7 Layer OSI model

Physical Layer: This layer deals with the physical transmission of data over a network, including the
specifications of cables, connectors, and other hardware components.

Data Link Layer: This layer ensures that data is transmitted error-free and in the correct sequence over
the physical layer. It also handles issues such as flow control and media access control.

Network Layer: This layer is responsible for addressing, routing, and forwarding data packets between
different networks. It determines the best path for data to take based on network conditions and the
destination address.

Transport Layer: This layer provides end-to-end communication between applications, ensuring that data
is transmitted reliably, without errors or loss, and in the correct order. It also manages flow control and
congestion control.

Session Layer: This layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions between
applications. It also handles issues such as authentication and security.

Presentation Layer: This layer translates data into a format that the application layer can understand,
ensuring that data is properly formatted, encrypted, and compressed as needed.

Application Layer: This layer provides network services to end-users, including protocols such as HTTP,
FTP, SMTP, and others. It also manages user authentication and access control.

Wireless Transmission Media

Microwave: Microwaves are high-frequency electromagnetic waves that can be transmitted through the
air or through coaxial cables. They have a short wavelength and are used for point-to-point
communication over long distances. They are commonly used for communication between two fixed
points, such as between two buildings.

Infrared: Infrared waves are also electromagnetic waves but have a shorter wavelength than
microwaves. They are typically used for short-range communication between devices, such as in remote
controls or between smartphones using Bluetooth. They are easily blocked by physical objects and have
a limited range.

Light: Light waves are also electromagnetic waves but have a much shorter wavelength than both
microwaves and infrared waves. They are commonly used for high-speed communication over short
distances, such as within a building or between devices in a room. They are commonly used in fiber optic
communication, which is known for its high bandwidth and low interference.

Satellite: Satellites are used for long-distance communication and can transmit signals over a wide area,
such as an entire continent or even the entire globe. They are often used for television broadcasting,
GPS, and military communication. Satellite communication can be affected by weather conditions and
may have a longer delay than other types of communication.
Wired Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Cables: Twisted pair cables consist of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to
reduce interference from other cables and electrical devices. They are commonly used for telephone and
Ethernet communication over short to medium distances. Twisted pair cables have low cost and are easy
to install but are susceptible to interference and have limited bandwidth.

Fiber Optic Cables: Fiber optic cables use glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as light signals. They have
high bandwidth and are commonly used for high-speed data transmission over long distances. Fiber
optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference, have low signal attenuation, and are resistant
to environmental factors such as moisture and temperature changes. However, they are more expensive
than twisted pair cables and require specialized equipment for installation and maintenance.

Powerline: Powerline communication uses the existing electrical wiring in a building to transmit data
signals. It is commonly used for home networking and Internet access. Powerline communication has
low cost and is easy to install, but is susceptible to interference from other electrical devices and has
limited bandwidth.

Network Metrics

Speed: The speed of a network refers to the amount of data that can be transmitted per unit of time. It is
usually measured in bits per second (bps) or bytes per second (Bps).

Bandwidth: The bandwidth of a network refers to the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted
in a given amount of time. It is usually measured in bits per second (bps) or bytes per second (Bps).

Throughput: The throughput of a network is the actual amount of data that is transmitted in a given
amount of time. It can be affected by factors such as network congestion, errors, and packet loss.

Scalability: Scalability refers to the ability of a network to handle increasing amounts of data and users
without degrading performance. It is an important factor in designing and managing large networks.

Latency: Latency is the amount of time it takes for a data packet to travel from the sender to the receiver.
It is usually measured in milliseconds (ms) or microseconds (µs). Low latency is important for
applications such as real-time video and gaming.

Error Rate: The error rate is the number of data packets that are lost or corrupted during transmission. A
high error rate can lead to slow network performance and data loss.

Packet Loss: Packet loss is the percentage of data packets that are lost during transmission. It can be
caused by network congestion, errors, or other factors. High packet loss can result in slow network
performance and data loss.

Availability: Availability refers to the amount of time that a network is operational and able to transmit
data. It is usually measured as a percentage of uptime versus downtime.

Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the delay of data packets as they are transmitted over a network. It
can be caused by network congestion, errors, or other factors. High jitter can result in slow network
performance and delays in real-time applications.