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A Segmentation-Free Approach for Printed Devanagari Script Recognition

Conference Paper · August 2015

DOI: 10.1109/ICDAR.2015.7333901

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 A Segmentation-Free Approach for
Printed Devanagari Script Recognition
Tushar Karayil∗ , Adnan Ul-Hasan∗ , and Thomas M. Breuel∗
∗ Department of Computer Science, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany.
Email: kr.tushar@gmail.com, {adnan,tmb}@cs.uni-kl.de
Abstract—Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) net-
works are a suitable candidate for segmentation-free
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) tasks due to
their good context-aware processing. In this paper, we
report the results of applying LSTM networks to De-
vanagari script, where each consonant-consonant con-
juncts and consonant-vowel combinations take different
forms based on their position in the word. We also in-
troduce a new database, Deva-DB, of Devanagari script
(free of cost) to aid the research towards a robust De-
vanagari OCR system. On this database, LSTM-based
OCRopus system yields error rates ranging from 1.2%
to 9.0% depending upon the complexity of the training
and test data. Comparison with open-source Tesseract
system is also presented for the same database.
Keywords—Devanagari OCR; LSTM; CTC; OCRo-
pus; Tesseract
I. Introduction
Devanagari script belongs to the Brahmic family of
scripts mainly found across the south east part of Asia.
Countries that speak Devanagari set of languages include
India, Tibet, and Nepal. Devanagari is written from left
to right and unlike Latin set of languages, does not have
the concept of upper case letters. Languages like Sanskrit,
Hindi and Nepali are few of the popular languages which
use the Devanagari script.
Hindi, the national language of India, is based on
the Devanagari script. Hindi is the fourth most popular
language in the world with 400 million speakers. A great
wealth of ancient classical literature, scientific and religious
books are available in Hindi/Sanskrit. Therefore, there is
a great demand to convert them into machine readable
documents. Moreover, a well developed OCR technology
in Hindi can assist in various fields as demonstrated by its
Latin counterpart.
Even with this great demand, the OCR research in
Devanagari is still behind that of Latin scripts. This can be
attributed to different reasons. Firstly, Devanagari is more
complex when compared to Latin. The character shapes
in Devanagari are far too many and vary widely with
different fonts. Each of the consonant-consonant conjuncts
and consonant-vowel combinations take different forms
based on their position in the word. Consonants when
attached to vowels other than the inherent vowel ‘a’ are
modified with diacritics or Maatra (as they are called in
Hindi). Diacritics or Maatra are glyphs which are added
to the letter, modifying its shape (Fig. 1). For example,
the consonant त (tha) when combined with the vowel इ
Figure 1. An example of a word in Devanagari. The corresponding
parts of the word are labelled with arrows. Ligatures inside a complete
word are connected using a horizontal line called as the Rekha or
Shirorekha. A Shirorekha indicates a complete word. Similarly the
end of a sentence is indicated by a vertical line known as Purnaviram.
The word shown above is spelled as “Kriyaathmak”.
(e) would take the form ित (thi). The glyph ‘ि◌’ which got
added to त is called as a Maatra. Consonants within a word
also fuse to form new shapes. For example, consonants त ्
(th) and म (ma) when present in a word, cluster together to
form म (thma). These are called Samyuktakshara, meaning
‘Conjuncts’ (see Fig. 1). Such shape variations make OCR
of Devanagari a challenging task. Secondly, apart from
the complexity of the language, researchers are also faced
with the problem of lack of standard training databases
for Devanagari.
Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) networks are a form
of Recurrent Neural Networks. Because of their recurrent
nature, LSTM networks have been widely used in un-
segmented connected character recognition [1], [2]. Since
Devanagari characters are always connected in a word,
LSTM networks are well suited to learn these patterns.
Exploration of LSTM networks to classify Devanagari
characters has been limited. Only few researchers have
used LSTM networks for Devanagari OCR [3]. The recog-
nition error rates have varied between 5.65% - 15% (good
- poor) depending on the degradations in the test image.
In this work, we performed a series of experiments with
unsegmented Devanagari text-line images. We have gener-
ated synthetic line images in Hindi (Devanagari Script)
along with scanned images (we named this database
“Deva-DB”) and used this data to train the LSTM net-
work. The performance of this network was tested against
both synthetic and real scanned line images. LSTM net-
works trained on synthetic data have been shown to
perform well on real data [4].
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Sec-
tion II discusses the related work. Section III describes
the OCRopus line-recognizer and the normalization pro-
cess. Section IV talks about the experimental setup which
includes the details about the generation of Deva-DB and
the results obtained. The error analysis and discussions
about the results are described in Section V. Section VI
discusses the conclusion of the paper and charts out the
future work.
II. Related Works
The first efforts towards the recognition of Devanagari
characters in printed documents started in the 1970s.
Researchers at Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur,
India developed a syntactic pattern analysis system for
the Devanagari script [5]. In the 1990s, Chadhuri et al. [6]
and Pal et al. [7] developed the first complete end to end
OCR system for Devanagari. Although in the 1990s OCR
for Devanagari was contained only at research level, in the
early 2000s it took a major leap when Center for Develop-
ment of Advance Computing (CDAC) India released the
first commercial Hindi OCR called “Chitrankan” [8].
Different methods and classifiers have been tried for
Devanagari character recognition. Shaw et al. and Bhat-
tacharya et al. used Hidden Markov Models (HMM) for
handwritten Devanagari character recognition in [9], [10].
When using HMMs for OCR, statistical features play an
important role. HMMs also require a large training set for
estimating the parameters for a reliable recognition [8].
Jawahar et al. [11] has used SVM for recognition of
printed Devanagari characters for a multilingual OCR
engine. PCA was used to reduce the dimensions of the
feature space here. Even though SVMs are a good choice
for the case where training data is limited, the main hurdle
in use of the SVM method is the selection of a proper
kernel [8].
Bhattacharya et al. [12] used Multilayer Perceptrons
(MLPs) for classification of Devanagari numerals. Each im-
age was subjected to three multilayer perceptron classifiers
corresponding to a resolution. For rejections at one level,
the output of other MLPs are used to predict an output.
Singh et al. [13] used Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
with features like Mean distance, Histogram of projection
based on pixel location and value. This ANN consisted of
two hidden layers and was trained using the conventional
backpropagation algorithm. ANNs are easier to implement
and in addition to classification, also provide a confidence
value for the classification [14]. A major disadvantage with
feed-forwards ANN is that they cannot remember context.
Off late, LSTMs have also appeared in the Devanagari
research. Sankaran et al. [3] has used Bidirectional LSTMs
(BLSTM) for word classification in printed Devanagari
documents with good results (error rate = 5.65%).
III. Line Recognizer for Printed Devanagari
Recognition
We used the 1D-LSTM variant in the current work
for Devanagari recognition. This architecture is different
from the more common 2D-LSTM architecture in the way
how the input is presented at the input layer. In the
case of 1D-LSTM networks, the input text-line image is
divided into a 1D sequence by moving a 1-pixel wide
column window over the image from left to right and then
concatenating the image slices to make a 1D sequence.
Figure 2. The LSTM network contains two hidden layers. f and b
are the forward and backward layers respectively. The forward layer
scans the image from left-to-right, while the backward layer scans
in reverse direction. The normalised input image is converted into a
sequence of vectors by splitting the image into individual columns.
The output is the Unicode representation of the characters recognized
by the network.
The height of image thus form the width of “frame” and
is termed as depth of the sequence. This depth needs to
be the same for all input images. The heights of input
images are made equal to fulfill this requirement (a process
termed as normalization). A brief description of LSTM
architecture is given in the following subsection followed
by the normalization process that we used in current work.
A. Long Short-Term Memory Networks
The LSTM network has a similar connection architec-
ture as that of an RNN except for one main difference.
The individual units in the LSTM network consists of
memory blocks (See Fig. 2). These multiplicative units in
the LSTM block allow it to store and retrieve information
over long periods of time. These write, persist and retrieve
operations, that enable the network to “remember” inputs
over longer periods of time, help the LSTM network to
overcome the Vanishing Gradient problem. LSTMs, there-
fore are well adapted to learn classification tasks which
require long range context. A typical example of a sequence
classification task requiring long term context would be
OCR for cursive handwriting. In case of cursive handwrit-
ten images, the network might have to go through a set
of slices of the image before it can output a letter. Hence
this task requires LSTM, which can store the context over
a long range of time. LSTMs have also been applied to
protein structure prediction [15], speech recognition [16],
printed OCR [4], [17] and music generation [18] with good
results.
When training continuous sequences with RNNs, there
is often a requirement to segment the training sequence to
align it with the target data. Graves et al. [16] implemented
a new layer called the Connectionist Temporal Classifica-
tion (CTC) to address this problem. CTC eliminates the
need for pre-segmented data. In our experiments, we also
use the same CTC layer for aligning the input sequences
with targets for training. Fig. 2 shows a brief outline of
the arrangement of the LSTM network.
LSTM network that we used consists of an input layer
consisting of the h inputs (h is the height of the image used
for training), a hidden layer and an output layer with k
 30% – Zone-1
81 50% – Zone-2
20% – Zone-3
500
Original Image
12
40 20
8
Normalized Image
Figure 3. (Original Image) Two Dashed lines divide a Devanagari
text-line into three distinct zones. These zones are determined on
the basis of a statistical analysis of training data. Zone 1, with a
height of 30% of the image height, starts from top of the image to
the Shirorekha, which contains the maatras. Zone 2, with a height
of 50% contains the basic character shapes. Zone 3, with a height of
20%, contains the vowels which get attached to the bottom of the
consonants. (Normalized Image) Each of these zones are normalized
individually for each image. The total height of the resultant image
is made 40 and each of the three zones are scaled accordingly.
outputs (k is the number of Unicode code-points available
in Devanagari script). The hidden layer consists of 100
units. The learning rate for the LSTM is set to 0.0001.
B. Normalization and Features
As reasoned in Section III, the input image needs to be
normalized to make depth of individual frames equal. We
tried OCRopus normalizers, but found that they do not
yield good results with Devanagari script. So, to normalize
the images in our experiments, we used the normalization
technique similar to the one used by Rashid et al. [19].
Any given image was divided into 3 zones (see Fig. 3
for details). To calculate the size of each zone we did
a statistical analysis of the height of each zone for all
the images present in the train set. For each image in
the train set, the size of each zone was readjusted to the
average value of that zone as calculated by the statistical
analysis. The same values were used to normalize zones
of the test set. The sizes of the Zone1, Zone2 and Zone3
were calculated to be 30%, 50% and 20% respectively of
the total height of the image. For our experiments, we set
the total height of the image to be 40 (Zone1 = 12, Zone2
= 20, Zone3 = 8). The height of 40 gave enough pixels for
each character shape to be identified uniquely.
In all our experiments, we have not extracted any
features from the images. The binarized pixel values in
the line image are used as features for the character.
IV. Experimental Evaluation
We have performed three kind of experiments differing
in the number of fonts for train and test data. These exper-
iments have been classified into (i) Single Font-Single Font
(train-test), (ii) Multi Font-Single Font, and (iii) Multi
Font-Multi Font. Our experiments differ significantly from
the experiments done by Sankaran et al. [3] since we use
the whole unsegmented line images (which includes a space
character as a label in the output layer) for training the
network. Moreover, we do not calculate any extra features
on our images.
Figure 4. Four sample images taken from the training set. These
are synthetic line images generated using different fonts and different
degradation models.
A. Deva-DB – Devanagari Printed Text-line Image
Database1
For the experiments we generated both synthetic and
real scanned text-line images. The training data consisted
of pairs of Devanagari line images and the ground-truth
text file. The ground-truth was represented in Unicode
format. The synthetic line images for the experiments
were generated with OCRopus using various degradation
models [20]. Fig. 4 shows an example of an image used
for training. To generate the training set, we collected De-
vanagari (Hindi) text documents from various sources. The
topics in the training set include current-affairs, science,
religion and classical literature. This was done to make
sure that the training set covered all the commonly used
word and character shapes.
For real scanned images, we collected the Devanagari
text book scans from the work published by Setlur et
al. [21]. We segmented these whole page scan images into
line images and manually generated the ground-truth data
in Unicode format. Fig. 4 shows a few examples of line
images from the training set (synthetic).
To compare the quality of our training set, we take the
character and word statistics for comparison. Chaudhuri
et al. [22] has published the twenty most frequently used
characters in Hindi (Table I) based on three million Hindi
words. We collected a similar statistics for our training
data based on 9, 56, 405 words. As seen from Table I, the
relative frequency of the characters in our training set is
similar to the statistics provided by Chaudhuri et al. [22]
[22]. IIIT Hyderabad, India [23] has published a word
frequency from a Hindi language corpus containing three
million words. Our training set also matched the top ten
frequent words of that table.
The test set was divided into two groups. First set
consisted of 1000 synthetic line images generated from a
different text corpus (other than the one used for training).
The second set consisted of a set of 621 real scanned text-
line images consisting of different fonts and different levels
of degradations. Fig. 5 shows few sample images from the
second set containing the real scanned data.
1 Available free of costs from the authors
 Table I. Comparison of the character frequency in our Table II. Performance comparison of four sets of
training data set. The left side shows the frequency of experiments performed on Deva-DB. These experiments
characters as published by [22] and the right side shows the differ in types of fonts used in training/evaluation and also
character frequency in our set. The frequency of most the type of test data, i.e., synthetic or scanned.
common characters in our set is quite close to the
frequency of characters published by [22] No. Training Data Test Data CER(%)
1 Single Font, 24000 images Single-Font, Synthetic 1000 1.2
. (1, 855, 410 chars) images (80, 500 chars)
Symbol Occurence(%) Symbol Occurence(%) 2 Multi-Font, 24000 images Single Font, Synthetic 621 4.1
(1, 855, 410 chars) images (22, 517 chars)
◌ा 10.12 ◌ा 8.33
3 Multi-Font, 24000 images Multi-Font, Synthetic 621 2.7
क 7.94 क 6.81 (1, 855, 410 chars) images (22, 517 chars)
र 7.40 र 6.07 4 Multi-Font, 24000 images Multi-Font, Real Data 621 9.0
(1, 855, 410 chars) images (22, 517 chars)
◌ेे 6.53 ◌ेे 5.13
न 5.06 त 4.22
◌ी 4.47 ि◌ 4.19 detect it in some cases. The first image in Fig. 5 shows
ह 4.39 न 4.08 an example of such a deletion on the character ज.
स 4.36 स 3.93
The character ‘◌्’ indicates that the preceding should
त 4.32 ह 3.50 fuse with the succeeding character of ‘◌्’. If ‘प’ (pa) were
ि◌ 4.22 ◌ी 3.33 to fuse with character ‘र’(ra), the code sequence would
be ‘प’ + ‘◌्’+ ‘र’. The compound character has a shape
‘ू’(pra). As can be seen, the shape of the compound
B. Performance Metric character represents ‘प’ (pa) more than ‘र’ (ra) (This is the
The recognition accuracy is measured as “Character case with all the consonants which fuse with ‘र’ i.e. they
Error Rate (%), in terms of edit distance, which is a ratio take the shape of the first consonant). Therefore, there is a
between the insertion, deletion and substitution errors and high chance that the network might predict it as ‘प’. When
the total number of characters. this happens, we have a deletion of two characters which
are ‘◌्’ and ‘र’. This explains why the top three confusions
are deletions. In the fourth image in Fig. 5, the conjunct
C. Results character ‘ ’ is replaced by consonant ‘ख’ because of a
The LSTM network was trained at two levels. The first similar shape. This is one such example of deletion of ‘◌्’.
one was with images only from a single font (Lohit Hindi) The top deletion errors can be reduced by taking into
and second one trained with a training set consisting of consideration the pixel variation in the vertical direction
images from multiple fonts. The results of the experiments as well. Whereas other substitution errors can be removed
are summarised in the Table II. While creating multi-font by training on data which has more samples of these
training set, we used seven different fonts: Lohit Hindi, substituted shapes.
Mangal, Samanata, Kalimati, NAGARI SHREE, Sarai,
DV ME Shree. To compare the performance of LSTM network, we
evaluated the well known OCR engine Tesseract [24] on
our real test set. Tesseract results showed an error of
V. Error Analysis and Discussions
11.96% (with the default Hindi model) on the same test set
Sample images of the scanned text-line images along where LSTM network gave an error of 9%. The confusion
with the LSTM-based line recognizer are shown in Fig. 5.
The error made by the network is highlighted in red color.
Apart from errors due to the confusions between similar
shapes, one main reason for errors in these images is the
ink spread on scanned text-line images. This ink spread
makes it harder for LSTM networks to correctly recognize
the similar characters.
Although the confusion matrix in Table III shows most
of the confusions to be similar in shape, the top confusions
(◌ं, ◌्, र) happen to be deletions (network missing the
character) or insertion (network erroneously inserting a
character). This appears very strange at the first look. But
a deeper analysis of the problem lead us to the conjunct
characters in Devanagari.
Figure 5. Samples taken from the real scanned set of line images
Character ‘◌ं’ is a vowel which when combined with a where LSTM-based line recognizer fails. These samples not only vary
consonant appears as a dot on the top of the consonant. For in fonts but also in the degree of distortion due to ink spreads and
instance, when combined with the consonant ‘त’ (tha), the distortion from the scanner.The corresponding Unicode output from
conjunct character would appear as ‘त’ं (than). A network the LSTM is also shown on the right side of each image. The errors
in the output are marked in red. The errors have mostly occurred
trained with distorted images, can treat ‘◌ं’ (with a high at places where the ink spreads are such that the LSTM could not
probability) as a distortion in the image and would fail to differentiate between two similar characters.
Table III. The top confusions from all four experiments (see Table II) and from Tesseract OCR Engine. ‘_’ corresponds to
a deletion (Pred.) or an insertion (GT). The top two confusions are deletions or insertions in all but one case.

Experiment1 Experiment2 Experiment3 Experiment4 Tesseract

Count Pred GT Count Pred GT Count Pred GT Count Pred GT Count Pred GT
521 _ ◌् 103 ◌् _ 119 _ ◌ं 97 ◌् _ 57 _ .
323 _ र 91 _ ◌ं 108 व ब 89 . , 45 _ ◌ं
317 _ ◌ं 63 _ र 88 _ ◌् 83 व ब 40 व ब
265 ◌् _ 59 व ब 66 _ र 74 _ ◌ं 24 ◌ _
235 ◌ू ◌ृ 52 . , 53 ◌ं _ 65 _ र 23 ◌ो ◌ी
221 _ . 51 ◌ो ◌ी 50 प म 56 ◌ो ◌ी 18 जा आ
206 त न 42 य थ 49 ◌ी ◌ौ 41 प म 17 ब व
183 व ब 42 त न 49 . , 40 _ , 12 । !

matrix from Tesseract also shows the top confusions to be
deletions. The character ‘◌ं’ also appears as the top deleted
character in the confusion matrix.
VI. Conclusions
The complex nature of the Devanagari script (involving
fused/conjunct characters) makes the OCR research in
Devanagari a challenging task. We have introduced a new
database, Deva-DB, comprising of Ground-truthed text-
line images from various scanned pages and synthetically
generated text-lines. OCRopus line-recognizer has been
adapted and trained on this database. This LSTM-based
system yielded a character error rate of 1.2% when the test
fonts matched that of the training data but the error rate
increased (9%) when tested on scanned data (different set
of fonts). The important issue that the network faced while
classifying the characters was that of conjunct characters
and the cases where characters are vertically stacked. The
shape and position of these vertically stacked glyphs vary
widely with different fonts. The top error is the deletion of
‘◌ं’. To address these issues and as a future step, 2D-LSTM
can be evaluated for this database and may improve the
accuracy as these nets would scan the text-lines not only
sideways, but also top-down. We believe that this would
give an improved result since the pixel variation in the
vertical direction would also be taken into account.
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