Optics [ch17-19]

● In this section we are going

to cover the basic properties
of light, and how that
applies to the topic of
optics.
● We will look at
● A very brief review of waves
from PHYS 1500
● Wave optics
● Ray optics
● Optical instruments
 But first a quick review of waves from
PHYS 1500
The following background ideas from physics 1500 will be
used, so we will review them briefly. This will cover:
●
Simple harmonic motion
●
An oscillating system with a restoring force towards the
center and proportional to the distance. F=-kx
●
Sine and Cosine equations for a propagating wave
●
The principal of superposition
Simple Harmonic Motion and Linear Restoring Forces
Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
As a mass on a spring goes through its cycle of oscillation, energy is
transformed from potential to kinetic and back to potential.
Sinusoidal Relationships
 Types of Waves

A transverse wave

A longitudinal wave
Sinusoidal Waves that move both in space and time
Principle of Superposition
Constructive and Destructive Interference
Constructive: Destructive:
Displacements add Displacements cancel
 Wave Optics [ch17]
● Over the past 400 years there has been an ongoing debate
over whether light is a wave or a particle.
● Newton thought that light was a particle and his view prevailed
until 1801 when Thomas Young demonstrated that light could
show interference. This strongly suggested that light was a
wave.
● It turns out that light is both a wave and a particle. It behaves
– like a wave under certain circumstances (particularly when it travels)
– like a particle under other circumstances (particularly when it collides
with something).
– We will return to this in the quantum mechanics part of the course.
● In this chapter we will consider some of the wave
characteristics of light.
● Diffraction
● Interference
 Before considering light, we will look at water waves.

● Note that water waves spread out behind a small opening

● The spreading becomes noticeable if the size of the opening is close to the wavelength

of the light.
● This effect is called diffraction.

● If the size of the gap is large compared with λ, then it appears that the wave is simply

moving in a straight line.

 Light is a wave made up of oscillating
electric and magnetic fields.
● We saw in the last section that light is part of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
● The changing electric field makes a
magnetic field, and vice versa.
● The wave propagates at the speed of light
(c=3x108 m/s)
● The frequency (f) of light relates to the
speed an wavelength (λ) via
c= f 
● Red light has a wavelength of about 700
nm. So one would not see diffraction until
the slit gets close to this size.
– This is why scientists thought light
could not be a wave until the early
1800s.
 Index of Refraction

● When light passes through a

transparent material it interacts with
the atoms and molecules in the
material.
● It slows down by an amount

dependent upon the 'refractive

index' (n) of the material

speed of light in a vacuum c

n= =
speed of light in the material v

● The frequency of the light stays the

same, but the wavelength changes
in the material.

vac
=
n
Young’s Double-Slit Interference Experiment
● If light is made to pass through two parallel thin slits, one sees an
'interference pattern' on the other side.
● This is caused by a combination of diffraction and the principal
of superposition of waves.
Analyzing the Double-Slit Experiment

●The bright fringes occur when one

wave has traveled exactly m
wavelengths further than the other wave.

∆r = dsinθ m = mλ m = 0,1,2,3,... m
Bright and Dark Fringes in the Double-Slit Experiment
Using the small angle approximation gives:

● Note that the bright fringes have equal spacings between them and the dark
fringes lie half-way between the bright fringes.
The Diffraction Grating
● Consider next what happens if there are many slits, instead of just two.
● There would be many possible interference effects to consider.

● The net results is a series of narrow bright fringes, separated by wider

dark regions.
The Intensity Pattern Due to a Diffraction Grating
The Fringes Become Very Narrow as the Number of
Slits is Increased
A practical application – the spectrometer

● A diffraction grating splits light

into the wavelengths that make it
up.
● Thus, one could take the light

from the sun and split it up into

the colors that it is made up from.
● We can take advantage of the

fact that a diffraction grating

makes very narrow and bright
fringes to get a very powerful
device.
● This is what allows us to

determine what all

astrophysical objects are
made up of.

One of the very first

spectral measurements
of the sun.
 Thin-Film Interference

●
Another common place
where interference effects are
observed is near surfaces
coated with a thin film of a
substance.
● The general idea is shown

here.
Phase Changes Due to Reflection
● When a wave is reflected from a
boundary, the phase of the reflected
wave depends upon the relative sizes
of the refractive indices.
● If t is the thickness of the thin film:
Single-Slit Diffraction
Light passing through a narrow slit spreads out beyond the slit.
One can also get an interference pattern from such a single slit.
Analyzing Single-Slit Diffraction
 Ray Optics [ch 18]
● In this chapter we will learn the 'ray model
of light'. We will consider
● Reflection
● Refraction
● Mirrors and lenses.
● In all of this we are thinking of light as
something that travels in a straight line
unless it crosses into a different material.
● Note that this is not true is any apertures are
close in size to the wavelength of the light.
Seeing Objects – defining point and extended sources
Seeing a point or extended source Seeing an object by
scattered light

Seeing a ray source

The Law of Reflection

1. The incident ray and the

reflected ray are both in
the same plane, which is
perpendicular to the
surface, and
2. The angle of reflection
equals the angle of
incidence: θr = θi .
The Plane Mirror

●We call S the

object distance
and S' the
image distance.
● For a plane

mirror
S =S '
●We call P' the
image of the
object. Since
no light rays
actually
originate from
P', we call this a
virtual image.
Refraction

●Refraction occurs when light passes from one material into another that has
a different refractive index.
Snell’s Law of Refraction
 Total Internal Reflection

● A very interesting thing

happens if one continues to
increase the angle of
incidence onto the surface.
● Note that in most cases

some light is transmitted

and some is reflected.
● However, at a critical

points all of the light is

reflected.
● This is called total

internal reflection.
So where would the image appear due to
refraction?
● Your eye assumes that
light travels in a straight
line. So to locate a virtual
image:
● Trace the rays back as

if they had traveled in a

straight line. Where
they converge is the
location of the virtual
image.
● S is the distance to the

object, S' is the

distance to the image.
● It can be shown that

n2
s′ = s
n1
 Thin Lenses and Ray Tracing

The focal point of a

converging lens

The focal point is

the distance from
the lens to the
point at which
rays parallel to the
optical axis
converge or from
which they appear
The focal point of a to diverge.
diverging lens
Three Important Sets of Rays: Converging Lenses
Ray Tracing: Real Images – objects with s > f

● The magnification of
the lens is given by

s'
m=−
s
● The magnitude of m
is also given by h'/h.
Ray Tracing: Virtual Images (s < f)
Three Important Sets of Rays: Diverging Lenses
Spherical Mirrors and Ray Tracing

The focal point of a

concave mirror

The focal point of a

convex mirror

Slide 18-35
Three Sets of Special Rays for a Concave Mirror
A Real Image Formed by a Concave Mirror
Three Sets of Special Rays for a Convex Mirror
Ray Tracing for a Convex Mirror
The Thin-Lens Equation and sign convention for
lenses/mirrors
 Optical instruments [ch 19]
● In this chapter we will use some of the material
from the previous two chapters to investigate
some common optical instruments.
● Camera
● Human eye
● Magnifier
● Microscope
● Telescope
 The Camera

The image can be

brought into focus
by moving the
lens, or changing
the focal length of
the lens.

lens focal length f

f number of lens= =
lens diameter d
Digital Cameras

A digital image is made up of

millions of pixels.

A CCD chip records the

digital image.
The Human Eye
Focusing and Accommodation
Refractive Power
Hyperopia Myopia
Apparent Size
 The Magnifier
Largest angular size
without a magnifier is
h
θ0 ≈
25 cm

With a magnifier, the angular The magnification is thus

size is
h θ 25 cm
θ0 ≈ M= =
f θ0 f
The Microscope
The Microscope

L 25 cm
M = mo Me = −
fo fe
The Telescope

θe fo
M = =−
θo fe
Color and Dispersion
Rainbows
Lens Aberrations: Spherical Aberration

The Hubble space

telescope originally
suffered from spherical
aberration.
Chromatic Aberration
Resolution and the Wave Nature of Light
Rayleigh’s Criterion

Two objects are resolvable if their

angular separation is greater than

1.22λ
θ 1=
D
The Resolution of a Microscope

Numerical aperture NA = n sin φ0

0.61λ0
Resolving power RP = dmin =
NA
Optical and Electron Micrographs of e. coli