Sensors & Actuators: A.

Physical 345 (2022) 113797

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Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/sensors-and-actuators-a-physical

Temperature sensitivity elimination in sprayable fast-responding

pressure-sensitive paint
Feng Gu a, b, Chunhua Wei c, Yingzheng Liu a, b, Di Peng a, b, *, Lei Liang c, **
a
Key Lab of Education Ministry for Power Machinery and Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
b
Gas Turbine Research Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
c
China Aerodynamics Research and Development Center, Mianyang 621000, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Temperature-induced error is a major issue in pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) measurement, which usually comes
Pressure-sensitive paint from the inherent thermal quenching effect of luminophores. Herein, we successfully eliminate the temperature
Temperature-insensitive sensitivity in a sprayable fast-responding PSP. This PSP contains two luminophores (coumarin 6 and PtTFPP)
Dual-luminophore
with opposite temperature sensitivities, which cancel the temperature effect in the 515–800 nm spectral range,
Fast response
making it a temperature-canceled PSP (TC-PSP). The sensing properties of the TC-PSP (pressure sensitivity,
temperature sensitivity, signal level, and response time) are characterized and compared with those of a single-
luminophore PSP with the same mesoporous particle binder (MP-PSP). The TC-PSP exhibits an extremely low
temperature sensitivity of 0.015 %/℃ in the 20–60 ℃ range, a value approximately 1 % that of the MP-PSP (1.35
%/℃). Its temperature sensitivity and corresponding temperature-induced error are significantly lower than the
previously reported temperature-insensitive fast PSPs. In a jet impingement experiment conducted for validation,
the TC-PSP showed excellent performance in eliminating the temperature-induced error. Overall, the developed
TC-PSP holds great potential for high-speed aerodynamic testing applications.

1. Introduction
Pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) is an optical measurement technique
used in aerospace applications to obtain the global pressure distribution
with high spatial and temporal resolutions [1–4]. The pressure sensing
ability of a PSP is based on the oxygen quenching of its constituent
luminophore(s). The intensity and lifetime of luminophores are
inversely proportional to the oxygen partial pressure/air pressure.
Hence, the pressure distribution can be obtained by recording the
variation in the luminescence intensity or lifetime. Conventional PSPs
were composed of an oxygen-permeable polymer and a luminophore,
and their dynamic response was limited by the oxygen diffusion rate of
the polymer [2]. To improve the dynamic response, binders with porous
micro- or nano-structures were developed and incorporated into later
PSPs [2,3]. These porous PSPs are also known as fast-responding PSPs
for their ability to measure kHz level pressure fluctuation. Polymer/­
ceramic (PC) PSPs and anodized aluminum (AA) PSPs are the most
widely used fast-responding PSPs. Through a two-step coating
procedure, PC-PSPs can be sprayed onto models regardless of the model
shape or material [5,6]. Specifically, a polymer–particle slurry is first
sprayed to form a basecoat with a porous structure, on top of which a
luminophore solution is then sprayed. Regarding AA-PSPs, a porous
layer is first formed on the model by anodization, following which the
entire model is dipped in the PSP solution for luminophore adsorption.
However, AA-PSPs can only be applied to aluminum models, and the
application process can be challenging for large and complex models [7,
8]. Recently, a mesoporous-particle-based PSP (MP-PSP) with fast
response was developed; this PSP can be sprayed in a single step, which
is convenient for application [9,10].
A major problem in PSP measurements is the temperature-induced
error caused by the temperature sensitivity of the PSP, which in turn
is due to thermal quenching, a non-radiative process related to thermal
agitation (i.e., intramolecular vibration, rotation, or collision) [11]. The
thermal quenching of luminescence typically proceeds in parallel with
oxygen quenching, causing PSP to be sensitive to both pressure and
temperature. Efforts have been made to reduce the temperature

* Corresponding author at: Key Lab of Education Ministry for Power Machinery and Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong Uni­
versity, Shanghai 200240, China.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: idgnep8651@sjtu.edu.cn (D. Peng), skywork@163.com (L. Liang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2022.113797
Received 13 May 2022; Received in revised form 10 July 2022; Accepted 29 July 2022
Available online 30 July 2022
0924-4247/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
F. Gu et al.
Fig. 1. Microstructures and the temperature-cancelation mechanism of the TC-PSP.
Fig. 2. Experimental setup for static calibration.
sensitivity of conventional PSPs by optimizing the polymer binders.
Puklin et al. synthesized an ideal PSP based on fluoro-acrylic polymer,
realizing a temperature sensitivity of 0.6 %/℃ [12]. A subsequent work
by Gouin and Gouterman showed that annealing exerted significant
effects on the temperature sensitivity of PSPs [13]. Obata et al. found
that a high glass transition temperature (Tg) and fluorination degree of
the polymer could improve the PSP temperature sensitivity to 0.34 %/℃
[14,15]. However, these low temperature sensitive PSPs are incapable of
unsteady measurements due to their slow response. Moreover, the
temperature-induced error cannot be completely neglected in
high-speed flow measurements with significant surface temperature
variation. Compared with conventional PSPs, fast-responding PSPs
usually have a higher temperature sensitivity (>1 %/℃), leading to
unacceptable errors in pressure measurement [6,16].
Several methods are available for eliminating the temperature error
in fast-responding PSP measurement. The fundamental solution is to
eliminate the thermal quenching in luminescence process. Sakaue et al.
and Kameda et al. have found that hydrophobic coating effectively
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Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 345 (2022) 113797
reduces the temperature sensitivity of AA-PSPs [17,18]. Li et al. later
explained the underlying mechanism as follows: the hydrophobic
coating restricts lattice relaxation, which in turn suppresses thermal
quenching. As another solution to the temperature error problem, a
temperature-independent PSP based on through-hole anodized
aluminum oxide was developed and demonstrated as having high signal
level and frequency response [19], with temperature sensitivity as low
as 0.06 %/℃ in the 0–50 ℃ range; however, the preparation of this PSP
is complex, which limits its application. Yet another solution is the
dual-luminophore PSP, in which a second temperature-sensitive but
pressure-insensitive luminophore is introduced, and the luminescence of
the two luminophores is recorded simultaneously by a color camera or
spectroscope. The temperature distribution measured by the second
luminophore is used to compensate for the PSP’s temperature sensitivity
[20–24]. However, the spectral overlap of the two luminophores usually
leads to cross-talk of the pressure and temperature sensitivities of the
two channels [23,24]. This problem can be alleviated by using a
pressure-sensitive luminophore with a long-wavelength emission peak
F. Gu et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 345 (2022) 113797

Fig. 3. Experimental setup for dynamic calibration.

Fig. 4. Schematic of the impingement jet and pressure measurement systems.

(>700 nm) [20,25]. Another solution is to measure the temperature
distribution separately using temperature-sensitive paint (TSP) or
infrared thermography, for example, by simultaneously measuring the
pressure and temperature fields by symmetrically spraying PSP and TSP
on the model [26,27]; however, as evident, this method is valid only for
a symmetrical flow field. But the temperature field in the TSP area has a
deviation from the PSP area due to the different physical properties. The
pressure and temperature fields can also be measured in two separate
experiments under the same conditions [28–31]. This approach requires
high experiment repeatability, as otherwise temperature differences
would induce measurement errors. In addition, the precise registration
between PSP data and the temperature field is challenging in both of the
foregoing strategies, and any misalignment would induce additional
errors in the temperature correction [30].
A promising method for addressing the temperature effect, based on
a temperature-canceled PSP (TC-PSP), has recently emerged. This PSP
has two luminescent peaks with opposite temperature sensitivity, lead­
ing to temperature-independent emission. This approach requires only a
monochrome camera for data acquisition, which is convenient. Pyrene
and its derivates are suitable candidates for the TC-PSP due to its two
emission peaks of monomer and excimer, which have opposite tem­
perature dependencies [32–34]. For example, Sakaue et al. developed a
TC-PSP using 1-pyrenesulfonic acid as the luminophore [33]. The in­
tensities of the intermediate-wavelength between two luminescent
peaks varied by only 5 % in the 10–50 ℃ range. This PSP is based on an
AA binder, which is non-sprayable and has limited practicability, as
previously discussed. Its temperature-insensitive emission band in
practical measurements is less than 20 nm [35], meaning that the ma­
jority of the PSP signal cannot be used. Nonetheless, this method has
shown clear advantages in terms of its convenience in both experimental

3
F. Gu et al.
Fig. 5. Emission spectra of the TC-PSP with different C6 concentrations.
Fig. 6. Temperature sensitivity of the C6 emission at different C6
concentrations.
setup and data processing. Further development is essential to overcome
its limitations in paint fabrication and sensing.
In the current work, the temperature sensitivity elimination was
achieved for a sprayable fast-responding TC-PSP. This PSP has two
luminophores, namely coumarin 6 (C6) and platinum tetrakis(penta­
fluorophenyl) porphyrin (PtTFPP), which show opposite temperature
dependence on a previously developed mesoporous particle binder [9].
C6 emission has an unusual positive temperature sensitivity (Fig. 1),
which is related to its enhanced conversion from a highly aggregated
state to a dispersed state with increase in temperature [36,37]. This
property allows direct cancellation of PtTFPP’s temperature sensitivity,
and the temperature-induced error can be easily removed without
additional correction. Another advantage of C6 is its low cost compared
to other temperature sensitive dyes. It should be noted that C6 has sig­
nificant concentration dependent emission property, and therefore its
concentration must be carefully controlled during PSP fabrication to
reduce measurement error. We first studied the effect of C6 concentra­
tion on temperature sensitivity to determine the optimum formulation
for the TC-PSP. Then, the static and dynamic sensing properties of the
TC-PSP were characterized and compared with those of the MP-PSP. The
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Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 345 (2022) 113797
Fig. 7. Variation in the TC-PSP spectra with pressure.
Fig. 8. Variation in the TC-PSP spectra with temperature.
results showed that the temperature sensitivity of the TC-PSP was as low
as 0.015 %/◦ C in the spectral range of 515–800 nm and temperature
range of 20–60 ℃, with a response time of 490 μs. Finally, for validation
of the results, a jet impingement experiment was conducted using both
the MP-PSP and the TC-PSP.
2. Experimental methods
2.1. Materials and fabrication
The hollow SiO2 particles with mesoporous shells (average diameter,
10 µm; Fig. 1) were purchased from Suzuki Yushi Industrial Co. Ltd. TC-
PSP fabrication involves two steps. First, the MP-PSP slurry was formed
by mixing 30 mg polystyrene, 150 mg mesoporous particles, and 0.5 mg
PtTFPP (Frontier Scientific) in 1 mL of dichloromethane and 1–2 %
dispersant (Tween 80, Guangdong Runhua Chemistry), and the resulting
slurry was ultrasonically vibrated for 30 min. Second, C6 (Frontier
Scientific) was added to the MP-PSP slurry in concentrations ranging
from 0.125 to 4 mg/mL and left standing for 8 h. Finally, the MP-PSP
and TC-PSP samples were prepared by spraying the corresponding
slurry on an aluminum sample coupon by using an airbrush.
F. Gu et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 345 (2022) 113797

for the MP-PSP and 515-nm longpass filter for the TC-PSP. The spectra
were collected by a spectrometer (Ocean Insight Use2000+). The static
calibration setup is illustrated in Fig. 2. All the calibration processes
were run by an automated program, and each process was conducted
three times. The calibration workflow is as follows: First, the program
checks whether the pressure and temperature deviations from the cor­
responding target values are under ±0.1 kPa and ±0.05 ℃, respec­
tively, and whether this state is held for more than 3 min. If this
condition is satisfied, the program controls the signal generator to
output an “ON” signal to the light source. After 1 s, when the output
light is stable, the CCD camera acquires the luminescence images, and
the spectrometer records the spectra of the samples. Then, the signal
generator stops outputting the “ON” signal, and the light source shuts
down.
The pressure and temperature calibrations ranges were 40–160 kPa
and 20–80 ℃, respectively, for all samples. The reference pressure and
temperature were 100 kPa and 20 ℃, respectively. The changes in the
luminescence intensities with change in the pressure/temperature were
fitted with Eqs. (1,2):
I
Fig. 9. Pressure calibration curves of the TC-PSP and MP-PSP. = A1 (P)2 + A2 P + A3 (1)
Iref

I
= B1 (T)2 + B2 T + B3 (2)
Iref

where Iref is the luminescence intensity under the reference condition,

and A1, A2, A3, and B1, B2, B3 are the fitting parameters. The gradient
under the reference condition was defined as the pressure/temperature
sensitivity. In addition, the temperature sensitivity of the temperature-
insensitive PSP was defined as the intensity variation divided by the
temperature range. Each calibration process was conducted three times,
and the standard deviation of the luminescence intensity was defined as
the error bar of the pressure/temperature sensitivity curves.

Fig. 10. Temperature calibration curves of the TC-PSP and the MP-PSP.

2.2. Static calibration

The pressure and temperature sensitivities of the PSP were calibrated

in a pressure/temperature controller (MK2000B, Instec, Inc, USA),
which could control pressure and temperature in the 20–200 kPa and
− 200 to 600 ℃ ranges with accuracies of ±0.1 kPa and ±0.05 ℃,
respectively. The PSP samples were excited by an ultraviolet light-
emitting diode (UV-LED; UHP-T-LED-385, Prizmatix) with a 385-nm
center wavelength. The luminescent images were captured by a
charge-coupled device (CCD) camera (pco. 1600, pco. imaging) through
Fig. 11. Dynamic response of the TC-PSP and the MP-PSP.
a 50-mm lens (50 mm/f1.2, Nikon) with a 650 ± 25 nm bandpass filter

Table 1
Characteristics of temperature-insensitive fast-responding PSPs.
PSP Pressure sensitivity Temperature sensitivity Temperature range Temperature-induced pressure error (Pa/
(%/kPa) (%/℃) (℃) ℃)

PSP coated by self-assembly monolayer 0.65 0.06 0–50 90

[19]
Dual-luminophore PC-PSP [23] 0.54 – 5–45 110
Temperature-canceled AA-PSP [33] 0.57 0.1 10–50 170
Temperature-canceled PSP in this work 0.43 0.015 20–60 35

5
F. Gu et al.
Fig. 12. Pressure field measured by the TC-PSP at a heating temperature of 38 ℃ (a) 11 s, (b) 21 s, and (c) 31 s after the start of the jet impingement.
2.3. Dynamic calibration
The dynamic calibration was conducted using a shock tube with a
0.4-m-long driver section and a 1.2-m-long low-pressure section (inner
diameter, 20 mm) separated by an aluminum diaphragm (Fig. 3). The
PSP sample was placed at the end of the tube, with a 15-cm long optical
glass tube placed in front for access to the light source and luminescence
signal. The low-pressure section was maintained at 1 atm during the
experiment, and the driver section was pressurized by an air compressor.
The diaphragm broke at 4.5 atm, creating a planar shockwave. The
pressure ratio at the end of the shock tube was approximately 15. The
PSP sample was continuously illuminated by the LED, and the lumi­
nescence signal was captured by a photomultiplier tube (PMT) with a
650 ± 25 nm bandpass filter for the MP-PSP and 515-nm longpass filter
for the TC-PSP. The data acquisition system was triggered by a pressure
transducer installed on the sidewall of the shock tube. For each sample,
the experiment was conducted three times. The response time was
defined as the time required for the signal to rise to 90 % of the full step.
2.4. Jet impingement experiment
A schematic of the jet impingement experiment is shown in Fig. 4.
The air was supplied by an air compressor, and the total pressure was
regulated by a pressure valve fitted with an air filter to remove moisture.
The air was ejected through a nozzle with an outlet diameter of 4 mm.
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Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 345 (2022) 113797
The impingement plate (100 mm × mm 100 × 5 mm, brass, sprayed
with white paint and PSP on the surface) was mounted on a two-axis
translation stage, and a polyimide electrothermal film, driven by a
direct current power supply, was attached to the back of the plate. The
temperature of the plate was measured using a chromel–alumel ther­
mocouple (K-type) positioned on the left side of the plate surface. The
origin (x, y = 0) of the impingement surface was at the impingement
point. To capture the entire impingement area, the CCD camera and UV-
LED were fixed on the side of the jet nozzle. A calibration plate was used
to reproject the images in the vertical direction. The CCD camera and
UV-LED were the same as those used in the static calibration. The spatial
resolution of the pressure image was approximately 0.05 mm/pixel. The
obtained pressure images were smoothed using a mean filter with an
11 × 11 window for both the TC-PSP and the MP-PSP. The images
captured when the jet impingement was stopped were used as the
reference images, a common workaround used to reduce the tempera­
ture effect in conventional PSP measurement.
The nozzle–plate distance ratio (L/Dn, where L is the distance from
the nozzle exit to the plate and Dn is the nozzle exit diameter),
impingement angle (θ), and the ratio of the nozzle exit pressure to the
ambient pressure (PR) were fixed at 4, 90◦ , and 1.4, respectively. The
heating temperature (i.e., the temperature of the impingement plate
before the start of the impingement) was set to 18 ℃ (room temperature
without heating), 28 ℃, and 38 ℃ in different runs of the experiment.
The impingement jet stabilized in the first 5–6 s. The static pressures
F. Gu et al.
Fig. 13. Pressure field measured by the MP-PSP at a heating temperature of 38 ℃ (a) 11 s, (b) 21 s, and (c) 31 s after the start of the jet impingement.
were measured separately by pressure taps connected to a DAQ-DBX-
32 C transducer brick, with an accuracy of ±0.2 kPa. Eleven pressure
tap holes 1 mm in diameter and spaced 1.5 mm apart were drilled along
the centerline of another flat plate. The plate was moved several times to
obtain dense pressure-tap data. Photographs of the pressure tap holes
were captured to compute their location in the impingement surface.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Effect of C6 concentration
The emission spectra of the TC-PSPs with different C6 concentrations
are shown in Fig. 5. There are two main emissions: the emission from C6
is located in the 460–600 nm range, and that from PtTFPP in the
600–700 nm range. All spectra are normalized by the PtTFPP peak at
650 nm. The C6 emission spectra have two valleys around 510 and
540 nm, which are attributable to absorption by the PtTFPP. In general,
the intensity of the C6 emission decreased rapidly with increase in the
concentration, which is related to the intensifying self-quenching effect.
The C6 emission also shows a clear red-shift with increase in concen­
tration due to the enhanced interaction between the excited state and
the ground state of C6 [11,38]. The detailed mechanisms underlying
these spectral variations are beyond the scope of this paper. The tem­
perature sensitivity of the C6 emission at different concentrations is
7
Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 345 (2022) 113797
shown in Fig. 6. The intensity of the C6 emission was determined by
integrating the spectra from 450 to 600 nm. Interestingly, the C6
emission shows a positive temperature sensitivity, which is opposite to
the typical thermal quenching effect. This positive temperature sensi­
tivity initially increases with the C6 concentration, peaking at 2 mg/mL
and then decreasing rapidly at 4 mg/mL. Possible explanations for this
phenomenon are as follows: 1. The thermal quenching effect of C6 is
limited due to the weak vibration of the 7-NEt2 groups [39]; 2. The
increased temperature facilitates the conversion of C6 from a highly
aggregated state to a dispersed state, which weakens the concentration
quenching effect and enhances luminescence [36,37]; 3. At a high C6
concentration, the concentration quenching effect is very strong and
relatively insensitive to the temperature.
The positive temperature sensitivity of the C6 emission enables the
cancellation of the temperature effect by the combined effects of the C6
and PtTFPP emissions. However, because the C6 emission is less sensi­
tive to pressure than the PtTFPP emission (see Section 3.2), the intro­
duction of the C6 emission reduces the pressure sensitivity of the
combined emissions. Therefore, to cancel the temperature effect, the
temperature sensitivity of the C6 emission should be maximized to
reduce the negative effect on pressure sensitivity. Accordingly, the C6
concentration of 2 mg/mL was selected for the TC-PSP in the subsequent
experiments.
F. Gu et al.
Fig. 14. MP-PSP and pressure tap data over time (after the start of the jet impingement) at (a) 18 ℃, (b) 28 ℃, (c) 38 ℃.
3.2. Sensing properties of the TC-PSP
Fig. 7 shows the pressure spectra of the TC-PSP at 20 ℃. The C6
emission shows a slight pressure sensitivity at a C6 concentration of
2 mg/mL, and the PtTFPP emission has a strong pressure sensitivity
similar to that of the MP-PSP. Fig. 8 shows the variation in the TC-PSP
spectra with temperature at 100 kPa. With increasing temperature, the
emission intensities of the C6 and PtTFPP show opposite trends. From
the results, a wide spectral range of 515–800 nm was determined as the
temperature-insensitive emission band, and a 515-nm longpass filter
was chosen for the TC-PSP camera calibration.
The experimentally obtained pressure calibration curves of the TC-
PSP and the MP-PSP are shown in Fig. 9, while the corresponding
temperature calibration curves are presented in Fig. 10. The TC-PSP has
a pressure sensitivity of 0.43 %/kPa, which is lower than the MP-PSP
pressure sensitivity of 0.63 %/kPa due to the low pressure sensitivity
of the C6 emission. In addition, the variations of pressure sensitivity are
within 7 % and 8 % in the 20–40 ℃ range for TC-PSP and MP-PSP,
respectively. The temperature sensitivity of the MP-PSP is 1.35 %/℃;
in contrast, the intensity variation of the TC-PSP is within 0.6 % in the
20–60 ℃ range, yielding an extremely low temperature sensitivity of
0.015 %/℃. Furthermore, the TC-PSP shows a 4 % reduction in intensity
as the temperature increases from 60 to 80 ℃, resulting in a higher
temperature sensitivity of 0.25 %/℃ in this range. The characteristics of
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Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 345 (2022) 113797
existing temperature-insensitive fast-responding PSPs are listed in
Table 1. The ability of each of these PSPs to eliminate the temperature
effect can be evaluated based on the temperature-induced pressure
error, which is defined as the pressure error induced by a unit change in
temperature. Although the developed TC-PSP has a relatively low
pressure sensitivity, its temperature sensitivity is significantly lower
than those of the other PSPs. Overall, the developed TC-PSP outperforms
all the other evaluated PSPs in eliminating the temperature effect,
yielding the lowest temperature-induced error of 35 Pa/℃.
The dynamic calibration results of the TC-PSP obtained using the
shock tube are shown in Fig. 11. The response time of TC-PSP is 490 μs,
which is longer than that of MP-PSP (270 μs), but enough for the kHz
pressure fluctuation measurement. In addition, from the images
captured at ambient pressure and temperature using the same 515-nm
longpass filter, the overall emission intensity of the TC-PSP is 2.45
times higher than that of the MP-PSP, which is attributable to the C6
emission.
3.3. Results of the jet impingement experiment
The main challenge in PSP measurement in the jet impingement
experiment is the temperature effect. The jet impingement cools the
heated plate and causes significant temporal and spatial temperature
variations on the plate surface. Figs. 12 and 13 show the pressure
F. Gu et al. Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 345 (2022) 113797

Fig. 15. TC-PSP and pressure tap data over time (after the start of the jet impingement) at (a) 18 ℃, (b) 28 ℃, (c) 38 ℃.

Table 2
Pressure measurement errors of the MP-PSP and the TC-PSP.
PSP type Time after start of impingement (s) Pressure error at 18 ℃ (kPa) Pressure error at 28 ℃ (kPa) Pressure error at 38 ℃ (kPa)

MP-PSP 11 0.89 8.56 17.55

21 1.01 3.53 9.33
32 1.26 1.03 3.83
TC-PSP 11 0.97 0.83 0.97
21 0.71 0.82 0.83
32 0.98 0.78 0.85

distribution measured by the TC-PSP and MP-PSP, respectively, at a
heating temperature of 38 ℃. All the pressure distributions are calcu­
lated using the pressure calibration curves at 20 ℃, since the pressure
sensitivity is fairly stable for both PSPs in the range of 20–40 ℃. The
vertical axis y/Dn and horizontal axis x/Dn in these figures denote the
distance along two orthogonal directions normalized by the nozzle
diameter. The pressure distribution measured by the TC-PSP shows a
circular high-pressure region in the center (the stagnation region), as
expected. The pressure drops drastically from the stagnation point to the
atmospheric level at x/Dn ≈ 1. The pressure distribution does not vary
with time, which is reasonable for a steady flow. In contrast, the pressure
distribution measured by the MP-PSP shows significant variations with
time due to the temperature effect. Specifically, the pressure decreases
quickly with time due to the temporal temperature variation, and the
results are clearly biased to a higher value due to the temperature dif­
ference between the wind-on and wind-off conditions. The temperature
effect is discussed in detail in the following paragraph. The anomalous
patterns on the right side of the panels in Fig. 12 are caused by the
reflection of the nozzle. In addition, the TC-PSP results show slightly
higher spatial non-uniformity than do the MP-PSP results, which is due
to the non-uniform distribution of the two luminophores. Therefore, a
larger filter window was used for the TC-PSP, as mentioned in Section
3.3.
Fig. 14 presents a comparison of the pressure data measured using
the MP-PSP and the pressure tap along one-half of the centerline of the
impingement surface at different heating temperatures, while Fig. 15
presents the same data but for the TC-PSP. At 18 ℃ (room temperature
without heating), the MP-PSP data agree well with the pressure tap data

9
F. Gu et al.
at different times after the start of the jet impingement. At 28 and 38 ℃,
however, the PSP data show apparent biases in the early stage of jet
impingement and thereafter gradually become consistent with the
pressure tap data; this is because the reference image was captured
immediately after the jet was stopped, and the temperature difference
between the wind-on and wind-off images decreased over time. The
shape of the pressure distribution is also distorted at 38 ℃, which is
caused by the significant spatial variation in temperature. The TC-PSP
data (Fig. 15) agree well with the pressure tap data in all cases despite
the significant temporal and spatial variations in temperature on the
impingement plate, thus confirming the effective elimination of the
temperature sensitivity of the PSP.
Finally, the pressure measurement errors are quantitatively evalu­
ated. The differences between the PSP and pressure tap data are calcu­
lated and spatially averaged, and the results are shown in Table 2. The
pressure error of the MP-PSP at a heating temperature of 18 ℃ is small
(~1 kPa) and does not change with time. However, as the heating
temperature increases, the pressure errors of the MP-PSP become sig­
nificant, especially at the early stage of jet impingement. The pressure
errors decrease with time due to the reduced temperature difference
between the wind-on and wind-off images. In contrast, the pressure
errors of the TC-PSP are small (<1 kPa) and consistent at all heating
temperatures and at different time points following the start of the jet
impingement, which is evidence for the effective elimination of the
temperature-induced error.
4. Conclusion
A sprayable temperature-insensitive fast-responding PSP was devel­
oped using C6 and PtTFPP as the luminophores and mesoporous parti­
cles as the binder. The intensity of the C6 emission increased with
temperature, and the highest positive temperature sensitivity was ach­
ieved at a C6 concentration of 2 mg/mL. The opposite sensitivities of C6
and PtTFPP resulted in a wide temperature-insensitive spectral range of
515–800 nm, with strong signals. A temperature sensitivity of 0.015
%/℃ was achieved for the TC-PSP in the temperature range of 20–60 ℃,
which is significantly lower than those of existing fast-responding PSPs.
Finally, the results of a jet impingement validation experiment
confirmed that the TC-PSP effectively eliminates the temperature-
induced error.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
GU, PENG and LIANG conceived and designed the study. GU and WEI
performed the experiments and data analysis. GU wrote the initial draft
of the paper. PENG and LIANG reviewed and edited the manuscript. LIU
supervised the research planning and execution.All authors read and
approved the manuscript.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (NSFC No. 12022202), the Shanghai Rising Star Program (No.
20QA1404900), Shanghai R&D public service platform project (No.
19DZ2291400) and funding from the Gas Turbine Research Institute of
Shanghai Jiao Tong University.
10
Sensors and Actuators: A. Physical 345 (2022) 113797
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Feng Gu is currently a Ph.D. candidate of School of Mechanical Engineering in Shanghai
Jiao Tong University, majoring in pressure-sensitive paint with applications in aero­
dynamic testing.
Chunhua Wei is currently an engineer in China Aerodynamics Research and Development
Center. His research interest is measurement techniques in wind tunnel testing.
Yingzheng Liu received his Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from Shanghai Jiao Tong
University in 2000. He is currently a professor in School of Mechanical Engineering,
Shanghai Jiao Tong University. He also serves as vice dean for Gas Turbine Research
Institute at SJTU. His research interest includes advanced measurement technologies of
fluid mechanics (PDPA, PIV, LIF, PSV, PSP), turbulent flow and flow control, complex flow
and heat transfer in turbomachinery, as well as bio-fluid mechanics.
Di Peng received his Ph.D. in aerospace engineering from The Ohio State University in
2014. He is currently a professor in School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong
University. His main research interest is pressure-sensitive paint, temperature-sensitive
paint and phosphor thermometry with applications in aerodynamic and thermal testing.
Lei Liang is currently a senior engineer in China Aerodynamics Research and Develop­
ment Center. His research interest is measurement techniques in wind tunnel testing.