Circulatory system

15
8
14
9
13 10
12 11
198
198 BIRDS Circulatory system
1 – Jugular vein 25 – Brachiocephalic artery

2 – Subclavian vein 26 – Carotid artery
3 – Pectoral vein
5 – Hepatic vein
6 – Gastric vein
7 – Anterior mesenteric vein
8 – Common iliac vein
9 – Posterior mesenteric vein
10 – Interior iliac vein
11 – Sacral vein
12 – Pudendral vein
13 – Ischiatic artery
14 – Exterior iliac artery
15 – Femoral artery
16 – Renal artery
17 – Anterior mesenteric artery
18 – Coeliac artery
19 – aorta
20 – Radial artery
21 – Ulnar artery
22 – Brachial artery
23 – Pectoral artery
24 – Subclavian artery
Digestive system of the pigeon.
2
12
11
10
4
9
BIRDS Digestive system - structure

8
5
7
199
6
199 BIRDS Digestive system - structure
1 – Oesophagus
2 – Crop
3 – Proventriculus
4 – Gizzard
5 – Caecum
6 – Cloaca
7 – Intestine
8 – Pancreatic ducts
9 – Pancreas
10 – Bile ducts
11 – Spleen
12 – Liver
BIRDS Digestive system - function 200
Describe the function of each of the parts of the

digestive system of the bird
200 BIRDS Digestive system – function
The basic pattern of the digestive system of the bird is similar to that seen in the mammal but there are adapta-
tions particularly in the upper part which allow the bird to be light enough to fly.
Structure Function
Oral cavity Teeth, heavy jaw bones and muscles have been replaced by a beak whose shape is
adapted to the type of food eaten by the particular species.
Oesophagus and Food passes down the oesophagus into a diverticulum on the right side of the neck –
crop known as the crop. This lies on the outside of the body cavity and is mainly a storage
organ for food. Some species, notably pigeons can secrete ‘crop milk’ to feed their young.
Proventriculus The glandular part of the stomach. Lined by gastric glands which secrete digestive juices
to breakdown the ingesta.
Gizzard Muscular part of the stomach. Thick walled and able to break up the food by muscular
contractions. Presence of grit in the diet further helps this action.
Small intestine Consists of the duodenum and ileum. Further digestion occurs here.
Large intestine Consists of a pair of blind ending caecae at the junction of the small and large intestines,
a rectum and a cloaca. Size of the caecae varies according to the diet of the species –
they are large in herbivorous or granivorous species and rudimentary in carnivorous
and nectivorous species. The cloaca is the common exit from the body for the digestive,
urinary and reproductive systems.
Reproductive tract Urogenital tract of the

of the domestic hen male bird
1
9
8
2 10
11
12
3
BIRDS Reproductive System

4
13
14
201
6 15
201 BIRDS Reproductive System
1 – Ruptured ovarian follicle

2 – Infundibulum or funnel of oviduct
3 – Isthmus
4 – Uterus
5 – Vagina
6 – Opening of oviduct into cloaca
7 – Magnum
8 – Mature ovum
9 – Immature ovum of ovary
10 – Testis
11 – Kidney
12 – Ureter
13 – Ductus deferens
14 – Seminal vesicle
15 – Cloaca
BIRDS Reproductive System 202
How and why do birds lay eggs?

202 BIRDS Reproductive System
Birds have evolved to lay eggs because they can fly. If birds produced young that developed within a uterus
attached by a placenta this would increase their weight for long periods of time making them unable to fly and
leaving them vulnerable to attack by predators. Eggs are self-contained incubators which provide everything that
the developing chick requires.
The reproductive tract particularly the oviduct of the female or hen bird is like a factory production line add-
ing a new ‘ingredient’ at each stage. In most species only the left side of the tract is developed – the other side
is vestigial.
1. Ovary - ova develop within the ovarian tissue each consisting of an oocyte surrounded by yolk.
2. Oviduct
a. Infundibulum - each ovum is picked up by the funnel shaped infundibulum at the end of the oviduct.
Fertilization takes place here, if the hen has been mated and the first layer of albumen is added.
b. Magnum – this is the largest and most glandular part of the oviduct. The majority of the albumen is
added here.
c. Isthmus – the walls of this part are thick and muscular. The outer shell membranes are added here.
3. Uterus or shell gland – the walls are muscular and lined in goblet cells. The egg takes up salts and water
into the albumen and the shell membranes become calcified to form the hard shell. This takes place over a
period of about 15 hours.
4. Vagina and cloaca – the fully formed egg passes through a sphincter into the vagina and out of the body
via the cloaca.
During the breeding season wild birds lay eggs at approximately 24 hour intervals until the clutch is complete.
Domestic hens have been selectively bred to lay eggs over long periods and will usually lay about 5 eggs every
7 days for about 40 weeks. They then go off the lay for several weeks but will then start to lay again.
BIRDS Avian excreta 203
Identify the structures numbered on the diagram
Components of bird droppings
3
203 BIRDS Avian excreta
1 – Faeces (dark green-brown but may vary)

2 – White and semi-solid urates
3 – Urine (clear liquid may absorb into substrate)
MAMMALS The rabbit – skeleton 204
Skeleton of the rabbit

1
2
11
3
4
10
5
9
6
8
204 MAMMALS The rabbit – skeleton
1 – Triangular scapula
2 – Skull
3 – Mandible
4 – Suprahamate process
5 – Humerus
6 – Fused radius and ulna
7 – Short fibula fused to tibia
8 – Fused fibula and tibia
9 – Acetabulum
10 – Pelvis
11 – Femur
MAMMALS The rabbit - dentition 205
Identify terms labelled 1 to 10 Incisor malocclusion in a rabbit.

What is the dental formula of the rabbit?
Normal dentition of the rabbit
2 3
10 4
5
6
9 8
7
205 MAMMALS The rabbit - dentition
1 – Maxillary cheek teeth

2 – 2-3 molars
3 – 3 premolars
4 – 1st Maxillary incisor
5 – 2nd incisor (peg tooth)
6 – Mandibular incisor
7 – Mandibular cheek teeth
8 – 2 premolars
9 – 3 molars
10 – diastema
Rabbits have a herbivorous dentition. All the teeth are open rooted and grow continuously throughout life so
they must be constantly worn down by fibrous or hard food. Feeding an incorrect diet to a rabbit leading to
tooth problems such as malocclusion is the most common reason for rabbits being presented to the veterinary
surgeon.
The dental formula of the rabbit is;
{I2/1 C0/0 PM 3/2 M 3/3} x 2 = 28 teeth.
Digestive system of the rabbit.
MAMMALS The rabbit - digestive system structure

11
10
3
4
9
7
206
6
206 MAMMALS The rabbit - digestive system structure
1 – Oesophagus
2 – Stomach
3 – Jejunum and ileum
4 – Caecum
5 – Sacculus rotundus (transition of ileum into caecum)
6 – Rectum
7 – Anal glands
8 – Colon
9 – Appendix
10 – Duodenum
11 – Pancreas
MAMMALS The rabbit - digestion 207
How do rabbits digest their food?

207 MAMMALS The rabbit - digestion
Rabbits are herbivorous, monogastric, hind gut fermenters meaning that the stomach is simple in shape ie. similar
to that of the cat and dog and the large intestine or hind gut is adapted to provide a fermentation chamber for
the microbial breakdown of vegetable matter.
The ingested food passes down the digestive tract and undergoes enzymic digestion in the stomach and small
intestine. The partially digested material enters the caecum where it is mixed with the micro-organisms respon-
sible for the breakdown of cellulose within the plant cell walls. The now semi liquid material passes on into the
colon. Peristaltic contractions then pass fluid material back into the caecum for further fermentation while the
more fibrous but less digestible material passes on down the intestine. This leads to the formation of two types
of faeces:
1. Hard fibrous pellets – produced within four hours of eating.
2. Soft pellets or caecotrophs - produced with 3-8 hours of eating, often at night. These are often greener,
low in fibre and covered in mucous which protects them from stomach acids. These are eaten directly
from the anus, a process known as caecotrophy or copraphagia and swallowed without mastication. In this
way nutrients produced by microbial fermentation are made available to the rabbit. Food material passes
through the digestive tract twice in 24 hours.
MAMMALS The guinea pig - dentition 208
Radiograph of a guinea pig’s skull showing dentition

What are the dental formulae of the rabbit, guinea pig, rat, mouse, gerbil, hamster, chinchilla and ferret.
208 MAMMALS The guinea pig - dentition
The dental formula of a species and the shape of the teeth themselves reflect the diet of the animal. Carnivores
have sharp pointed teeth for tearing flesh off the bone while herbivores have flattened ‘table’ teeth for grinding
up fibrous vegetation. Omnivores have examples of both types in their dentition. Canine teeth are mainly found
in carnivorous species such as the dog, cat and ferret. They may also occur in some omnivores such as the pig
but not in the omnivorous rodents.
The teeth of rodents and lagomorphs have open roots and grow throughout their lives. This may lead to
various types of dental problem such as malocclusion which will require veterinary attention. In order to prevent
problems from developing these animals must have access to hard or fibrous food so that they can wear their
teeth down by gnawing. The name rodent is derived from the Latin word rodere-to gnaw.
Lagomorphs are distinguished from rodents by the fact that they have an extra pair of upper incisors. The
second pair is small and peg-like and lies behind the first pair.
The dental formulae are;
Rabbit: [I2/1 C0/0 PM3/2 M 3/3 ] x 2 = 28
Guinea pig and chinchilla: [I 1/1 C0/0 PM 1/1 M3/3 ] x 2 = 20
Rat, mouse, gerbil and hamster: [ I1/1 C0/0 PM 0/0 M 3/3 ] x 2 = 16
Ferret: [ I3/3 C1/1 PM 3/3 M1/2 ] x 2 = 34
The digestive system of the guinea pig.
15
2
14
MAMMALS The guinea pig – digestive system structure

13
12
3
11
4
10
9 7
209
8
209 MAMMALS The guinea pig – digestive system structure
1 – Oesophagus
2 – Liver
3 – Stomach
5 – Mesentery
6 – Small intestine
8 – Rectum
10 – Caecum
11 – Duodenum
12 – Pancreatic duct
13 – Pancreas
14 – Bile duct
15 – Gall bladder
MAMMALS The guinea pig – digestive problems 210
When feeding pet guinea pigs what is a particular

problem that must be avoided?
210 MAMMALS The guinea pig – digestive problems
The liver of the guinea pig is unable to synthesize vitamin C and if it is deficient in the diet the animal will begin
to show symptoms. Guinea pigs kept in cages with no access to grass or to fresh green vegetables may develop
a rough coat with broken hairs, a stiff gait and lameness, tooth grinding indicating pain, diarrhoea and anorexia. If
the condition is allowed to progress the animal may die.
Vitamin C is present in fresh vegetables and fruit and is added to commercially produced ‘guinea pig food’
however it is not added to ‘rabbit food’ so owners should be aware of this.
What are the sexes of the animals in these diagrams?
How can you differentiate between the sexes of small mammals?
General method of sexing rodents.
Sexing a rabbit.
MAMMALS Determining sex

Reproduced with permission from Clinical Procedures in Veterinary Nursing 2nd
Edition. Aspinall. Original source O’Malley, Clinical Anatomy and Physiology of
Exotic Species (2005), Saunders.
211
A B
211 MAMMALS Determining sex
Hamster A – male and B – female

Rabbit A – male and B – female
As a general rule for sexing small mammals look at the anogenital distance ie. the distance between the anus and
the vulva or opening of the penis. The anogenital distance is longer in the male than in the female. In mice, rats,
hamster and gerbils teats are only present in females.
There are also some species specific sex indicators:
Species Useful indicators
Hamster Adult males have very obvious oval testes which makes the outline of the rear end
conical as compared to the rounded end of the female. Males also have a scent
gland on the point of each hip which may become pigmented as the animal ages.
Gerbil Newly weaned males have a pigmented scrotum. Adult males have a prominent
ventral abdominal scent gland.
Guinea pig The penis of the male can be easily extruded by applying gentle pressure at its
base cranial to the urethral opening. In the female pressure applied cranial to the
vulval opening in the centre of the ‘Y’ forming the perineal tissues, will not result in
extrusion of a penis.
Chinchilla The penis of the male can be easily extruded. The female has a large urinary papilla
which may be mistaken for a penis.
Rabbit In young rabbits both sexes can appear very similar. Apply pressure just cranial to
the anus – in the male the penis has a pointed end while the female has a slit-like
opening to her vulva.
MAMMALS The ferret - skeleton 212
The skeleton of the ferret

3 4 5 6
1 2
11 8
10
12
9
13
15 14
212 MAMMALS The ferret - skeleton
1 – Coccygeal vertebrae
2 – Sacrum
3 – Lumbar vertebrae
4 – Thoracic vertebrae
6 – Skull
7 – Scapula
8 – Radius
9 – Ulna
10 – Sternum
11 – Patella
12 – Tibia
13 – Fibula
14 – Hock
15 – J-shaped os penis
Internal anatomy of the ferret
3 8
14
15
MAMMALS The ferret – internal anatomy

16
9
4
5 10 17
11 18
19
6
20
7 12
13
21
213
213 MAMMALS The ferret – internal anatomy
1 – Larynx
2 – Trachea
3 – Right lung
4 – Liver
5 – Duodenum
6 – Jejunoileum
7 – Ureter
8 – Left lung
9 – Diaphragm
10 – Stomach
11 – Colon
12 – Uterus
13 – Bladder
14 – Heart
16 – Aorta
17 – Left kidney
18 – Ovary
19 – Uterus
20 – Ureter
21 – Bladder (pulled forward)
REPTILES AND FISH Tortoise – internal anatomy 214
Internal anatomy of the tortoise

How can you tell the sex of a tortoise?
21 22 1 2
20 3
19
18 4
11
17
10
16 15 14 13 12
9 7
8
214 REPTILES AND FISH Tortoise – internal anatomy
1 – Colon 12 – Small intestine

2 – Testes 13 – Spleen
3 – Kidney 14 – Pancreas
4 – Ureter 15 – Heart
5 – Coprodeum 16 – Thyroid
6 – Urinary bladder 17 – Trachea
7 – Tail 18 – Oesophagus
8 – Vent 19 – Lungs
9 – Proctodeum 20 – Stomach
10 – Urodeum 21 – Gall bladder
11 – Pelvis 22 – Liver
Many species of tortoise are sexually dimorphic ie. there are external features that differ between the sexes.
These include shell size, coloration and tail length but in particular look out for:
a. The plastron (undershell) of the male is concave which allows him to mount the convex carapace of the
female.
b. The tail of the male is longer than that of the female.
c. The caudal scute of the female may be curved upwards allowing her to lift her tail as the male curves his tail
around it during mating. This enables entry of his phallus into her cloaca.
Internal anatomy of the lizard
22
1
2
21
20 3
4
REPTILES AND FISH Lizard – internal anatomy

19
5
18
6
17
16 7
15
14 8
9
13
10
12
11
215
215 REPTILES AND FISH Lizard – internal anatomy
1 – Parathyroids
2 – Left lung
3 – Thyroid
4 – Left atrium
5 – Stomach
6 – Pancreas
8 – Spleen
9 – Colon
10 – Bladder
11 – Cloacal vent
12 – Hemipenis sac
13 – Kidney
14 – Ductus deferens
15 – Testes
16 – Adrenal glands
17 – Gall bladder
18 – Liver
19 – Ventricle
20 – Right atrium
21 – Right lung
22 – Trachea
Skeleton of a lizard
8
1
REPTILES AND FISH Lizard – skeletal anatomy

7
4
6
5
216
216 REPTILES AND FISH Lizard – skeletal anatomy
1 – Radius
2 – Ulna
3 – Thoracolumbar vertebrae
4 – Sacrum
5 – Caudal vertebrae
6 – Fibula
7 – Tibia
Internal anatomy of the snake
Identify terms labelled A 1 to 18
12
11
REPTILES AND FISH Snake – internal anatomy

10
13
14
2
18
17
15
8
16
7 3
6 4
5
217
217 REPTILES AND FISH Snake – internal anatomy
1 – Vent
2 – Ureter
3 – Right kidney
4 – Testes
5 – Pancreas
6 – Gall bladder
7 – Spleen
8 – Liver
9 – Right lung
10 – Heart
11 – Thyroid
12 – Trachea
13 – Left lung
14 – Oesophagus
15 – Stomach
17 – Left kidney
18 – Cloaca
REPTILES AND FISH Fish – external anatomy 218
External anatomy of the fish

1 2
9 8 7 6 5
218 REPTILES AND FISH Fish – external anatomy
1 – Dorsal fin
2 – Lateral line
3 – Operculum or gill cover
4 – Nostril
5 – Barbel (paired)
6 – Pectoral fin (paired)
7 – Pelvic fin (paired)
8 – Anal fin
9 – Caudal or tail fin
REPTILES AND FISH Fish – internal anatomy 219
Internal anatomy of a bony fish

1 2 3 4
15
6
14
13 10 7
9 8
12 11
219 REPTILES AND FISH Fish – internal anatomy
1 – Kidney
2 – Swim bladder
3 – Stomach
4 – Spinal cord inside vertebrae
5 – Brain
6 – Gill arch
7 – Oesophagus
8 – Heart
9 – Liver
10 – Spleen
11 – Pyloric pouches
12 – Intestine
13 – Ovary
14 – Vent (anus)
15 – Urine bladder
REPTILES AND FISH Fish – swim bladder 220
What is the function of the swim bladder in a fish?

220 REPTILES AND FISH Fish – swim bladder
The swim bladder is a gas filled vesicle which acts a buoyancy aid. The specific gravity of most fish is greater
than that of water so there is a tendency to sink if the fish remains stationary. By altering the volume of the gas
in the swim bladder the fish can rise rather than fall and stay in one place. The structure which evolved from
the primitive lung of some species is a thin-walled diverticulum of the foregut but there is variation between
species:
• Lower teleosts eg. carp and salmon – the swim bladder is linked by a duct to the foregut and is described
as being physostomous. It can be refilled by rising to the surface and taking a mouthful of air. Found
mainly in shallow freshwater species.
• Higher teleosts eg. stickleback and mackerel – no connection between the swim bladder and the foregut
and this is described as being physoclistous. The swim bladder is filled during larval development either by
means of a gas gland within the cells of the sac or by a temporary connection with the gut. The gas which is
mainly carbon dioxide is held in the sac by its impermeable walls.
Swim bladder problems are relatively common in aquarium fish. They result in an inability to swim upright or
manoeuvre but there is very little that can be done to treat the problem.
The gill system of the fish
2
Water 3
flow
A 4
6
7
5
REPTILES AND FISH Fish – the gill system

2
4
Water flow
B Opercular cavity
Water flow
8
14
13
12 9
11 10
C
221
221 REPTILES AND FISH Fish – the gill system
1 – Gill raker
2 – Gill filaments
3 – Operculum
4 – Gill arch
5 – Gill skeleton
6 – Afferent and efferent blood vessels
7 – Secondary lamellae
8 – Mouth
9 – Gill slit
10 – Opercular cavity
11 – Operculum
12 – Gill filament
13 – Gill arch
14 – Buccal cavity
REPTILES AND FISH Fish – breathing 222
How do fish breathe underwater?

222 REPTILES AND FISH Fish – breathing
Fish are able to breathe underwater because they possess a specialized system of gills which are able to extract
the oxygen necessary for the body tissues. The gills lie under a protective flap known as an operculum on either
side of the head. On each side of the pharyngeal wall are five lateral gill slits.
Each gill consists of a bony gill arch which supports highly vascular gill filaments which in turn give off
secondary filaments or lamellae. Stiff gill rakers which project from the gill arches, protect the delicate gill
filaments from damage by particles within the water taken into the mouth.
Water is taken into the mouth by lowering the floor of the buccal cavity. The water is then forced out through
the gill slits over the gill filaments which are well supplied with blood. Gaseous exchange takes place – oxygen
diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the water which is then expelled through
the opercula.
THE HORSE Skeleton 223
The skeleton of the horse.

Taken from The Complete Textbook of Veterinary Nursing. Aspinall V. 2006. Elsevier
2
3 4
30
5
29
28
7
27 8
26 17 16 15 14
9
25 18
24 10
23 19 11
22 12
21 20 13
223 THE HORSE Skeleton
1 – Cervical vertebrae 25 – Carpus

2 – Thoracic vertebrae 26 – Radius
3 – Lumbar vertebrae 27 – Ulna
4 – Sacrum 28 – Humerus
5 – Coccygeal vertebrae 29 – Scapula
6 – Femur 30 – Skull
7 – Fibula
8 – Tibia
9 – Tarsal bone
10 – Metatarsal
11 – Proximal phalanx (P1)
12 – Middle phalanx (P2)
13 – Distal phalanx (P3)
14 – Patella
15 – Pelvis
16 – Rib
17 – Sternum
18 – Accessory carpal bone
19 – Proximal sesamoid
20 – Distal sesamoid
21 – Distal phalanx (P3)
22 – Middle phalanx (P2)
23 – Proximal phalanx (P1)
24 – Metacarpus
The equine skull.
Taken from The Complete Textbook of Veterinary Nursing. Aspinall V. 2006. Elsevier
a. Lateral view
10
6 9 11
12
2 8
1 3 5 13
7
4
14
16 15
19 18
22 21
20 17
29 31
27
25
THE HORSE The skull

24
23 26 32
30
28 33
34
35
41 39 36
43 42
40 37
224
38
b. Dorsal view
224 THE HORSE The skull
1 – Incisive bone 23 – Nasomaxillary notch

2 – Infraorbital foramen 24 – End of facial crest
3 – Nasal bone 25 – Facial crest
4 – Maxilla 26 – Maxilla
5 – Lacrimal 27 – Zygomatic bone
6 – Zygomatic arch 28 – Nasal bone
7 – Orbit 29 – Orbit
8 – Frontal bone 30 – Frontal bone
9 – Zygomatic process 31 – Zygomatic arch
10 – Coronoid process 32 – Occipital bone
11 – Parietal bone 33 – Parietal bone
12 – Temporal bone 34 – Superior nuchal line
13 – Nuchal crest 35 – Parietal crest
14 – Occipital condyle 36 – Interparietal bone
15 – Temporomandibular joint 37 – Squamous temporal bone
16 – Ramus 38 – Supraorbital foramen
17 – Mandible 39 – Lachrimal bone
18 – Molars 40 – Infraorbital forament
19 – Premolars 41 – Nasal process of incisive bone
20 – Mental foramen 42 – Body of incisive bone
21 – Tush 43 – Incisive foramen
22 – Incisors
The shape of each vertebral type
Identify terms labelled A to F
How many of each type of vertebra can you find in the equine skeleton?
THE HORSE The vertebrae

E
F
225
225 THE HORSE The vertebrae
A – Atlas (C1)
B – Axis (C2)
C – 3rd to 7th Cervical vertebrae
D – Lumbar Vertebra
E – Thoracic Vertebra
F – Sacrum
The number of vertebrae in the equine spine is as follows:

Vertebral region Number of vertebrae
Cervical 7
Thoracic 18
Lumbar 5-7 average 6
Sacral 5
Coccygeal 15-20 average 18
The equine forelimb.
Taken from The Complete textbook of Veterinary Nursing. Aspinall V. 2006.
Elsevier
2
25
3
4
24
5
23
6
7
8
22
9
THE HORSE The forelimb

10
21
11
12
13
14
20
15
19
16
226
18
17
226 THE HORSE The forelimb
1 – Scapular cartilage 23 – Humerus

2 – Tuberosity of scapular cartilage 24 – Glenoid cavity
3 – Scapular spine 25 – Scapular
4 – Supraglenoid tubercle
5 – Head of humerus
6 – Deltoid tuberosity
7 – Olecranon fossa
8 – Olecranon
9 – Condyle
10 – Tubercle for lateral collateral ligament
11 – Interosseous space
13 – Accessory carpal
14 – Proximal and distal row of carpal bones
15 – Cannon bone
16 – Splint bone
17 – Proximal sesamoid bones
20 – Proximal phalnanx
21 – Radius
22 – Ulna
THE HORSE The equine carpus 227
The equine carpus.

Taken from The Complete textbook of Veterinary Nursing. Aspinall V. 2006. Elsevier
1 17
2 16
15
3
14
4
13
5
12
11
6
7 8 9 10
Lateral view of left carpus Dorsal view of left carpus
227 THE HORSE The equine carpus
1 – Radius
2 – Intermediate carpal bone
3 – Accessory carpal bone
4 – Ulnar carpal bone
5 – III carpal bone
6 – IV carpal bone
7 – III metacarpal bone
8 – IV metacarpal bone
9 – II metacarpal bone (medial splint)
10 – IV metacarpal bone (lateral splint)
11 – III metacarpal bone (cannon)
12 – IV carpal bone
13 – III carpal bone
14 – Ulnar carpal bone
15 – Radial carpal bone
16 – Intermediate carpal bone
17 – Radius
The equine hindlimb.
Taken from The Complete textbook of Veterinary Nursing. Aspinall V. 2006.
Elsevier
4
5
19
THE HORSE The hindlimb

10
18
11
12
17
13
14
15
228
16
228 THE HORSE The hindlimb
1 – Sacral tuber
2 – Coxal tuber
3 – Hip bone
4 – Head of femur
5 – Ischial tuber
6 – Femur
7 – Femoral condyle
8 – Fibula
9 – Tibia
10 – Calcaneous
11 – Talus
12 – Fourth tarsal
13 – Metatarsal IV (lateral splint bone)
14 – Metatarsal III (cannon bone)
15 – Proximal sesamoid bones
16 – Proximal, middle and distal phalanges
17 – Third tarsal
18 – Central tarsal
19 – Patella
THE HORSE The pelvis 229
The equine pelvis.

Taken from Anatomy of the domestic animals. Sisson and Grossman. WB Saunders 4th ed 1969.
2 1
9 10
15
14
7 6
3
13
4
12
A 5 B 11
Right lateral view Dorsal view

229 THE HORSE The pelvis
1 – Sacral spines
2 – Tuber sacrale
3 – Tuber coxae
4 – Pubis
5 – Acetabulum
6 – Tuber ischii
7 – Ischium
8 – Ilium
9 – Crest of ilium
10 – Tuber sacrale
11 – Ischial arch
12 – Tuber ischii
13 – Obturator foramen
14 – Acetabulum
15 – Tuber coxae
THE HORSE Superficial muscles 230
Superficial muscles of the horse.

Taken from Textbook of veterinary anatomy. Dyce, Sack and Wensing. 3rd ed. 2002 Saunders
1
2
7
8
13 19 20
3
3’
4
5
6 22
9
10 21
11
16
12 15 17
11’ 7 11” 18
14
230 THE HORSE Superficial muscles
1 – rhomboideus 20 – gluteus superficialis

2 – splenius 21 – biceps femoris
3 – sternocephalicus 22 – semitendinosus
3’ – jugular vein
4 – brachiocephalicus
5 – cutaneous colli
6 – omotransversarius
7 – serratus ventralis
8 – trapezius
9 – subclavius
10 – deltoideus
11 – pectoralis descendens
11’ – pectoralis ascendens
11’’ – superficial thoracic vein
12 – triceps
13 – latissimus dorsi
14 – cephalic vein
15 – external abdominal oblique
16 – stump of cutaneous trunci forming flank fold
17 – sheath
18 – medial saphenous vein
19 – tenors fasciae latae
Lateral view of the lower forelimb showing joints,
tendons and ligaments
1
17
16
2
15 3
THE HORSE The lower forelimb

4
14
13
5
12
11
10
9
7
231
8
231 THE HORSE The lower forelimb
1 – Carpal check ligament

2 – Suspensory ligament
3 – Deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT)
4 – Superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT)
5 – Annular ligament
6 – Branch of suspensory ligament
7 – Distal sesamoid (navicular)
8 – 3rd (distal) phalanx (pedal bone)
9 – Coffin joint
10 – 2nd phalanx (short pastern)
11 – Pastern joint
12 – 1st phalanx (long pastern)
13 – Fetlock joint
14 – Lateral digital extensor tendon
15 – Common digital extensor tendon
16 – Small metacarpal (splint bone)
17 – Large metacarpal (cannon bone)
THE HORSE The stay apparatus 232
The stay apparatus and suspensory ligament.

Which ligaments of the equine leg contribute to the suspensory apparatus?
1
5
2
8
3 6
4 9
10
7
11
232 THE HORSE The stay apparatus
1 – Femur
2 – Patella
3 – Patella ligaments
4 – Tibia
5 – Superficial digital flexor tendon
6 – Stifle joint
7 – Hock joint
8 – Superficial digital flexor tendon
9 – Deep digital flexor tendon
10 – Peroneus
11 – Suspensory ligament
The suspensory ligament has evolved to support and suspend the limb and the fetlock joint which prevents over-
extension and subsequent collapsing of the limb. The ligaments which contribute to it are the:
• Suspensory
• Intersesamoidean
• Collateral sesamoidean
• Distal sesamoidean
THE HORSE The foot 233
Parts of the equine foot.

14
10
15
1 16
17
2
27
11 18
9 3 19
20
4 26
21
12
8
5
22
13
24
7 6 23
25
233 THE HORSE The foot
1 – Proximal sesamoid bone 24 – Cleft or frog

2 – Superficial digital flexor tendon 25 – Bulbs
3 – Sesamoidian ligaments 26 – Heel
4 – Deep digital flexor tendon 27 – Quarters
5 – Distal sesamoid (navicular bone)
6 – Digital cushion
7 – White line
8 – Hoof wall
9 – Extensor tendon
10 – Metacarpal III
11 – P1
12 – P2
13 – P3
14 – Toe
15 – Water line
16 – White line
17 – Point of frog
18 – Frog
19 – Sole
20 – Bars
21 – Seat of corn (angle of heel)
22 – Buttress of heel
23 – Commissures
THE HORSE The foot – terminology 234
State the common names for the structures listed

1 – Carpus
2 – Third metacarpal/tarsal
3 – Metacarpals II and IV
4 – First phalanx
5 – Second phalanx
6 – Third phalanx
7 – Metacarpo-phalangeal joint
8 – Distal sesamoid
9 – Distal interphalageal joint
10 – Proximo-medial interphalageal joint
234 THE HORSE The foot – terminology
1 – knee
2 – cannon bone
3 – splint bones
4 – long pastern
5 – short pastern
6 – pedal bone
7 – fetlock
8 – navicular
9 – coffin joint
10 – pastern joint
Teeth in the upper and lower jaw of a 4½ year old horse.
What is the dental formula of an adult male and an adult female? Assume that
neither has wolf teeth.
25
1
24
2
23
3
22
4
21
5
20
19 6
18
THE HORSE The teeth

17
16 7
11
8
15
12 10 9
14
13
Upper jaw Lower jaw

235
235 THE HORSE The teeth
1 – VI 14 – I1
2–V 15 – I2
3 – IV 16 – I3
4 – III 17 – C1 (Tush)
5 – II 18 – Diastema
6–I 19 – P1 (Wolf tooth)
7 – Di3 20 – P2
8 – I2 21 – P3
9 – I1 22 – P4
10 – Incisors 23 – M1
11 – Corner 24 – M2
12 – Lateral 25 – M3
13 – Central
Adult male [ I3/3 C1/1 PM 3/3 M 3/3 ] x 2 = 40
Adult female [ I3/3 C0/0 PM 3/3 M3/3] x 2 = 36

THE HORSE The digestive tract 236
Diagrammatic representation of the equine digestive tract.

19 1 2 3
18
17 4
16
15
6
5
14
13
7
12
11
10
8
9
236 THE HORSE The digestive tract
1 – Pelvic fixture
2 – Left dorsal colon
3 – Cranial mesenteric artery
4 – Descending (small) colon
5 – Rectum
6 – Caecum
7 – Ileum
8 – Caecocolic fold
9 – Jejunum
10 – Stomach
11 – Right ventral colon
12 – Descending duodenum
13 – Ventral diaphragmatic flexure
14 – Dorsal diaphragmatic flexure
15 – Right dorsal colon
16 – Ascending duodenum
18 – Left ventral flexure
19 – Ascending mesocolon
The reproductive organs of the stallion.
Taken from Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy. Dyce Sack and
Wensing 3rd ed. 2002 Saunders
11 1 2
THE HORSE The male reproductive organs

3
Urethra
10
6
237
7
8
237 THE HORSE The male reproductive organs
1 – Prostate gland
2 – Bulbourethral gland
3 – Urethra
4 – Crus
5 – Cavernous erectile tissue
6 – Body of penis
7 – Testis within tunica vaginalis
8 – Glans penis
9 – Vas deferens
10 – Bladder
11 – Seminal vesicle
Dorsal view of the reproductive organs of the mare.
Taken from Textbook of Veterinary Anatomy. Dyce Sack and Wensing 3rd ed.
2002 Saunders
Describe the oestrous cycle of the mare.
THE HORSE The female reproductive organs

3
8
238
9
238 THE HORSE The female reproductive organs
1 – Uterine horn
2 – Right ovary
3 – Uterine tube
4 – Mesometrium
5 – Uterine body
6 – Cervix
7 – Vagina
8 – Vulval labiae
9 – Clitoris
The mare is a long day breeder ie. her oestrous cycle begins as the day length increases in the Spring. The
breeding season runs from early spring to late summer. Within the breeding season the mare has many periods
of oestrous and is described as being seasonally polyoestrous. She is also a spontaneous ovulator. The
oestrous cycle lasts for 17-21 days.
Phases and timings Signs
Oestrus – 3-5 days Mare will raise her tail, stand with hind legs apart, squatting, urinating.
In presence of the stallion she will rhythmically contract her vulva and
expose her clitoris – known as ‘winking’. If stallion attempts to mount her
she will allow mating.
Dioestrus – 14 – 16 days Mare behaves normally and will no longer allow mating.
Anoestrus 5-6 months Mare behaves normally and there is no evidence of ovarian activity.

Introduction To Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction To Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ntroduction to Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards

Anatomical planes and directional planes.

Components of the mammalian cell.

What are the functions of each component of the mammalian cell?

CELL BIOLOGY Cell division

CELL BIOLOGY Cell division

1 – 20 ml/kg body weight

Provide a definition for each of the following descriptions.

Measurement Dog Cat

Measurement Dog Cat

Body temperature 38.3–38.7°C 38.0–38.5°C

Identify each organelle by its description.

3 – In the diploid germ cell, homologous pairs of chromosomes are separate.

Feature Mitosis Meiosis

Feature Mitosis Meiosis

Site in body everywhere but the gonads gonads

TISSUES AND BODY CAVITIES Epithelial tissue

Simple cuboidal Renal nephrons

Longitudinal section through the three body cavities.

Each body cavity is lined by a serous membrane –

Thoracic cavity Pleura

General name for secretions

General name for secretions no general name hormones

The different shapes of the exocrine gland.

(a), (b) and (c) are simple glands.

(d) and (e) are compound glands.

The skeleton of the dog showing the major bones.

Structure of a typical long bone.

Bones can be categorized by their shape. What are

Bones can be categorized according to their shape.

Identify each term labelled 1 to 21 Ventral view of the dog skull

The three basic shapes of dog skull

The shape of the skull varies between species and breed:

Apple shaped All cat breeds

Basic structure of a typical vertebra

SKELETAL SYSTEM Vertebral shape

Structure of the canine rib.

SKELETAL SYSTEM The ribs

SKELETAL SYSTEM The ribs

Identify each term labelled 1 to 15

The dog humerus The dog radius and ulna

SKELETAL SYSTEM Distal forelimb

Bones and bony features of the dog pelvis

1 – Median sacral crest

The dog femur The dog tibia and fibula

SKELETAL SYSTEM Femur, tibia and fibula

The dog tarsus or hindpaw Medial Lateral

Structure of a typical synovial joint

Describe the major synovial joints of the fore and

The major synovial joints of the limbs are:

Identify the category of each joint

Identify the bones that make up each joint

SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone tissue

Cartilage Primary Secondary

SKELETAL SYSTEM Bone tissue

(a) Cartilage model in foetus

Identify each bony feature by its description

Identify each feature of the ribs or sternum by its description

Identify each feature of the ribs or sternum by its description

Basic structure of a Structure of a bursa (a) and

MUSCULAR SYSTEM The muscle and bursa

The muscles of mastication

Digastricus Opens the jaw