LEVELLING

CHAPTER 4 - OUTCOMES

After studying this chapter, you should:

 Be able to give a clear and concise definition for spirit levelling.

 Be able to explain the difference between a level plane and horizontal plane.

 Know the levelling terminology by heart.

 Be able to level a line of points, calculate the closing error, adjust the closing
error and distribute the misclosure using the "rise and fall" method with full
arithmetic checks if you are given the necessary instruments and an assistant.

 If given the necessary instruments and assistant, be able to determine the level
of the underside of a bridge, soffit, etc.

 If given the necessary instruments and an assistant, be able to level a line of

points, calculate the closing error, adjust the closing error and distribute the
misclosure using the "height of collimation" method with full arithmetic checks.

 Know how to do levelling in such a way that possible errors can be detected and
/ or avoided.

 If given the necessary instruments and an assistant, be able to test a surveyor's

level for collimation error and furthermore express the error in mm per m.

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CHAPTER 4 - LEVELLING

INTRODUCTION

Levelling is that part of surveying dealing with the determination of heights

relative to a reference plane.

This height determination can be done in one of three ways namely:

 Gravitational (spirit) levelling

 Trigonometrical levelling
 Barometric Levelling

In Surveying Technology (Part 1), only the first method of levelling will be dealt
with.

4.1 SPIRIT LEVELLING

1. Levelling is the determination of the heights of points relative to a

reference plane, or relative to each other, by means of an instrument that
provides a line of sight perpendicular to that of gravity, that is a line of
sight that is horizontal.

2. The instrument that we use is called a surveyor's level which is used

together with a staff. Height differences are then obtained which will be
used in the calculations of the required heights of the points.

4.2 DEFINITIONS

1. Level Plane: A plane where all points are normal (perpendicular) to the
direction of gravity as indicated by a freely suspended plumb
line. It is therefore not a flat plane, and because of the
various components of the earth's surface, it does not have a
regular shape.

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2. Level Line: Is a line lying in the level plane and is thus normal to the
direction of gravity at all points.

3. Horizontal Plane: Is a plane passing through a point and being normal

to the direction of gravity at that point only. The
horizontal plane thus touches the level plane at that
point. In the small areas over which levelling
observations are done, the two planes may be
considered to be coplanar.

4. Horizontal Line: Is a line passing through a point and lies in the

horizontal plane and is thus tangential to the level
plane at that point.

5. Reference Plane: Is any level plane to which heights of points may be

referred. In South Africa, mean sea level is used as
the reference plane.

4.3 LEVELLING TERMINOLOGY

1. Back Sight: The first reading taken on the staff after setting up the
instrument. A back sight is always taken on a point with a
known or assumed height.

2. Bench Mark: A permanent reference point or mark, of known height.

3. Bubble: The spirit-level of a levelling instrument.

4. Collimation Line: The optical axis, or line of sight of a telescope.

5. Fall: The amount by which a point is lower than the preceding point. A
fall is denoted by an increased reading on the staff.

6. Foresight: The last reading from an instrument position. A foresight

must be taken on a fixed point or a footplate.

7. Intermediate Sight: Any reading that cannot be classified as a back sight

or a foresight. Intermediate sights are usually
unchecked.

8. Parallax: Change in the apparent position of one object regarding a

further one, due to change of the viewpoint - a possible
source of error in many kinds of observations.

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9. Reading: The observed reading on the staff as seen through the

telescope.

10. Reduced Level: The height of a point above (or below) datum - usually
mean sea level.

11. Rise: The amount by which a point is higher than the preceding point. A
rise is denoted by a smaller staff reading.

12. Staff: A plain or graduated measuring rod used in conjunction with a

levelling instrument. The staff is usually marked of in metres or
parts there-off.

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4.4 RISE AND FALL METHOD

Typical Field Book

Point B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R/Hgts. Corr. F/Hgt.

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4.4.1 Exercise 1

Point B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R/Hgts. Corr. F/Hgt.

A 1,230 15,400
B 1,810
C 2,020
D 1,680 1,430
E 1,910
F 2,300 2,050
G 1,690 15,410

4.4.2 Inverted Staff Readings

1. It is often necessary to determine the levels of points such as a soffit of a

bridge, underpass or a canopy. These points will normally be above the
collimation line. To enable us to obtain a staff reading on these points, the
staff is held upside down in an inverted position with its base on the
elevated points.

2. When booking an inverted staff reading, it is entered in the field book with
a negative sign (another convention is to draw a bar above the reading).
The reading is thus allocated a minus sign. The calculations continue in
the normal way, taking the sign into account.

3. An example of a levelling line including inverted staff readings is shown in

the drawing on the next page.

4. Each inverted reading is denoted by a minus sign and the rise or fall
calculated accordingly. In the sketch, the rise from TBM A to point X is:
1,342 - (-3,405) = 4,747.

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5. An inverted staff position must not be used as a change point as it is

sometimes difficult to keep the staff vertical.

6. Enter the readings shown in the sketch above, into the levelling sheet
below and reduce it to determine the rise or fall.

Point B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R/Hgts. Corr. F/Hgt.

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4.4.3 Exercise 2

Point B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R/Hgts. Corr. F/Hgt.

A 1,244 9,113 9,113
B 1,681
C 1,342
D 1,622
E 1,422 1,203
F 0,989
G 1,323
H 1,465
J 1,811 2,310
K 2,033
L 1,611 1,611
M 0,233
N 1,446 8,675

D 1,803 9,999 9,999

C 2,033
K 2,632 1,632
G -1,433
T 1,603 1,439
E 1,404 11,568

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4.4.4 Exercise 3

Point B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R/Hgts. Corr. F/Hgt.

A 1,780 45,480
B 1,540
C 0,910
D 1,270 0,760
E 1,800 1,510
F 1,340
G 1,700 1,970
F 1,080
E 1,560
D 1,330
C 1,490
B 1,580 2,110
A 1,830

A 1,230 9,990
B 2,040
C -3,250
D 2,050 2,030
E 1,880 9,340

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4.5 COLLIMATION METHOD

INTRODUCTION

The method that we have used up to now is known as the "rise and fall"
method.

This is a very suitable method for the reduction of your levelling fieldwork
when you determine the heights of for example bench marks.

The calculation is quick as well as the checking of the calculations.

We are now going to learn an alternative method called the "height of

collimation method".

1. This method of reducing levelling is used where many intermediate sights

have been observed. It is therefore quite suitable for engineering type of
levelling.

2. It is also used to set out levels for excavations or for fillings such as layer
work of roads.

3. The height of the collimation line must be calculated for each instrument
set-up.

4. When observing readings on an "upright" staff, the readings must be

subtracted from the height of collimation and when readings are
observed on an "inverted staff", it must be added to the height of
collimation.

5. Only readings from a specific set-up can be subtracted or added to the

height of collimation of that set-up.

6. The checking of the calculations is a bit lengthy, it is however essential

that all calculations are checked so that errors can be detected and
eliminated.

7. The correction is carried out using the same method as for the "rise and
fall" method.

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Collimation Height Method

Typical Field Book

Point B.S. I.S. F.S. Coll. Height R/Hgts. Corr. F/Hgt.

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4.5.9 Exercise 4

Point B.S. I.S. F.S. Coll. Height R/Hgts Corr. F/Hgt.

A 1,230 15,400
B 1,810
C 2,020
D 1,680 1,430
E 1,910
F 2,300 2,050
G 1,690 15,470

Calculation of the Arithmetic Check

ƩIS = ……………….. 1st Collimation Height ……………… x …. = …………………..

.
ƩFS = ……………….. 2nd Collimation Height ……………… x ….. = …………………..

Ʃ R/Hgts = ……………….. 3rd Collimation Height ……………… x ….. = …………………...

Ʃ = ………………… ↔ Ʃ = ……………………

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4.5.9 Exercise 5

Point B.S. I.S. F.S. Coll. Height R/Hgts. Corr. F/Hgt.

A 3,210 15,010
B 2,030
C 3,330
D 2,450 2,040
E 2,780
F 1,340 17,310

A 1,730 25,730
B -2,420
C 1,830
D 1,860 2,060
E 1,430
F -2,080
G 2,430 1,630
H 0,780
J -2,010 -1,920
K 1,200
L 1,890 26,120

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4.5.9 Exercise 6

Point B.S. I.S. F.S. Coll. Height R/Hgts. Corr. F/Hgt.

A 1,780 45,480
B 1,540
C 0,910
D 1,270 0,760
E 1,800 1,510
F 1,340
G 1,700 1,970
F 1,080
E 1,560
D 1,330
C 1,490
B 1,580 2,110
A 1,830

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4.6 SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVED STAFF HANDLING

1. The staff should be fully extended and clamped. Keep the bottom of the
staff free of dirt that could cause incorrect readings.

2. The staff should be held vertical for all readings. Use a staff bubble or
wave the staff slowly to and from the instrument - observe the lowest
reading.

3. Ensure that all points used as change points are suitable, alternatively,
use a footplate.

4. Take care that the staff is held in exactly the same position for the back
sight as it was for the foresight.

5. If the staff bearer is not ready for the observation, turn the staff face away
from the observer.

4.7 SUGGESTIONS FOR BETTER INSTRUMENT WORK.

1. Use a straight leg tripod (non adjustable) tripod for very precise work.

2. Carry the instrument resting on one shoulder, except where trees and
branches are present where the instrument should be cradled under one
arm with the instrument forward.

3. When setting up the instrument, apply force on the tripod shoe spurs to
force the tips of the tripod firmly into the ground. On concrete surfaces,
increase the distance between the tripod legs to increase stability.

4. When the instrument is set up on the side of a hill, place two tripod legs
downhill and the third leg uphill. Level the instrument by manipulating the
third leg.

5. Choose your instrument set up position carefully to ensure that the

maximum number of points can be observed from one set up.

6. Remove parallax before the commencement of observations.

7. Never move the instrument before a foresight is observed; otherwise, all

work done from (and up to) that set up will have to be repeated.

8. Check that the instrument stays level and that the compensator is
operating.

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9. Keep staff readings above ½ m from the ground to help to minimise the
effect of refraction on the readings.

4.8 ERROR SOURCES IN SPIRIT LEVELLING

4.8.1 Instrumental Errors

4.8.1.1. The level

1. Collimation error

A test can be carried out to determine whether collimation

error is present and the instrument can be adjusted.

2. Parallax

Focus the cross-hairs first and then focus the image of the
object.

4.8.1.2 The Staff

Wear at the joints - adjust if necessary.

4.8.1.3 The Tripod

Ensure that the tripod is in stable and sturdy condition, that is,
tighten all nuts and screws on the tripod regularly.

4.8.2 Handling errors

1. The Bubble

Ensure that the bubble is properly adjusted (it should stay inside the
circle).

2. Staff

1. Not vertical - use a bubble.

2. Use a footplate to ensure that the back sight and foresight are
taken on the same point.

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4.8.3 Personal Errors

1. Incorrect reading of the staff.

2. Incorrect booking of readings.
3. Bad arithmetic.
4. Telescopic staff not fully extended.

4.8.4 Natural errors

1. Wind - shield the instrument if possible.

2. Sun - use an umbrella for very precise work.
3. Curvature and refraction - keep back sights and foresights the same
length and refrain from taking readings closer than a ½ m from the ground.

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4.9 TESTING THE HORIZONTALITY OF THE COLLIMATION LINE

1.1. In a flat terrain a test line, between 40 to 60 m long is selected and divided
into two equal sections of length.

1.2. A levelling staff is set up at A and B. The instrument is set up at I1 first and
readings observed to A and B.

1.3. The instrument is then moved to I2 and readings observed to A and B

again.

TWO PEG TEST

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4.9.2 Calculation of the Collimation Error

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4.9.3 Calculation of the Collimation Error - Exercise 2

At set-up 1, readings were taken with an automatic level to A and B. The

level is then moved to set-up 2 and readings were taken to A and B.

Distances:

1 - A 60 m 1 - B 60 m
2-A 5m 2 - B 125 m

Readings:

1 - A 1,920 1 - B 2,345
2 - A 1,535 2 - B 1,900

1. Determine the collimation error of the level and express it in mm/m and
state if the instrument is reading too low or too high.

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