- How do they get nutrients?
If well nourished,
CELL – the basic unit of life
TISSUES – group of cells
 Epithelial
 Connective
 Muscle
 Nervous
EPITHELIAL TISSUES
- Cover body surfaces
- Located at outer layer of skin and lining of
organs
- Also found in glandular tissue
 GLANDULAR TISSUE - a type of tissue
that lines certain internal organs,
Classification of Epithelium
makes and releases substances in the
body e.g. MUCUS, DIGESTIVE JUICES,
AND OTHER FLUIDS
- Located in stomach, colon,
pancreas, prostate gland,
uterus, cervix
- Play roles in absorption, filtration, secretion,
and protection against foreign substances
- These are widespread throughout the body.
They form the covering of all body surfaces,
line body cavities and hollow organs.
- The major tissue in glands.
Special Characteristics of Epithelium
- Usually fit closely together in continuous
sheets
• Exception: glandular epithelium
- AVASCULAR (Have no blood supply of their
own)
1. Intercellular matrix
 It fills the space between the
cells
 Internally process
 Salts, fibers
2. Extracellular matrix
 The space located outside the
cells that form extracellular
spaces
epithelial cells REGENERATE themselves
easily.
 REGENERATION – natural process of
replacing or restoring damages/missing
cells, tissues, organs to full functions in
plants and animals
- Have one free (unattached) surface or edge
called the APICAL SURFACE
 Exposed to body’s exterior or to
the cavity of an internal organ
- Lower surface of an epithelium rests on a
BASEMENT MEMBRANE / BASAL SURFACE
 Structure less material secreted
by both the epithelial cells and
the connective tissue cells
- Each epithelium is given 2 names
- First: indicates relative number of cell layers
 SIMPLE (one layer of cells)
 STRATIFIED (more than one cell
layer)
- Second: describes the shape of cells
 SQUAMOUS (cells flattened like
scales)
 CUBOIDAL (cube-shaped)
 COLUMNAR (shaped like columns)
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
- Simple squamous (SS) tissue is composed of
flat, scale-like cells that usually forms
membranes
- It lines the walls of blood vessels, pulmonary
alveoli (singular term alveolus) (shown here),
and the lining of the heart, lung, and
peritoneal cavities.
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
- This tissue is composed of a single layer of
cube-like cells.
- It lines the walls of kidney tubules, covers
the surface of ovaries, and is common in
 glands- EXOCRINE AND SALIVARY GLANDS
and their ducts.
SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
- This tissue is composed of a single layer of
tall cells.
- It often includes mucus-producing GOBLET
CELLS – located in intercalated within the
epithelia of the conjunctiva/ conjunctivitis,
respiratory epithelium, and gastrointestinal
epithelium.
 Goblet cells are basically arise
from stem cells and derived their
name goblet cup-like appearance
 Primary Function: To secrete
mucin and create a protective
mucus layer.
- It often lines the digestive tract.
 PHOTOMICROGRAPH – a tool use to
visibly and clearly to view simple
columnar epithelium.
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
- Although this tissue appears stratified, it is
actually composed of a single layer of cells of
different types.
- Although their nuclei are found at different
levels, each cell adjoins the basal membrane
(BM).
- This tissue lines the larger respiratory
passageways.
- It is often ciliated (arrows)
- Main functions: absorption and secretion
- Ciliated variety lines respiratory tract
 Mucus produced by goblet cells traps dust
and other debris
 Cilia propel mucus upward and away from
the lungs
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
- The term “stratified” refers to the layered
arrangement of cells.
- The outer layers of cells appear flat, but the
inner cells vary in shape from cuboidal to
columnar.
- Stratified squamous epithelium serves as a
barrier to the outside environment in
locations such as the skin, mouth, and
esophagus.
STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
- Stratified cuboidal epithelium (SC) is found
in the ducts of sweat glands and surrounds
Graafian follicles of ovaries.
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
- Shape of cells depends upon the amount of
stretching
- It lines organs of the urinary system
CILIATED EPITHELIUM
- Some epithelial membranes are made up of
cells with cilia, tiny projections that beat in
unison to move mucus along the surface.
- Ciliated epithelia in the trachea, for
example, sweep debris out of the
respiratory tract.
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
-A gland is defined as one or more cells
responsible for secreting a particular
product
Two major gland types:
 Endocrine gland
- Ductless since secretions diffuse into
blood vessels
- All secretions are hormones
- Examples include pituitary, pancreas,
ovaries, testes
 Exocrine gland
- Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial
surface
- Include sweat and oil gland

TISSUE – group of cells that working together
ORGANS – group of tissue working together
ORGAN SYSTEM - group of organs working
together
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Function
 Binds structures together
 Provides support & protection
 Fills spaces
 Produces blood cells
 Stores fat – For energy, insulation,
organ protection
Parts of tissues
 Structure:
- Tissue cells are widely separated by
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX – a large network
of proteins and other molecules that
surround, support and give structures to
cells and tissues in the body.
- Can be solid, semisolid, or liquid
 Matrix of connective tissue determine its
properties
Fibers of the Matrix
 WHITE FIBERS – contain collagen which
gives the fibers flexibility and strength
COLLAGEN – is a type of fiber that forms
structural elements found in vertebrae
tissues that transmit forces, store and
dissipate energy
 YELLOW FIBERS – contain elastin more
elastic than collagen but not as strong. They
are also thinner, less numerous, branched
and a pale yellow color
 RETICULAR FIBERS – thin, highly branched
collagenous fibers that provide support.
Utilizes stains.
Classification of Connective Tissue
1. FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Loose (areolar) connective tissue
 Adipose
- Dense connective tissue
 Regular
 Irregular
- Reticular connective tissue
A. LOOSE (AREOLAR) CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Lies between other tissues or between organs
binding them
- Cells made of fibroblasts – large, star-shaped
cells
 FIBROBLAST – is a type of cell that
contributes to the formation of connective
tissue, a fiber cellular material that supports
and connects other tissues/organs. Also
secrete collagen proteins that help maintain
the structural framework of tissues.
- Contains many white fibers (strong and flexible)
and yellow fibers (very elastic)
 ELASTIC FIBER – they in though connective
tissues such as blood vessels, lungs, and
skin with critical properties of elasticity and
resilience
 COLLAGENOUS FIBER – a structural element
found in vertebrae tissues that transmit
forces, store and dissipate energy.
ADIPOSE TISSUE – is a type of loose connective
tissue that contains nucleus, fat droplet, plasma
membrane
- Stores fat, provides insulation
- Found beneath skin, around kidney & heart,
breast
B. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 DENSE REGULAR
– Consists of parallel bundles of collagenous
fibers
– found in tendons & ligaments
–binds organs together
 DENSE IRREGULAR
–Bundles run in different direction
– found in inner portion of skin
2. CARTILAGE
- Actually maintains extracellular matrix and
produced the cartilage matrix
- The word CHONDROCYTES, it is surrounded
by collagenous fibers being release
substances to make cartilage strong yet
flexible.
- The cell CHONCROCYTES lies in a small
chambers called LACUNAE.
- Matrix is solid yet flexible
- Strong, flexible connective tissue that
protects your joints and bones.
- It lacks direct blood supply, as a result it
heals slowly.
 Three types of Cartilage
 HYALINE CARTILAGE – trachea
 ELASTIC – ear
 FIBROCARTILAGE – ACL
3. BONES
- Most rigid connective tissues
- Minerals and protein fibers gives bone
rigidity, elasticity, and strength
 Two types:
 Compact Bone – heavy bone structure
forms the diaphysis
– Found in the outer portion of long bones
– consists of many cylindrical
– Shaped units called OSTEON
DIAPHYSIS – the shaft or central part of the
long bone
 Spongy Bone – soft and smooth bone
structure that forms epiphysis the long
bone
– Found on ends of long bone
– Contains bony bars and plates called
TRABECULAE separated by irregular spaces
– blood cells are made within the red
marrow found in the spongy bone
EPIPHYSIS – it is the end part of a long
bone initially growing separately from the
shaft. Other term for epiphysis is PINEAL.
4. BLOOD
- Connective tissue composed of cells
suspended in liquid matrix called PLASMA
 Red blood cells (ERYTHROCYTES) – carries
oxygen. Deliver oxygen from lungs to
tissues and organs.
 White blood cells (LEUKOCYTES) – fights
infection and part of immune system
 PLATELETS – fragments of giant cells found
in bone marrow. Help blood clot and
responsible for wound.
MUSCLE – It is one of the four primary tissue
types of the body. Muscle cells are specialized
for CONTRACTION. So that muscles can now
allow for motions such as walking. It also
facilitates bodily processes such as respiration
and digestion.
Functions of Muscle
1. MOVEMENT: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
muscles
2. STABILITY: skeletal muscle
3. COMMUNICATION: skeletal muscle
4. CONTROL OF BODY OPENINGS AND PASSAGES:
skeletal and smooth muscles
5. HEAT PRODUCTION: skeletal muscles
Muscle allow a person to move, speak and control
heartbeat, breathing and digestion. Other
seemingly unrelated function including
temperature regulation and vision also rely on the
muscular system.
Properties of Muscle
1. EXCITABILITY (responsiveness) respond to
chemical, mechanical, or electrical stimuli.
2. CONDUCTIVITY initiate events that lead to
contraction.
3. CONTRACTILITY ability to shorten substantially
4. EXTENSIBILITY able to stretch between
contractions.
5. ELASTICITY ability to return to original length
after stretching.
Three Muscle Tissues
1. SKELETAL MUSCLE
2. CARDIAC MUSCLE
3. SMOOTH
SKELETAL MUSCLE
- It forms the skeletal muscles which
attached to bones or skin and control
locomotion and any movement that can be
consciously controlled.
- Also called VOLUNTARY MUSCLE.
- Cells are long and cylindrical in shape
- Cells are
 MULTI-NUCLEATED– these are
eukaryotic cells that have more than
nucleus per cell. Multi- Nuclei.
- Cross-striations present
- Under voluntary control
- Being viewed under microscope so that we
can see the stipes appearance.
- Contractile proteins: ACTIN, MYOSIN, TITIN
 ACTIN – it is a highly abundant
intracellular protein present in all
eukaryotic cells and has pivotal role in
muscle contraction as well as in cell
movements.
 MYOSIN – responsible for prototype of
a molecular motor. Converts chemical
energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate) to mechanical energy so
it will generate force and movement
 TITIN – has several functions with
sarcomeres. Its main job is to provide
structure, flexibility and stability.
Interacts with other muscle proteins
including actin and myosin.
- Regulatory proteins: TROPONIN and
TROPOMYOSIN
 TROPONIN – is a sarcomeric regulator
striated responsible for skeletal and
cardiac that is for contraction
 TROPOMYOSIN – these are the family of
closely related proteins present in
muscle and non-muscle cells
 SARCOMERE is contractile unit of
skeletal muscle; defined as the distance
between 2 “Z” discs.’
Prefixes referring to Skeletal Muscle Tissue
- Myo- and Sarco-
- Myofibril, myofilament, endomysium,
perimysium, epimysium
- Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, sarcoplasmic
reticulum, sarcomere
Connective tissues and fascicles
 MYOFIBRIL – composed of bundles of
myofilaments
 ENDOMYSIUM – areolar CT covering
each muscle fiber and binding it to its
neighbors.
 PERIMYSIUM – dense irregular CT
covering muscle fascicles.
 FASCICLES – bundles of muscle fibers
surrounded by perimysium.
 EPIMYSIUM – covering of dense irregular
CT surrounding the entire muscle.
 MYOFILAMENTS – In cardiac and skeletal
muscles, myofilaments are key molecular
regulators of the contraction indeed
thick-thin interactions via the formation
of myosin cross bridges lead to force
production and motion
Skeletal Muscle Fascicle Arrangements
 FUSIFORM– thick in the middle and taper at
the ends
 PARALLEL – muscle fibers are all parallel
 PENNATE – fascicles are short and attach
obliquely to a central tendon (feather
shaped)
 CONVERGENT – spread out as a fan or
converge to a point
 CIRCULAR – muscle fibers arranged
concentrically
PARALLEL – fascicles are parallel to the long
axis of the muscle
 – Body of muscle increases in diameter
with contraction
– High endurance, not very strong
E.g. RECTUS ABDOMINIS or SARTORIUS
PENNATE – Muscle body has one or more
tendons – fascicles at oblique angle to tendon
– pulls harder than a parallel muscle of equal
size
 UNIPENNATE: all muscle fibers
on the same side of the tendon
(e.g. EXTENSOR DIGITORUM)
 BIPENNATE: muscle fibers on
both sides of the tendon (e.g.
INTEROSSEOUS)
 MULTIPENNATE: tendon
branches within the muscle (e.g.
DELTOID)
CIRCULAR – fibers arranged concentrically
around an opening
– Functions as a SPHINCTER to close a
passageway or opening (e.g. orbits,
mouth, and anus)
– E.g. ORBICUALRIS ORIS
CONVERGENT – triangular muscle with
common attachment site
– Direction of pull of muscle can be
changed
– does not pull as hard as equal-sized
parallel muscle
– E.g. PECTORALIS MAJOR
Functional Groups of Muscles
1. PRIME MOVER OR AGONIST – muscle whose
contraction is responsible for a particular
movement
2. SYNERGISTS – muscles that assist the movement
of the prime mover or agonist
3. ANTAGONISTA – muscle whose action opposes
that of the prime mover or agonist
4. FIXATORS – stabilize the origin of the prime
mover so it can move more efficiently.
 ORIGIN – point of attachment where least
movement occurs.
 INSERTION – point of attachment with
greatest movement
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MUSCLES
 Muscles are at times grouped as to the
regions where they are found and
function.
 INTRINSIC MUSCLES are localized to a
specific are (i.e. hand, tongue, back, etc.).
They function and are contained only
within that area.
 EXTRINSIC MUSCLES extend into other
area are responsible for movements of
area other than where they are attached.
Terms to know and identify
 SARCOLEMMA – plasma membrane
covering each muscle cell.
 SARCOPLASM – muscle cell cytoplasm
 THICK FILAMENTS – contractile protein
myosin molecules, shaped like a golf club
head. Thin filaments slide over thick
filaments but do not shorten.
 THIN FILAMENTS – contractile protein actin
molecules (f and G actin) also contains the
regulatory proteins tropomyosin and
troponin.
 ELASTIC FILAMENTS – titin and connectin
keep thick and thin filaments over one
another for proper contraction to occur;
comprise the “Z” line
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF A MUSCLE
FIBER
 SARCOLEMMA – The plasma membrane of
a muscle fiber
 SARCOPLASM – the cytoplasm of a muscle
fiber
 GLYCOGEN – An energy-storage
polysaccharide abundant in muscle
 MYOGLOBIN – An oxygen-storing red
pigment of muscle
 T TUBULE – A tunnel-like extension of the
sarcolemma extending from one side of the
muscle fiber to the other; conveys electrical
signals from the cell surface to its interior
 SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM– the smooth
ER of a muscle fiber ; a Ca2+ reservoir
 TERMINAL CISTERNAE – the dilated ends of
sarcoplasmic reticulum adjacent to a T
tubule
MYOFIBRILS
 MYOFIBRIL – A bundled of protein
microfilaments (myofilaments)
 MYOFILAMENT – A threadlike complex of
several hundred contractile protein
molecules
 THICK FILAMENT – A myofilament about 11
nm in diameter composed of bundled
myosin molecules
 ELASTIC FILAMAENT – A myofilament
about1 nm in diameter composed of giant
protein, titin, that emerges from the core of
a thick filament and links it to a Z disc; aids
in the recoil of a relaxing muscle fiber
 THIN FILAMENT – A myofilament about 5 to
6 nm in diameter composed of actin,
troponin, and tropomyosin
 MYOSIN – A protein with a long shaft like
tail and a globular head; constitutes the
thick filaments
 F ACTIN – A fibrous protein made of a long
chain of G actin molecules twisted into a
helix: main protein of the thin filament
 G ACTIN – A globular subunit of F actin with
an active site for binding a myosin head
 REGULATORY PROTEINS – troponin and
tropomyosin, proteins that do not directly
engage in the sliding filament process of
muscle contraction but regulate myosin-
actin binding
 TROPOMYOSIN – A regulatory protein that
lies in the groove of F actin and, in relaxed
muscle, clocks the myosin-binding active
sites
 TROPONIN – A regulatory protein
associated with tropomyosin that acts as a
calcium receptor
 TITIN – A springy protein that forms the
elastic filaments and Z discs
STRIATIONS AND SARCOMERES
 STRIATIONS – alternating light and dark
transverse bands across a myofibril
 A BAND – dark band formed by parallel
thick filaments that partly overlap the thin
filaments
 H BAND – A lighter region in the middle of
an A band that contains thick filaments
only; thin filaments do not reach this far
into the A band in relaxed muscle
 I BAND – A light band composed of thin
filaments only
 Z DISC – A disc of titin to which thin
filaments and elastic filaments are
anchored at each other end of a sarcomere;
appears as a narrow dark line in the middle
of the I band
NEUROMUSCULAR CONTROL
 SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION - is
controlled by a nerve impulse (action
potential) transmitted by the motor nerve
from the brain or spinal cord.
 A motor unit consists of all the muscle
fibers controlled by a single motor neuron.
 Fine control muscles (i.e. eyelid muscles)
have fewer muscle fibers/nerve (2:1)
 A contraction is initiated by an action
potential (nerve impulse) and followed by
the release a chemical neurotransmitter at
the neuromuscular junction (NMJ)
 Neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle is
ACETYLCHOLINE
 Each muscle fiber is innervated bya single
motor neuron
 Contractions may be graded or full due to
the number of muscle fibers that respond
 to the stimulus. The more fibers, the - Stain a pale color due to little myoglobin
greater the muscle contraction - Largest in diameter of all three fiber
 SYNAPSE – functional connection between a types
nerve fiber and its target cell - Depend on anaerobic glycogenolysis to
 NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION – synapse make ATP
between a motor nerve and muscle fiber - Contract rapidly and fatigue easily
 SYNAPTIC KNOB, TERMINAL OR BOUTON – - More prominent in upper limbs for large
bulbous swelling at the end of a motor work loads
nerve above the motor end plate on the - Majority of fibers in body are white
muscle fiber
 SYNAPTIC CLEFT – gap between the synaptic CARDIAC MUSCLE
knob at the motor end plate Characterized by:
 SYNAPTIC VESICLES – small packets of  Cross-striations
neurotransmitter chemical (e.g.  Intercalated discs
acetylcholine, norepinephrine, etc.)  Uni-nucleate cells
 Automaticity
SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER TYPES  Composed of the same contractile proteins
 The fiber is based on the BIOCHEMICAL as skeletal muscle
PROCESS for making ATP and how fast the
fibers contract. SMOOTH MUSCLE
 Red or slow oxidative fibers [dark staining Characterized by:
(R)]  Spindle shaped cells
 Intermediate or Fast oxidative fibers [lighter  Uni-nucleate cells
(I) staining]  Involuntary control
 Fast glycolytic g=fibers [white (W) or non-  Found in walls of hollow organs, blood
staining] vessels and glands

 SLOW OXIDATIVE (R):

- Dark staining red in color = abundant
myoglobin
- Manufactures ATP by aerobic glycolysis
- Contract slowly and are more resistant to
fatigue
- Ex. Back muscles and support muscles
 INTERMEDIATE FAST OXIDATIVE (I)
- Stains less darkly than red but slightly
larger
- Produce ATP via aerobic metabolism like
slow
- Contract faster and more powerfully
than slow
- Abundant in lower limbs = contract for
long periods
 WHITE OR FAST GLYCOLYTIC FIBERS (W):