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CHAPTER 1 Introduction PDF
CHAPTER 1 Introduction PDF
CHAPTER 1 - OUTCOMES
Chapter 1 - Page 1 of 11
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Surveying can therefore be divided into fieldwork (the actual measurements) and
office work (the calculations).
It requires care, skill, attention to details and good judgment. Each survey
presents particular problems, but if the principles are properly mastered, the
resourceful surveyor will have no difficulty in making the necessary applications.
It is essential that the surveyor shall understand the limitations of the instruments
that are used. The exactness, or precision desired, will vary according to the
purpose of the survey, but whether the survey is rough or precise, sufficient
checks must be applied in the field and in the preparation of plans so that the
inexcusable errors and mistakes may be eliminated from the final results.
Surveying is the first step (except for early planning) in all but the smallest
engineering or architectural projects and is often the last step before the
finished construction is accepted by the client.
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INTRODUCTION
7. As a portion of the work is completed, the builder will apply for payment for
that portion. In many cases, such a construction of earth embankments or
excavation, a surveyor hired by the consulting engineer measures the
quantity of work completed, and the builder is paid for this quantity. A
surveyor hired by the builder will check the measurements performed by
the consulting engineer's surveyor.
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INTRODUCTION
8. Some changes are usually made to the original plans while construction is
taking place. A surveyor hired by the consulting engineer surveys these
changes in the field and the construction plans are then revised to show
the construction "as built".
10. The group doing the field work is called the survey party, and the person
in charge is called the chief surveyor. Other members are named
according to the different tasks they perform.
11. In all cases, the surveyor should realize that surveying is not an end in
itself but is a service performed to assist someone else to achieve a goal,
in this case the construction of a manufacturing plant. The surveyor
should, therefore perform his work to best achieve the aims of his client or
employer.
3. A straight line is determined, that is, has its length and its position known
and fixed when the points at its extremities are determined; and a plane
surface has its form and dimensions determined when the lines that bound
it are determined.
5. The methods used to determine the position of a point will be dealt with
during the course on a continuous basis.
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INTRODUCTION
7. In most types of surveys the ruling principle is to work "from the whole to
the part". The idea of working in this way is to prevent the accumulation of
errors, which in some cases, tend to magnify itself very quickly. If the
reverse process is adopted and the survey is made to expand outwards, it
will generally be found that minor errors become so magnified in the
process of expansion as to become uncontrollable at the finish. On the
other hand, if an accurate basic control is established in the first place, not
only are large errors prevented and minor ones controlled and localized,
but it will be found that the detail begins to fall almost automatically into its
proper place, like filling in the smaller pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.
2. Plane Surveying: When the measurements cover such a small area that
the curvature of the earth can be ignored except when
dealing with elevations.
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INTRODUCTION
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INTRODUCTION
1. Are so called because they occur according to some system which when
known, can be expressed by some functional relationship, i.e. these errors
can be corrected for by computation or by adopting a certain procedure.
1. Remain when all gross errors have been detected and removed and when
all measurements have been corrected for systematic errors. These errors
are treated according to the laws of probability.
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INTRODUCTION
In the past, however, various systems have been used and for that reason
we provide a number of the units used in older surveys.
1. Linear
1 foot = 12 inches
1 Inch = 0,025 4 m
2. Area
3. Volume
1.5.4 Rounding
1. If K significant digits are required, discard all digits to the right of the (K +
1)th digit.
2. If it is 6 tot 9, discard it and increase the Kth digit by one; e.g. 1, 376
is rounded off to two decimal places as 1, 38.
3. If it is 5 and the Kth digit is even, discard it; e.g. 12, 3456 is
rounded off to two decimal places as 12, 34.
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INTRODUCTION
4. If it is 5 and the Kth digit is odd, discard it and increase the Kth digit
by one; e.g. 12, 343 52 is rounded off to 3 decimal places as 12,
344
3. Theodolites are graduated in degrees, minutes and seconds, but the input
for most calculators must be in degrees and decimals of a degree.
2 π radians = 360°
π radians = 180°
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INTRODUCTION
2. A map is drawn to such a small scale that some of the features shown on
it cannot be drawn to scale, but must be indicated by means of symbols.
1.7 SCALE
1. The fraction, or ratio, between the length of a line on a plan or the map
and the corresponding horizontal length of the same line on the ground is
known as the scale of the map or plan.
1
2. A scale means that one unit measured on the map represents 10
10000
1
000 of the same units on the ground. This scale of may also be
10000
written as 1 : 10 000 or 1 / 10 000 or 1 in 10 000.
1.8.1 Precision:
2. If the repeated measurements are clustered closely together, they are said
to have high precision. Precision is the result of the degree of perfection
used in the instruments, the methods and the observations.
1.8.2 Accuracy:
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INTRODUCTION
3. It does not necessarily follow that better precision means better accuracy.
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