Unit III

Stem: morphology, anatomy and

modifications :
The two forms of stems. They are:
(1) Erect (Strong) Forms and
(2) Weak Forms.
 A. Erect Forms:

• A majority of plants have the erect habit. These

again may be subdivided into herbs, shrubs and
trees according to the strength of the stem.
i. Herbs:
The herbaceous stem is extremely succulent. The
plant is necessarily very small and may not even rise
above the surface of the soil. Very often (specially
among Monocots) it is subterranean giving rise to
some leaves at soil level.
• According to the duration of its life herbs
may be:
(1) Ephemerals—when the plants- live only for a
few weeks.
(2) Annuals—They last for one season every
year after which they flower and die.
(3) Biannuals or biennials require two years to
complete their life cycle.
(4) Perennials grow for a longer time.
ii. Shrubs:
Shrubs are larger than herbs and usually give rise to
woody branches from the level of the soil forming a
bushy plant without any main trunk. The woody
branches are never as strong as the trunk of a tree and
the plants are much smaller than trees.
iii. Trees:
Trees are the biggest plants with prominent woody
trunks which usually give rise to branches above.
Among them
(1) the caudex usually does not branch at all.
(2) In the excurrent trees the main stem grows
indefinitely and the side branches develop in a strict
acropetal order as in the Mast tree (Polyalthia
longifolia), Casuarina and Pine.

(3) The apical bud of a deliquescent tree is weaker than

the strong lateral buds and very often, it is destroyed at
some phase of its life so that the tree has a spreading
habit as in banyans and many common trees.
 B. Weak Forms:
• Weak plant forms are not capable of growing erect
without some help.
• These may be creepers, trailers or climbers.
i. Creepers :
Creeping plants are actually herbaceous plants. The
plants themselves are erect but they give rise to small
horizontal branches which are weak and after growing
for some length get rooted and give rise to small
daughter plants which again increase in a like manner.
e.g., Cynodon dactylon or dub
ii. Trailers:
• Trailers are prostrate plants having weak, long
and slender stems which trail along the
surface and do not try to climb up any
support. These are different from creepers in
being single plants which do not root from the
nodes and thus do not form daughter plants.
iii. Climbers:
• The climbers also are weak plants but they
usually grow besides some support and climb up
the latter so as to expose their leaves fully to
light.
• Climbing Plants recognised four groups of
climbers—
• (1) twiners;
• (2) tendril climbers;
• (3) root climbers and
• (4) scramblers.
• To these may be added (5) adhesive climbers and
(6) lianas.
 BUD

The bud is a condensed

rudimentary shoot.
It is a compact body
having an axis with a
delicate growing point,
nodes and very short
unexpanded internodes
and closely crowded
young leaves
• The plumule is the first bud of the plant

Buds are of two types, according to their position:

i. Apical on terminal buds are present at the apex of the stem
and the branches. They are responsible for the growth in length
of the axis.
ii. Axillary or lateral buds originate from the axils of the leaves.
Lateral buds usually grow into branches. Normally one bud
develops from the axil of a leaf, but in some plants like Duranta
(B. Mehdi), Rangoon creeper more than one bud may be present
there.
If each of the axillary buds develops into a branch then the
plants would naturally be many-branched ones, what is not
generally noticed in plants growing around us. It is due to the
fact that many axillary buds remain dormant. Dormant buds are
activated if the stem is injured.
• If buds arise from any
position other than the
normal ones, i.e. apex
and axil of the leaf, they
are called adventitious.
Adventitious buds may
develop from the stem,
roots and even leaves.
Modification of stem
 I. Underground modifications of
Stem:
Many plants produce underground stems for perennation and
food storage.
Although they resemble roots superficially but can be;
distinguishable from roots by the presence of following
features:
(i) Presence of nodes and internodes

(ii) Presence of scale leaves, buds and adventitious roots at the

nodes.

(iii) Internal structure resembles that of aerial stem and not of

root.
1. Rhizome:
• It is fleshy, non-green underground stem. It has distinct nodes and
internodes.
• The nodes bear dry scale leaves with axillary buds. Terminal buds also
present.
• Adventitious roots arise from the lower side.
• The rhizome that grow obliquely is called root stock rhizome (e..g.,
Alocasia, Dryopteris, Banana etc.) and when grow horizontally is called
straggling rhizome [e.g. Ginger, turmeric, Canna etc.).
 2. Bulb:
• It is a highly condensed discoid
stem its upper surface a terminal
bud and many fleshy scale leaves
are present.
• A cluster of adventitious roots
arise from the base of the bulb.
The bulbs may be tunicated or
scaly.
• A tunicated bulb is covered by a
sheath of dry membranous scale
leaves called tunic, e.g., onion and
garlic. In case of garlic, the bulb
consists of an aggregate of
bulblets or cloves, each covered by
its individual tunic.
• A scaly bulb is without any tunic,
e.g., Lily.
 3. Corm:
• It is a condensed form of rhizome growing in vertical direction.
• It is more or less spherical with a flattered base. The corm has distinct
circular nodes and internodes.
• The nodes bear scale leaves and axillary buds.
• Adventitious roots arise either from its base or all over the body.
• Examples- colocasia, corcus, Amorphophallus.
 4. Tuber
• Stem tuber is a swollen tip of
an underground lateral Stem
(Stolon).
• It is covered by a corry Skin
with a number small
depressions called eyes’. Each
eye represents a node, bearing
one or more buds subtended
by a leaf scar (= scale leaf).
• A big scar at one end (heel
end) of a potato marks its
attachment to the stolon.
Adventitious roots are usually
absent
• e.g., Potato.
 II. Sub-aerial modifications of Stem:

• In sub-aerial modifications, the stem is partly aerial

and partly underground.
• Short aerial branches and adventitious roots develop
at the nodes.
• Detachment of entire branch or a node can develop
into a new plant.
• The plants are commonly known as creepers and
their subaerial stem modifications meant for
vegetative propagation.
 1. Runner:

• It is a creeping stem with long

internodes, running horizontally on
the soil surface.
• The nodes bear axillary buds, scale
leaves and adventitious roots.
• Runner arises from an axillary bud.
A mother plant often produces a
number of runners in all direction.
Runners break off and grow into
individual plants, and thus help in
vegetative propagation.
• Examples – Cyanodon (Lawn grass),
Oxalis (Wood sorrel), Centella (Or.
Thalkudi) etc. An underground
runner is called sobole, e.g.
Agropyron.
 2. Sucker:

• It arises from the basal,

underground part of the main
stem.
• It grows horizontally for a distance
under the soil and then emerges
obliquely upwards.
• It develops a leafy shoot and
adventitious roots before
separating from the mother plant.
The common sucker-bearing
plants are Chrysanthemum (Or.
Sebati), Musa (banana), Mentha
(Or podina), strawberry, pineapple
etc.
 3. Stolon:
• It is a weak lateral branch that arises from the base of main stem.
• After growing aerially for some time it bends downwards to touch
the ground, where its terminal bud gives rise to a new shoot and
adventitious roots.
• The common stolon bearing plants are Jasmine, Colocasia, and
Vellisneria etc.
 4. Offset:
• It is a short runner with one internode long.
• It originates from leaf axil, grows as a short horizontal branch.
• It produces a rosette of leaves above and adventitious roots
below.
• Offsets art generally found in aquatic plants like Pistia (water
lettuce), Eichomia (water hyacinth), Houseleek etc.
 III. Aerial modifications of Stem:
In certain plants, the aerial stem or buds get
modified to perform special functions like
climbing, protection, food storage, vegetative
propagation etc.
 1. Stem tendrils:

• Stem or its branches get modified into green

thread like leafless structures called tendrils
which are meant for climbing.
• These may be branched or un-branched.
• A scale leaf is always present at the point of
branching of the tendril.
Stem tendrils are of four types:
(a) Axillary tendrils-e.g., Passiflora
(b) Extra-axillary tendrils-e.g., Cucurbita, Luffa
(c) Leaf-opposed or Apical bud tendrils, e.g.,
Grapevine (Vitis)
(d) Floral bud or Inflorescence tendrils – e.g.,
Antigonon, Cardiospermum (Balloon vine
 2. Thorns:
• These are straight, pointed, hard or woody structures
sometimes they bear leaves, flowers or even may be
branched.
• In Citrus, Duranta and Aegel thorns are modified axillary
buds;
• in Carrissa (Or. Khirkoli) terminal bud gets modified into
thorn.
• Thorns are used as organs of defence or climbing (e.g.
Bougainvillea) and check transpiration.
 3. Phylloclades:
• These are fleshy, green flattened or cylindrical branches of
unlimited growth.
• The leaves are modified into spines or scales to check
transpiration. They take part in photosynthesis and store
water.
• These are seen in xerophytic plants like Opuntia,
Euphorbia, Casuarina, Cocoloba etc.
 4. Cladodes or Cladophylls;
• These are green cylinderical or flattened leaf-like branch of
limited growth.
• In Asparagus, the cladodes are one internode long and in Ruscus
the cladodes are two internode long.
• They help in photosynthesis.
 5. Bulbil:
• These are modified vegetative or floral buds with
stored food and meant for vegetative propagation.
• In Dioscorea, bulbils are condensed axillary buds
while in Agava and lily the floral buds develop into
bulbil.
• They detach to become new plants.
 6. Thalamus (= Receptacle or torus):
• It is a condensed stem axis that bears whorls
of floral organs -calyx, corolla, androecium
and gynoecium.
• In Gynandropsis, Cleome and Silene the
thalamus exhibits clear nodes and internodes.
Anatomy of dicot stem
• It is circular/wavy in outline and remains
differentiated into epidermis, cortex, vascular
bundles and pith.
Epidermis:
1. It is the outermost layer of the stem.
2. Externally it is surrounded by a well-defined
cuticle.
3. It is single-layered with tangentially flattened
cells.
4. From some of the cells develop multicellular
epidermal hairs.
5. The continuity of the epidermal layer is broken by
certain stomata.
Cortex:
6. It consists of outer few layers of collenchyma, some
layers of parenchyma and an innermost layer of
endodermis.
7. Collenchyma region is 3 to 6 layered, and the cells are
thickened at the corners due to the deposition of pectin
and cellulose.
8. Parenchyma is present inner to the collenchyma in the
form of few layers.
9. The cells are thin walled and the parenchymatous
region contains many intercellular spaces.
• Sometimes sclerenchyma cells are also found
in cortex of some stems:
• Short, irregular in shape c/a stone cells.
• Long-thick walled dead cells c/a sclerenchyma
fibres.
10. Endodermis is the innermost layer of cortex
and consists of barrel shaped cells.
11. Cells of the endodermis contain casparian
strips and many starch grains.
Pericycle:
12. It is present in the form of semi-lunar
patches of sclerenchyma outside the phloem of
each vascular bundle.
13. Sclerenchymatous patches of pericycle are
interrupted by parenchyma.
Vascular Bundles:
14. These are conjoint, collateral sometimes
bicollateral, open and endarch.
15. These are arranged in a ring, and each consists
of phloem, cambium and xylem.
16. Phloem consists, of sieve tubes, companion cells
and phloem parenchyma.
17. Sieve tubes are narrow and associated with the
companion cells.
18. Cambium is present in between xylem and
phloem of the vascular bundles and consists of thin
walled, rectangular cells arranged in radial rows.
 19. Xylem:

It consists of vessels, tracheids, wood fibres and woody

parenchyma:
(i) Big vessels represent metaxylem while the smaller
vessels represent the protoxylem.
(ii) Metaxylem consists of reticulata vessels while the
protoxylem consists of spiral or scalariform vessels.
(iii) Tracheids are thick walled cells and surround the
metaxylem.
(iv) Wood fibres are thick walled and lignified.
(v) Wood parenchyma is present in the form of thin
walled cells.
Pith:
20. A well developed pith is present in the centre consisting of thin
walled, rounded or polygonal, parenchymatous cells.
Identification:
(a) 1. Presence of vessels in xylem. (Angiosperms)
(b) 1. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral, open and endarch.
(Stem)
(c) 1. Presence of cambium.
2. Vascular bundles are arranged in a ring.
3. Well differentiated cortex.
4. Well developed pith. (Dicotyledones)
Special Point:
Pericycle is present in the form of semilunar patches of sclerenchyma
outside the phloem.
Anatomy of monocot stem
• It is circular in outline with a well-defined
epidermis, hypodermis, ground tissue and
many scattered vascular bundles.
Epidermis:
• 1. It is the outermost layer of stem.
• 2. The outer wall of cells is covered by a thick
cuticle.
• 3. The continuity of the layer is broken by few
stomata.
• 4. Epidermal hair are absent.
Hypodermis:
5. It is two to three cells thick, sclerenchymatous
and present just below the epidermis.
6. Cells are polygonal is shape.
Ground tissue:
7. It is not differentiated into cortex, endodermis,
pericycle and pith.
8. The cells are parenchymatous and extend from
below the sclerenchyma up to the centre.
9. The cells are small and compactly arranged
below the hypodermis but they are large, round
and loosely arranged in the centre.
Vascular Bundles:
10. Vascular bundles are many and scattered in the
ground tissue with no definite arrangement.
11. They are small and more in number towards the
periphery than the centre of the section.
12. Each vascular bundle is conjoint, collateral,
closed and endarch.
13. A well-developed sclerenchymatous sheath
surrounds each vascular bundle which is more
prominent at its upper and lower faces.
14. Xylem and phloem constitute the vascular
bundle.
15. Xylem:
(i) Consists of vessels (protoxylem and metaxylem),
tracheids and xylem parenchyma.
(ii) Vessels are in the form of ‘Y’.
(iii) Metaxylem is present at the divergent ends of ‘
Y’ in the form of two big oval vessels.
(iv) Protoxylem is present at the lower arm of’ Y’,
consisting of two small vessels.
(v) Protoxylem is surrounded by tracheids and
xylem parenchyma.
(vi) Inner protoxylem vessel and parenchyma break
down and form a Water-containing cavity called
lysigenous cavity.
16. Phloem:
(i) Consists of only sieve tubes and companion
cells.
(ii) Phloem fibres and phloem parenchyma are
absent.
(iii) The outer parts of the phloem, which is
broken and disorganized, is called protophloem.
(iv) Inner phloem contains sieve tubes and
companion cells, and called metaphloem.