OTC 8498
Considerations for Line Pipe Material Reliability
J.F. Kiefner and W.G. Morris, Kiefner &Associates, Inc.
Copyright 1997, Offshore Technology Conference
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 1997 Offshore Technology Conference held In
Houston Texas, MMay 1997
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Abstract
Line pipe material selection can be a critical element in the
safety and reliability of any pipeline, but the penalties for
inadequate quality are usually higher in an offshore environment
than onshore. Problems can be avoided if the focus during
material selection includes consideration of strength, toughness,
weldability and quality assurance. This paper addresses the
factors which affect line pipe quality such as grade, seam type,
transition temperature, toughness, and chemical content. Also
discussed are mill inspection; hydrostatic testing; and the
transportation of line pipe.
Introduction
Line pipe quality should be a major concern for any pipeline
operator. First and foremost, high quality pipe enhances pipeline
safety and reliability. Second, the overall cost of constructing a
pipeline can turn out to be higher through an ill-considered
attempt to sacrifice quality as a means of "saving" money. Line
pipe material selection should he focused on strength, toughness,
weldabiIity, and coatability. A line pipe purchaser needs to be
aware of the many factors which affect these properties.
Background
Thirty years ago almost all line pipe materials were essentially
carbon-manganese steels made by the open hearth process, ingot
casting, blooming, billeting and hot rolling or hot forming. Very
little was done or could have been done to effect enhanced
toughness and weldability. On the other hand obtaining adequate
strength for levels up to and including X52 was not a problem.
Most current line pipe materials are low-carbon, microalloyed
steels usually made by either the basic oxygen process or
electric-arc steelmaking, continuous casting and sophisticated
rolling or forming techniques.' These processing steps alone
result in cleaner steels with lower carbon contents both of which
facilitate enhanced toughness and weldability. Additional steps
such as hot-metal pretreatment2 between the blast hmace and the
steelmaking process, and ladle metallurgy processing after steel-
making can lead to very clean (low sulfur), fine-grained steels
with optimum strength, toughness, and weldability. However,
these outcomes are not guaranteed because problems can arise
even with the newer materials which can adversely affect pipe
quality. The question for pipe purchasers then becomes: How
does one assure without being a metallurgical expert and without
following and understanding every step of the process, that the
quality of a given line pipe order will be satisfactory? The
answer lies in preparing an adequate specification, selecting a
manufacturer in which one can have confidence, and in provid-
ing proper monitoring to see that the specification is followed.
Developing Specifications
Since 1928 almost all line pipe has been made in accordance
with API Specification 5L. This standard gives minimum
requirements, and many if not most purchasers opt for require-
ments which exceed the minimum levels embodied in Specifi-
cation 5L. Ofien the company-specific specifications rely heavily
on Specification 5L and deviate from it only for issues of
particular importance to the purchaser.
Most purchasers' specifications contain requirements in the
following categories:
Pipe Description
Steel Making Processes
Pipe Manufacturing Processes
Chemistry
Tensile Properties
Fracture Toughness
Hydrostatic Tests
Dimensions, Weights, lengths
Pipe Ends
 >
J F KIEFNER, W .G. MORRIS
Nondestructive Inspection
Workmanship, Repair of Defects
Additional Quality Assurance
Marking
Coating
l'lpe Transportation and Loading
Reports, Records
Warranties.
While a purchaser's specification may address each of these
lssues it is not necessary, and in fact, it is often counter-produc-
tive to go into excessive detail in these areas. Presented below
are some considerations on which to base a specification to
obtain adequate-quality line pipe.
Pipe Description or Scope. This section of a specification,
which some purchasers call the "scope", usually spells out the
type (e.g., seamless, welded, or both) and the sizes and grades
covered. For example one may write a specification for electric
resistance welded pipe in sizes ranging form 2% in. OD to 24 in.
OD covering Grades X42 through X70. This section usually also
states that the pipe shall conform to the latest edition or revision
of API Specification 5L except where the purchaser's supplemen-
tary requirement exceeds those of Specification 5L. In the latter
ease it may contain a statement to the effect that the purchaser's
specification shall govern for those provisions which exceed the
corresponding 5L requirements.
Another item that ought to be part of the scope is some
mention of the type of products to be transported especially if the
nature of the product may adversely affect the pipe. For example,
if the product is to be corrosive or to contain H,S, the manufac-
turer should be alerted to the special requirements that these
factors might impose on the finished pipe material.
Finally, the purchaser may wish to state that a quote based
upon the specification without deviation is required but to invite
the manufacturer to separately quote any alternatives that might
reduce the cost without significantly affecting the quality of the
material.
Steelmaking Processes. Currently, it is believed that most line
pipe steels are made by either basic oxygen or electric-arc
rurnace steelmaking. Open-hearth steelmaking, if still available,
should be avoided because it is not conducive to the production
of clean, low-carbon steel. Either of the other two processes can
produce line pipe steel of acceptable quality.
What happens to molten steel made from a basic-oxygen
process vessel or an electric-arc furnace can vary widely
depending on the producer. It is probably not realistic for a
purchaser to expect to have much control over the processing
steps prior to skelp or billets reaching the pipe mill. The quality
o S the finished pipe must be assured in other ways as described
below. One reason is that unlike the steel industry of 30 years
ago, today's pipe mills seldom represent the downstream end of
a slngle integrated company. More typically, pipe mills are
independently operated even if owned by a major steel producer.
'I'hey may buy their skelp or billets from any of a number of
OTC 8498
sources. Generally, they will buy fi-om an appropriate facility in
order to meet a customer's specification. So, if the specification
requires a steel made to a fine grain practice with low carbon and
low sulfur and specific levels of fracture toughness, they will
obtain the raw material that meets these requirements.
It is useful for the purchaser to be aware of the possible
processing steps, however. In times past, a typical line pipe steel
was made in an open-hearth furnace; cast into ingots; reheated
and shaped into blooms, slabs or billets. Blooms or slabs were
subsequently hot rolled into skelp or plates for making seam
welded pipe. Billets were processed, heated and turned into
seamless pipes. The best quality materials were made from
"fully-killed" (i.e. fully deoxidized) ingots. Impurities in these
ingots tended to rise to the top by gravity and the ingots were
cropped to remove them. While these materials were improved
somewhat by bottom pouring the ingots and by microalloying
additions (vanadium, columbium or titanium) to control grain
size the best materials produced by these processes are definitely
inferior to the materials that can be produced today.
The making of steel by the basic oxygen process or in an
electric-arc furnace can result in material with lower carbon and
lower sulfur contents. Materials with lower carbon contents have
lower ductile-to-brittle transition temperatures and are more
readily weldable from the average steels of 30 years ago.
Reduction in the sulfur content tends to reduce the occurrence of
elongated non-metallic sulfides. The latter are quite detrimental
to ductile toughness and are especially detrimental in skelp
destined to make into electric resistance welded (ERW) line pipe
or in any material that may be exposed to H,S in service.
Aside from the steelmaking process, a producer may also
employ ladle processing to further reduce the sulfur content and
to introduce beneficial alloying elements. In most cases the
molten steel in the ladle, shrouded from contact with air, is
poured into a continuous slab or strand caster. These casters
allow the steel to solidify at the outside surface while remaining
molten internally to a point below the ladle outlet. The internally
molten steel may be stirred magnetically or subjected to "sofi
reduction"' to prevent alloy segregation. Spray cooling is used.to
lower the temperature of the slab or strand as it is gradually
curved into a horizontal position. A resulting slab is sent to a hot-
rolling mill; a strand is generally cut into billets for making
seamless pipe.
Skelp for seam welded line pipe is rolled in a special manner
referred to as thermomechanical controlled processing (TMCP).
'The hot working at a carefully controlled temperature in conjunc-
tion with prior alloy additions results in desirable grain refine-
ment. Extremely high strength levels such as X80 and higher can
be obtained by induced rapid cooling after rolling.
Even if the purchaser has technical specialists who understand
the elements of steel and pipe making, it is appropriate in the
purchaser's is specification to limit statements on the process of
manufacture to: the steel for line pipe shall be manufactured
either by the basic oxygen process or in an electric arc furnace.
It shall be fully killed and made to a fine grain practice.
OTC 8498 CONSIDERATIONS FOR LINE PIPE MATERIAL RELIABILITY
Pipe Manufacturing Process. Most line pipe is made as
seamless, electric-welded, or furnace butt-welded pipe.3Furnace
butt-welded pipe is so limited in size and grade that it is not a
practical method for malang pipe for high pressure pipelines.
Therefore, the practical choices evolve to seamless and electric-
welded pipe. The seams of electnc-welded pipe may be electric
resistance welded (ERW) or submerged-arcwelded (SAW).
Seamless pipe is made one round at a time from single billets
by one of several possible multi-step hot-forming ~rocesses.~ As
a result it is generally more expensive, pound for pound, than
welded pipe. It is made in sues ranging from 23!-in. diameter
through 24-in. diameter and in grades from Grade A through
Grade X60. It may be obtainable in higher grades but such
materials may require special heat treatment. If so the cost will
likely be quite high relative to welded pipe. Other seam welding
processes are recognized by the API Specification 5L, but they
are apparently not widely used.
ERW line pipe is made from coiled skelp in a continuous
process where the strip is edge trimmed and cold-formed from its
initial flat condition into a round hell.^^^ As the edges of the strip
are brought together electric current is passed between them
heating them locally to the point of melting or near melting just
as they are forced together by a pair of rollers bearing on the
unheated portion of the shell. The pressure forces the heated
edges together, upsetting excess material to the outside and
inside. The excess "flash"is trimmed fiom both surfaces. In most
ERW processes the just-completed weld zone is then immedi-
ately subjected to post-weld heat treatment. The weld zone is
reheated to a temperature which "normalizes" the microstructure
in the area of the bondline minimizing or eliminating possibly
unfavorable microstructural components created during welding.
Pipe segments of the desired length are then cut from the
continuous tube. In a few ERW mills the finished tube is
subjected to "full-body" normalizing where the whole tube is
heated to the normalizing temperature. In either case the pipe is
sized by passing it through rolls. ERW line pipe is obtainable in
sizes ranging from 23!-in. diameter through 24-in. diameter and
in grades ranging from Grade A through Grade X70. A few
manufacturers may offer Grade X8O ERW pipe.
In the past ERW line pipe has been sometimes viewed as an
inferior product. Some 25 to 35 years ago the seam welding was
done almost exclusively with low-frequency (60 to 120 cycles)
current or direct current. The bonding quality in these older
processes was more variable than it is with modem radio-
frequency sliding-contact or induction welders. In addition, even
after high-frequency welding became common, the lack of sulfur
and sulfide shape control common to open-hearth, ingot-cast
steels sometimes resulted in poor ERW weld zone properties. At
present, however, with low-sulfur controlled-rolled skelp andlor
sulfide shape control an ERW manufacturer has the potential to
offer a line pipe product that is as good as or better than the other
choices.
The third type of line pipe is that made fiom individual plates
with a submerged-arc welded seam. Typically, very large
diameter, heavy-walled line pipe materials are made by this
process. The process begins with the plates being squared at the
3
ends and edge trimmed and beveled along the long edges. The
plates are then cold-formed into "cans" roughly 40-feet in length.
In some cases the cans are formed in stages including edge-
crimping, U-ing (forming to a U-shape) and 0-ing (pressing the
cans to a round-shape). U-0 pipe is generally cold-formed
(expanded) to its final size after being seam welded by mech-
anical or hydraulic means.' In other cases the cans are formed by
means of pyramid rolls and the pipe is sized after being seam-
welded by means of rolls in much the same manner as ERW pipe
is sized.8
The seam-welding of SAW pipe is done in two passes both in
the flat position, one from the ID side and one fi-om the OD side.
Usually the ID pass is made first by means of a three-to-five wire
welding head. The pipe is then turned 180 degrees, and the OD
pass is made with a two or three-wire welder. No post-weld heat
treatment is required. Factors which can affect quality are the
filler-metal chemistry and flux chemistry and the manner in
which the first pass is made. Holding the edges in the proper
position and preventing relative movement while the first pass
solidifies are essential. For this reason some manufacturers tack
weld the edges of the cans prior to seam welding. Others rely
solely on mechanical restraint.
Straight-seam SAW pipe is obtainable is sizes ranging from
16-in. OD through 48-in. OD (larger sizes may be available from
manufacturers in Europe or Japan) and in grades from Grade A
through Grade X70. Grade X8O materials may be available
through certain manufacturers.
SAW pipe is also obtainable with a spirally-oriented seam.9In
this process, the plates are welded end-to-end so that a continu-
ous stnp is fed at the proper prearranged angle to a forming
stand. The spiralling strip is then continuously welded along the
incoming edge into a round tube. Both an ID and an OD pass are
made. Pipes of the desired length are then cut from the resulting
continuous tube.
A purchaser is probably better off developing a separate
specification for each type of pipe (i.e., one for seamless, one for
ERW, one for straight-seam (SAW) pipe, and one for spiral-seam
SAW pipe). This is because the processes and the quality control
measures differ significantly for each type. In any case, in a
specification intended for procurement of ERW pipe the pur-
chaser should specify that the pipe shall be made from skelp by
means of a high-frequency welder and that the post-weld heat
treatment shall result in full thickness normalization of the entire
wall, irrespective of the grade of material. For pipe sizes larger
than 8%-in. *e purchaser can usually demand that the pipe be
made from full-width-rolled skelp as opposed to "slit" skelp. The
latter is sometimes used for small-diameter pipe because it is
inefficient to roll strip that is narrower than a certain minimum
width. Some purchasers desire to avoid slit skelp because the
slitting may result in an edge passing through an area of alloy
segregation or a concentration of impurities. With the newer,
cleaner continuous-cast materials this is less of a problem than
it is used to be. However, one can minimize the risk by request-
ing that slitting be done so as to create an odd number of widths.
This avoids slitting in the precise center of the hot-rolled strip
4 J.F. KIEFNER, W .G. MORRIS
where the concentrations of undesirable components is likely to
be the highest.
In ordering ERW line pipe one should also request that the
manufacturer make available to the purchaser's representative (or
inspector) an etched macrosection of the weld area for cach
100 pieces of pipe or one per 8-hour turn which ever gives the
higher number of sections.
In all cases regardless of the type of pipe, the purchaser should
insist on a document to accompany the manufacturer's quote
which gives the details of the pipe manufacturing process,
(Manufacturing Procedure Specification). In this manner the
purchaser will obtain a clear understanding of how the pipe will
hc made and inspected and how quality will be monitored before
placing an order. The purchaser should also request the pipe
manufacturer's material specification by which the skelp or
billets are to be obtained. Included should bc an "aim" chemistry
which indicates generally what chemical contents can bc
anticipated.
Finally, if the pipe is to be coated with fusion-bonded epoxy,
thc purchaser should require that the surface condition be
suitable for coating. The main problem to be avoided is surface
slivers which, when raised by grit blasting and heating, cause
severe coating defect problems. The manufacturer should be
made responsible for either preventing or remedying any such
condition to the extent that it significantly degrades the surface
Chemistry. While one does not want to rely on the chemistry
limits of tne API Specification 5L, it is probably not realistic
to expect to obtain a very specific set of limits. Instead, it is
useful to set a few upper bounds and to request information
which will help in assessing the quality of the material. Of
greatest concern are carbon and sulfur. With modem steel-
making as described previously herein, carbon levels below
0.10% (by weight) and sulfur levels below 0.0 1% are rela-
tlvely easy to obtain. So a purchaser will probably not turn
away potential manufacturers by setting these as upper
bounds. Similarly, upper bounds can reasonably be set on
phosphorous, 0.0 1 S%, and nitrogen, 0.008%. In addition, it is
reasonable to set a limit of 0.40 on the carbon equivalent (CE)
Lvherc:
Mn CV+Ni Cr+ Mo+V
CE' C--+-.
6 15 i ability to arrest a propagating ductile fracture. Various criteria
according to the International Institute of Welding
(elements in percent by weight)
In reality, one is likely to get carbon levels in the range of O 05
LO 0.08% and sulfur levels of 0.00 1 to 0.009%. These are
acceptable if other required properties are as specified (tough-
ness and transition temperature, for example). Sulhr levels
hclow 0.001 , while desirable, might tend to make the cost
prohibitive.
Tensile Properties. The difficulty, if it can be called that, with
today's steels is not too little strength but too much If one
OTC 8498
were to order a Grade B material, it might be tough to get one
where the yield strength was actually between 35,000 and
40,000 psi. The main problem today is to avoid yield strengths
that are so high that the weld metal in the girth welds is over
matched and so close to the ultimate strength that the material
will buckle or wrinkle before it bends. This problem is usually
handled by specifying that while the transverse tensile yield
strengths of all heats or lots shall meet the API 5L minimum
level required for the grade, they shall not be more than
20,000 psi above the minimum.
Transition Temperature. One of the most important consid-
erations for line pipe is its transition temperature. To avoid
brittle fracture propagation which can be a problem for any
pneumatically pressurized system, the purchaser can require
the manufacturer to meet the requirements of Supplemental
Requirements (SRSA) of the API 5L Specification. It should
be noted that SRSA is not binding for a manufacturer unless
the purchase order makes it so. The standard test temperaturc
is +32"F (0°C). The intent is to have most of the tested speci-
mens (Charpy V-notch impact specimens) to exhibit ductile
behavior at that temperaturc. If the materials are to be exposed
to lower temperatures than +32"F (O0C), the purchaser should
require SRSA to be met at the lowest expected ambient tem-
perature of exposure. Note that the results should be based
upon transversely oriented specimens. The results from longi-
tudinally oriented specimens do not accurately represent the
behavior of primary concern.
An alternative to SRSA is Supplemental Requirement SK6.
This requirement is based on the use of Drop-Weight Tear Test
Specimens. These are full-thickness specimens made from
transversely oriented flattened samples. They provide a direct,
accurate prediction of full-scale fracture behavior of the pipe,
whereas Charpy V-notch results must be obtained from fixed-
size specimens and must be converted by empirical correlations
to equivalent !ill scale results." Therefore, they are preferred
over the Charpy V-notch specimens used under SRSA.
Toughness. Ductile toughness of a line pipe material as reflected
in the absorbed energy in breaking Charpy V-notch specimens
provides a direct measure of resistance to tearing or rupturing in
the presence of a flaw and a direct measure of the material's
are available to line pipe users to establish the minimum levels
needed to arrest crack propagation in pneumatically pressurized
pipelines. Even if high levels of ductile toughness are not needed
for a particular situation, the toughness of the material is a good
indicator of its quality. So a purchaser should require some
minimum level of toughness via Supplemental Requirement
SKSB. As in the case of transition temperature (SRSA) the SRSB
is binding on the manufacturer only if agreed to in the purchase
agreement. Also, as in the case of transition temperature, it 1s the
properties represented by transversely oriented specimens that
count. Results based on longitudinally oriented specimens may
overstate fracture resistance by a free factor of 2 to 3
OTC 8498 CONSIDERATIONS FOR LINE PIPE MATERIAL RELIABILITY
Hydrostatic Test. Each pipe length is hydrostatically tested
before it leaves the mill. The higher the test pressure, the better
the demonstration of its integnty. The standard test according to
API SL is to a pressure level corresponding to 90% of the
specified minimum yield strength (SMYS) of the material. The
test pressure is to be held for 5 to 10 seconds and the manufac-
turer must have a system in place to prevent a pipe from being
certified as having been tested unless it has in fact been tested.
As line pipe quality has risen generally over the past 20 years
manufacturers have become more willing to provide upon
request a higher standard of mill hydrostatic testing. It is not
uncommon for a manufacturer to agree to a test to 100% of
SMYS for a period of 20 seconds. Usually an escape clause
allows the manufacturer to reduce the pressure somewhat if a
problem is encountered with end seals during testing because of
yielding, but it may not be less than the minimum in API SL.
Non-Destructive Examination. the entire weld seam of welded
pipe after hydrostatic testing is subjected to NDE. Mills often
employ an in-line inspection system to perform detailed inspec-
tions at mill production speeds. The equipment should be
calibrated to the sensitivity standards established in API SL or
higher and verified dynamically (inspecting the calibration
standard at typical mill inspection speeds). While the API SL
sensitivity standards (N10 notch or '/a in. drilled hole) may well
be adequate for most applications, the inspecting techniques
(speed, seam tracking method, indication marking system)
greatly influences the effectiveness of the inspection and are thus
important to monitor throughout the mill run. Seam inspection is
often the last opportunity to locate and remove potentially
dangerous flaws. Company or third party inspectors can be used
too monitor calibration frequency and sensitivity as well as the
"proving-up" of indications.
End inspection for laminations using compression wave
ultrasonics is becoming less critical as steel cleanliness continues
to improve, but some end inspection may be required to hlfill
the mandatory h l l length inspection. Radiography or ultrasonics
are used to inspect pipe ends not adequately examined by the in-
line system. Welding can be more difficult due to fit-up control
at pipe ends, so inspection of ends is also important.
Dimensions. In some applications, dimensional considerations
are extremely important, such as offshore lay-barges which are
equipped to handle pipe of specific lengths. The API tolerances
often expressed as percentages allow large variations in the
dimensions of pipe, for example OD, especially as the sizes get
larger. Consideration should be given to the pipe application to
determine if more strict control of pipe dimensions is warranted.
Other Provisions. There are only a few other considerations for
purchase requirements that should be established to exceed the
requirements in API 5L. These are as follows.
Jointers should not be allowed. Generally the purchaser
desires to obtain the maximum lengths of pipes that can be safely
transported to the construction site. The API SL Specification as
written permits the manufacturer to make up a certain number of
5
h l l lengths by joining shorter pieces with one or more girth
welds. These pieces called ''jointers" should not be permitted.
Often they result from defects being removed. This is a hint that
the rest of the piece might have the problem as well but it
escaped detection.
Skelp welds should be prohibited except in the case of
spirally-welded pipe where the skelp welds must be made by a
SAW process with one pass being made on the OD and one on
the ID.
A complete description of all inspection processes, calibra-
tion procedures, and acceptance limits should be requested as
part of a manufacturer's quote.
A requirement should be included to limit the residual
magnetism in any finished pipe as measured by a Bell 600 gauss
meter to 20 gauss.
It is a good idea to have the location of the ERW seam in an
ERW material marked with paint on the OD surface on each
finished pipe.
For orders which will be shipped by rail, the purchaser
should require the manufacturer to load the pipe on rail cars
according to API Recommended Practice RPSL 1 (latest addi-
tion). This is important because improper load has resulted in the
development of "transit" fatigue cracks."
'Third Party Inspection. For pipe which is to be used in a
critical location where even a test failure cannot be tolerated
(e.g., offshore, under a major highway) it is advisable to contract
an inspection company to inspect the pipe after it leaves the mill.
This can be arranged so that the manufacturer must replace pipe
which is identified by the third-party as not meeting the pur-
chaser's specified requirements.
Warranty. If the purchaser intends to hydrostatically test the
pipe to 100% of SMYS it is often possible to get the manufac-
turer to reimburse the purchaser for finding, cutting out and
replacing any pipe which fails during such a test at a level up to
and including 100% of SMYS because of a manufacturing
defect. This provision usually must have a time limit and dollar
limit.
Mill Visits, Track Records OnSite Inspection
Most manufacturers welcome visits by potential purchasers. It is
prudent to visit and inspect candidate manufacturer's facilities
prior to requesting quotes. The team should include a purchasing
agent and a knowledgeable technical specialist. If the purchaser
cannot provide such a specialist an outside expert can be retained
to visit facilities and to advise the purchaser regarding the key
features noted.
Often it is possible to learn about manufacturer's track record.
Some information comes form informal testimonials of prior
purchasers. Other information may be available from outside
sources such as third-party inspectors. A key source of informa-
tion if it is available would be reject rates and reasons for rejects.
Finally, the purchaser should expect to provide either through
in-house personnel or through an objective third party, an on-site
team to monitor the manufacturing of the pipe order. The head
6 J F. KIEFNER, W.G. MORRIS OTC 8498

person of the team should have the authority to request that

Irregularities be resolved and to request that production be
stopped, if necessary, if a problem persists that results or may
result in degraded quality, until the problem can be successhlly
resolved.

Summary
It is possible to obtain line pipe with adequate quality for ~ t s
intended use. First, the purchaser must understand what level of
quality is needed for satisfactory serviceability Second, the
purchaser must understand the factors which affect that level of
quality. Third, a unequivocal commitment to this level of quality
should be made recognizing that any required level over and
ahove the minimum level available will come at a price. The
purchaser should also recognize that high quality line pipe at an
initially-high material cost may result in a lower overall project
cost. The savings occur from potential problems avoided because
the purchased material is adequate for its intended purpose

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0. (iroh, tI., "Manufacture of Spiral Weld Pipe". J Metals (Oct.
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Ranks High in Line Pipe Selection", Oil & G a s J ( 0 c t . 9: 1995).
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