Technical communications 

is the delivery of technical information to readers (or listeners or

viewers) in a manner that is adapted to their needs, level of understanding, and background.

Technical communication is a term that encompasses the strategies used to convey complex
information about technical services, products, systems, or processes to targeted audiences.

Technical communication is a means to convey scientific, engineering, or other technical

information.[1] Individuals in a variety of contexts and with varied professional credentials engage
in technical communication. Some individuals are designated as technical communicators
or technical writers. These individuals use a set of methods to research, document, and present
technical processes or products. Technical communicators may put the information they capture
into paper documents, web pages, computer-based training, digitally stored text, audio, video,
and other media.

Importance

ITS IMPORTANCE FOR ENGINEERS

Technical communication has to be correct, accurate, clear, appropriate, and to the point. The
language should be clear and easily understandable. One of the chief objectives of Technical
Communication is to provide organized information that aids in quick decision-making.

Aim

Inform an audience of facts, concerns, or questions you may have. Instruct an audience by
directing actions. Persuade an audience to accept your point of view. Build trust and rapport by
managing work relationships.

Features

Technical communication is a broad field and includes any form of communication that

exhibits one or more of the following characteristics: Communicating about technical or
specialized topics, such as computer applications, medical procedures, or environmental
regulations.

The value that technical communicators deliver is twofold: They make information more useable
and accessible to those who need that information, and in doing so, they advance the goals of
the companies or organizations that employ them. The following examples illustrate the value of
the products technical communicators produce or the services they provide.
 Software instructions help users be more successful on their own, improving how easily those
products gain acceptance into the marketplace and reducing costs to support them.
 Medical instructions help patients and care-providers manage a patient’s treatment, improving
the health of the patient while reducing costs and risks associated with incorrect care.
 Functional specifications and proposals help one group of technical experts communicate
effectively with other technical experts, speeding up development cycles, reducing rework
caused by misunderstandings, and eliminating risks associated with miscommunication.
 Training programs provide people with new or improved skills, making them more employable
and their organizations and products more efficient and safe.
 Well-designed websites make it easier for users to find information, increasing user traffic to and
satisfaction with those websites.
 Technical illustrations clarify steps or identify the parts of a product, letting users focus on
getting their task done quickly or more accurately.
 Usability studies uncover problems with how products present themselves to users, helping
those products become more user friendly.
Meaning of communication

Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place, person or
group to another.

the imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other medium.

Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place, person or group to
another. Every communication involves (at least) one sender, a message and a recipient.

Communication (from Latin communicare, meaning "to share")[1][better source needed] is the act of

conveying meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually
understood signs, symbols, and semiotic rules.

Communication: Meaning, Purpose, Importance and Principles

Read this article to learn about the meaning, purpose, importance and principles
of communication.
Meaning and Nature of Communication:
The exchange of information or passing of information, ideas or thought from one person to the
other or from one end to the other is communication. According to McFarland communication
is, “a process of meaningful interaction among human beings. More specifically, it is the process
by which meanings are perceived and understandings are reached among human beings.”
Newman and summer defined communication as “an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or
emotions by two or more persons.”

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Communication is the process of passing information from one person to another. The purpose
of communication understands of information. Whatever one wants to say to someone should
be clearly understood by him else the very purpose of the communication would be defeated.

In an organisation communication facilitates the flow of information and understanding

between different people and departments through different media using all the channels and
networks. This flow of information is vital for managerial effectiveness and decision making in
general and for human resource manager in particular as he has to be in contact with the
managers of various departments, employees and workers and trade union leaders.

Communication thus helps understand people better removing misunderstanding and creating
clarity of thoughts and expression. It also educates people. The communication may be written
or oral, formal, informal, and upward, downward, horizontal, diagonal, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, interdepartmental, intra-organisational.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The communication brings people together, closer to each other. The communication is an
important management function closely associated with all other managerial functions. It
bridges the gap between individuals and groups through flow of information and understanding
between them. Information is the most vital aspect for communication. It is the information
which is transmitted, studied, analyzed and interpreted and stored. The manager therefore has
to spare time to collect, analyze and store the information for decision-making and routine day
to day business.

Purpose of Communication:
Management is getting the things done through others. The people working in the organisation
should therefore be informed how to do the work assigned to them in the best possible manner.
The communication is essential in any organisation.

The purpose of the communication can be summed up into the following:

1. Flow of Information:
The relevant information must flow continuously from top to bottom and vice versa. The staff at
all levels must be kept informed about the organisational objectives and other developments
taking place in the organisation. A care should be taken that no one should be misinformed. The
information should reach the incumbent in the language he or she can understand better. The
use of difficult words should be avoided. The right information should reach the right person, at
right time through the right person.

2. Coordination:
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It is through communication the efforts of all the staff working in the organisation can be
coordinated for the accomplishment of the organisational goals. The coordination of all
personnel’s and their efforts is the essence of management which can be attained through
effective communication.

3. Learning Management Skills:

The communication facilitates flow of information, ideas, beliefs, perception, advice, opinion,
orders and instructions etc. both ways which enable the managers and other supervisory staff to
learn managerial skills through experience of others. The experience of the sender of the
message gets reflected in it which the person at the receiving end can learn by analyzing and
understanding it.

4. Preparing People to Accept Change:

The proper and effective communication is an important tool in the hands of management of
any organisation to bring about overall change in the organisational policies, procedures and
work style and make the staff to accept and respond positively.

5. Developing Good Human Relations:

Managers and workers and other staff exchange their ideas, thoughts and perceptions with each
other through communication. This helps them to understand each other better. They realize
the difficulties faced by their colleagues at the workplace. This leads to promotion of good
human relations in the organisation.

6. Ideas of Subordinates Encouraged:

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The communication facilitates inviting and encouraging the ideas from subordinates on certain
occasions on any task. This will develop creative thinking. Honoring subordinates’ ideas will
further motivate them for hard work and a sense of belonging to the organisation will be
developed. It will provide them with the encouragement to share information with their
superiors without hesitation. The managers must know the ideas, thoughts, comments,
reactions and attitudes of their subordinates and subordinates should know the same from the
lowest level staff of their respective departments.

Importance of Communication:
Effective communication is vital for efficient management and to improve industrial relations.
In modern world the growth of telecommunication, information technology and the growing
competition and complexity in production have increased importance of communication in
organisations large and small irrespective of their type and kind. A corporate executive must be
in a position to communicate effectively with his superiors, colleagues in other departments and
subordinates. This will make him perform well and enable him to give his hundred percent to
the organisation.

The following points can illustrate the importance of communication in human

resource management:
1. Base for Action:
Communication acts as a base for any action. Starting of any activity begins with communication
which brings information necessary to begin with.

2. Planning Becomes Easy:

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Communication facilitates planning. Planning is made easy by communication. Any type of

information regarding the human resource requirement of each department of the organisation
with their qualifications, the type and kinds of job etc. can be collected through communication
which helps in human resource planning. Policies and programmes for their acquisition can be
prepared and implemented. In the entire process communication plays a vital role, it also
facilitates managerial planning of the organisation.

3. Means of Coordination:
Communication is an important tool for coordinating the efforts of various people at work in the
organisation.
4. Aids in Decision-Making:
The information collected through communication aids in decision-making. Communication
facilitates access to the vital information required to take decisions.

5. Provides Effective Leadership:

A communication skill bring manager near to his subordinates and exchange ideas and submits
appropriate proposals, knows their opinions, seeks advices and make decisions. This enables a
manager to win confidence of his subordinates through constantly communicating with them
and removing probable misunderstandings. In this way he leads his people to accomplish the
organisational goal.

6. Boosts Morale and Motivation:

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An effective communication system instills confidence among subordinates and workers

ensuring change in their attitude and behaviour. The main cause of conflict and dissatisfaction is
misunderstanding which can be removed through communication skills. The removal of
misunderstanding makes manager and his subordinates understand each other and create good
industrial relations. This boosts up the morale of the people and motivates them to work harder.

Principles of Communication:
Lack of effective communication renders an organisation handicapped. So to have effective
communication certain principles are to be followed.

They are as follows:

1. Clarity:
The principle of clarity means the communicator should use such a language which is easy to
understand. The message must be understood by the receiver. The words used should be simple
and unambiguous. The language should not create any confusion or misunderstanding.
Language is the medium of communication; hence it should be clear and understandable.

2. Adequacy and Consistency:

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The communicator must carefully take into account that the information to be communicated
should be complete and adequate in all respect. Inadequate and incomplete message creates
confusion and delays the action to be taken. The adequate information must be consistent with
the organizational objectives, plans, policies and procedures. The message which is inconsistent
may play havoc and distort the corporate interests.

3. Integration:
The principle of integration portrays that through communication the efforts of human
resources of the organisation should be integrated towards achievement of corporate objectives.
The very aim of communication is to achieve the set target. The communication should aim at
coordinating the activities of the people at work to attain the corporate goals.
4. Economy:
The unnecessary use of communication system will add to cost. The system of communication
must be used efficiently, timely i.e. at the appropriate time and when it is necessary. The
economy in use of communication system can be achieved in this way.

5. Feedback:
The purpose of communication will be defeated if feedback is not taken from the receiver. The
confirmation of the receipt of the message in its right perspective from its receiver fulfills the
object of communication. The feedback is essential only in case of written communication and
messages sent through messengers. In case of oral type of communication the feedback is
immediately known.

6. Need for Communication Network:

The route through which the communication passes from sender or communicator to its
receiver or communicate refers to communication network. For effective communication this
network is essential. The managerial effectiveness will also depend upon the availability of
adequate network.

7. Attention:
The message communicated must draw the attention of the receiver staff and ensure action from
him in the right perspective. The efficient, sincere and prompt manager succeeds in drawing the
attention of his subordinates to what he is conveying.

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It is the psychology of the people that they watch their superiors closely and then respond to
their orders or instructions. Lazy and insincere superiors fail to garner support for themselves
and their instructions usually are not taken seriously by their subordinates. Adhering to the
above principles shall make communication effective, minimize the human relations problems
and increase the overall efficiency.

Scope of Communication

Scope of communication means the normal functioning area of this subject.

Since communication is essential in every sphere of human life, its scope is wide and
pervasive. From cradle to grave, human beings are somehow engaged in communication.
 Formal communication means the communication which travels through the formally
established channels. In other words, communication which travels through the formal chain of
command or lines of hierarchy of authority is called the formal communication. Under it,
information is given through the formally designed channel or network. It is designed, controlled
and regulated by the management. 
  HORIZONTAL
 When communication takes place between two or more persons of the same level or position of
the same department or other departments of the organization, it is known as horizontal
communication. When the finance manager communicates with the marketing manager
concerning advertising expenditures, the flow of communication is horizontal. The objective of
horizontal communication is to coordinate the efforts of different departments or persons.
 VIRTICAL
 The communication in which information is either transmitted from top to the bottom or from
bottom to the top in structural hierarchy is a vertical communication. In this way, vertical
communication may be of two types as: 

 a) Downward Communication 

 When messages are transmitted from superiors to subordinates along with the chain of
command, it is said to be downward communication. It refers to the transmission of information
from superior to subordinates. The most common downward communications are job
instruction, official memos, policy statements, procedures, manuals and company publications. 

 b) Upward Communication 

When messages are transmitted from bottom to top of the organizational hierarchy, it is said to be
upward communication. This provides feedback on the extent of effectiveness of downward
communication. It is also a means of informing the management about the viewpoints, reactions,
feelings and state of employee morale. Widely used upward communication devices include suggestion
boxes, group meetings, report to supervisors and appeal or grievance procedures. Usually upward
communication is utilized in democratic and participative management. Effective upward
communication channels are important because they provide employees with opportunities to have a
say

 Vertical Communication 

The communication in which information is either transmitted from top to the bottom or from bottom to
the top in structural hierarchy is a vertical communication. In this way, vertical communication may be of
two types as: 

a) Downward Communication 

When messages are transmitted from superiors to subordinates along with the chain of command, it is
said to be downward communication. It refers to the transmission of information from superior to
subordinates. The most common downward communications are job instruction, official memos, policy
statements, procedures, manuals and company publications. 

b) Upward Communication 

When messages are transmitted from bottom to top of the organizational hierarchy, it is said to be upward
communication. This provides feedback on the extent of effectiveness of downward communication. It is
also a means of informing the management about the viewpoints, reactions, feelings and state of
employee morale. Widely used upward communication devices include suggestion boxes, group
 meetings, report to supervisors and appeal or grievance procedures. Usually upward communication is
utilized in democratic and participative management. Effective upward communication channels are
important because they provide employees with opportunities to have a say. 
Diagonal Communication 

Diagonal communication cuts across departmental lines. Such communication is in between

people who are neither in the same department nor on the same level of organizational
structure. In other words, it refers to interchange of messages between the managers and
employees who are neither in the same department nor on the same level of organizational
structure. Diagonal communication refers to communication between managers and workers
located in different functional divisions. Although both vertical and horizontal communication
continue to be important, these terms no longer adequately capture communication needs
and flows in most modern organizations. The concept of diagonal communication was
introduced to capture the new communication challenges associated with new organizational
forms, such as matrix and project based organizations. 
Informal Communication

Informal communication refers to the communication which takes place on the basis of informal relations
between the members of a group. It is personal communication in nature and not a positional
communication. It does not flow along with the formal lines of authority or formal chain of command.
Even it is not regulated by the formal rules and procedures. Normally, members of informal group use
this form of communication in order to share their ideas, views, opinions and other information. There is
lack of official instruction for communication. It is not controlled and designed by formal organizational
structure. So, it is not used to communicate formal message.
Informal Communication
Definition: The Informal Communication is the casual and unofficial form of communication wherein
the information is exchanged spontaneously between two or more persons without conforming the
prescribed official rules, processes, system, formalities and chain of command.

The informal communications are based on the personal or informal relations such as friends, peers,
family, club members, etc. and thus is free from the organizational conventional rules and other
formalities. In the business context, the informal communication is called as a “grapevine” as it is
difficult to define the beginning and end of the communication.

The informal communication is characterized by an indefinite channel of communication, which means

there is no definite chain of command through which the information flows. Hence, the information can
flow from anywhere. Often such communication arises out of the social relations that an individual
creates with other persons on the basis of common interest, likings or dislikings.

There are four types of Informal Communication (Grapevine) network that show how the
communication is facilitated. These are:

1. Single Strand Chain

2. Gossip Chain
3. Probability Chain
4. Cluster Chain
The gossip in the organization is the best example of informal communication, wherein the employees of
different department irrespective of their hierarchical positions come together and communicate with each
other. The grapevine satisfies the social needs of people and smoothens the formal relations by filling in
the gaps and even bring together different people who do not fall under the common chain of command.

Types of Informal Communication Networks

In this section, we’re going to discuss how informal communication networks pass information

along from person-to-person. Keith Davis found four basic types of informal communication
networks: single strand, gossip, probability, and cluster.Davis, K. (1969). Grapevine

communication among lower and middle managers. Personnel Journal, 48, 269–272.

Figure 5.3 Informal Communication Networks

The first type of informal communication network described by Davis was the single strand
communication network (Figure 5.3 "Informal Communication Networks"a).Davis, K. (1969).

Grapevine communication among lower and middle managers. Personnel Journal, 48, 269–
272. In a single strand network, the process of communication is very linear and information

travels from one person to the next person. The best way to think of this type of informal
communication network is like a relay race. But instead of passing a baton between runners,

some type of information is passed from person to person. This communication network
represents the traditional notions of serialized transmission.Redding, W. C.

(1972). Communication with the organization: An interpretive review of theory and research.

New York: Industrial Communication Council, Inc.

The second type of informal communication network Davis discussed was the gossip
communication network (Figure 5.3 "Informal Communication Networks"b).Davis, K. (1969).

Grapevine communication among lower and middle managers. Personnel Journal, 48, 269–
272. In a gossip network, you have one individual who serves as the source of the message who

transmits the message to a number of people directly.

The third type of informal communication described by Davis is referred to as the probability

communication network (Figure 5.3 "Informal Communication Networks"c).Davis, K. (1969).

Grapevine communication among lower and middle managers. Personnel Journal, 48, 269–

272. In a probability communication network, you have one individual as the primary source of
the message who randomly selects people within her or his communication network to

communicate the message. These secondary people then randomly pick other people in the
communication network to pass along the message. Think of this type of informal

communication network as really annoying internet spam. In the case of internet Spam,
someone creates the e-mail, and then sends it to random people who then feel the need to

forward it to other people, and so on and so on. There is no way for the source of the message to
truly track where the message has been sent after the message is communicated because the

transmission is random.
The final form of informal communication network described by Davis is the cluster
network (Figure 5.3 "Informal Communication Networks"d).Davis, K. (1969). Grapevine

communication among lower and middle managers. Personnel Journal, 48, 269–272. Cluster

networks are considerably more systematic than probability networks. In the case of a cluster

network, the source of the message chooses a number of pre-selected people with whom to
communicate a message. The secondary people then pass on the message to a group of people

who have also been pre-selected to receive the message. This type of network is the origin of the
telephone tree. In a telephone tree, one person calls two people. Those two people then are

expected to call three other people. Those three people are then also expected to call three other
people. Before you know it, everyone who is on the telephone tree has received the message.

Since informal communication follows no rule, direction or formality, it can quickly transmit
any message in various directions. The information which the grapevine or informal
communication circulates is generally ill-informed, rumor and often untrue. Let us see how
this happen:

1. Absence of set rules: Since informal communication networks follow no set rules,
so they convey any kind of message to anybody in the network without any fear.
2. Fabrication or untruth: Some people prefer to fabricate facts and events. They
enjoy fiving a false account of events.
3. Cheap admiration: Some people prefer to spread rumor and distorted messages to
get cheap praise.
4. Complexity of message: Informal communication also spreads rumor if the
message is transmitted through complex and unfamiliar channels.
5. Lack of understanding: When the employees fail to understand the real meaning of
the messages, they interpret it in their own way.
6. Inattention: If the receiver hear any message without full concentration of mind or
the absence of mind or the absence of attention, such a situation may develop. They
spread false information unconsciously.
7. Tendency to resists of changes: Sometimes the employees do not like changes in
their present working conditions and procedure. If any changes occur, they resist and
spread rumor, untrue and false news to prevent the coming changes.

MODELS AND THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION

The most commonly described Models of Communication:
The Linear Model of communication works in one direction only, a sender encodes some
message and sends it through a channel for a receiver to decode.
In comparison, the Interactional Model of communication works bidirectional. People send and
receive messages in a cooperative fashion as they continuously encode and decode
information.
The Transactional Model then assumes that information is sent and received simultaneously
through a noisy channel, and further considers a frame of reference or experience each person
brings to the interaction

The three most well known models for communication are Linear, Interactional, and
Transactional. As West & Turner (2007) explain, each model sheds light on the development of
communication, but emphasizes different parts of the communication process.

Models of communication are conceptual models used to explain the

human communication process. The first major model for communication was developed in
1948 by Claude Shannon and published with an introduction by Warren Weaver for Bell
Laboratories.[1] Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and
receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).[2]
In 1960, David Berlo expanded the linear transmission model with the sender-message-
channel-receiver (SMCR) model of communication.[3][4] Later, Wilbur Schramm introduced a
model that identified multiple variables in communication which includes the transmitter,
encoding, media, decoding, and receiver.[5]

Shannon–Weaver Model[edit]
Main article: Shannon–Weaver model

Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver were engineers who worked for Bell Telephone Labs in
the United States. Their goal was to ensure that telephone cables and radio waves worked at
maximum efficiency. Therefore, they developed the Shannon–Weaver model, which expanded
a mathematical theory of communication.[6] The Shannon–Weaver model, developed in 1949, is
referred to as the 'mother of all models'[7] and is widely accepted as a main initial model for
communication studies.[8]
The Shannon–Weaver model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone
technology. The initial model consisted of four primary parts: sender, message, channel,
and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person speaks into, the channel was the
telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone through which one can hear the
sender on the other end of the line. Shannon and Weaver recognized that static or background
sounds may interfere with a telephone conversation; they referred to this as noise. Certain types
of background sounds can also indicate the absence of a signal.[6]
Shannon and Weaver's original model contains five elements: information source, transmitter,
channel, receiver, and destination. The information source is where the information is stored. In
order to send the information, the message is encoded into signals, so it can travel to its
destination. After the message is encoded, it goes through the channel which the signals are
adapted for the transmission. In addition, the channel carries any noise or interference that
might lead to the signal receiving different information from the source. After the channel, the
message arrives in the receiver and is reconstructed (decoded) from the signal before finally
arriving at its destination.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of
communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some
form (as spoken language) from an transmitter/emisor/sender/encoder to a receiver/decoder.
According to this common communication-related conception, communication is viewed as a
means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are its simplicity,
generality, and quantifiability. The mathematicians Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver
structured this model on the basis of the following elements:

 An information source, which produces a message.

 A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals.
 A channel, for which signals are adapted for transmission.
 A receiver, which reconstructs the encoded message from a sequence of received signals
and decodes it.
 An information destination, which processes the message.
Shannon and Weaver argued that this concept entails three levels of problems for
communication:

1. The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?

2. The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
3. The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?
Daniel Chandler criticizes the transmission model in the following terms:[9]

 It assumes that communicators are isolated individuals.

 It makes no allowance for differing purposes.
 It makes no allowance for differing interpretations.
 It makes no allowance for unequal power relationships.

Berlo[edit]
Main article: Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication

In 1960, David Berlo expanded Shannon and Weaver's 1949 linear model of communication
and created the sender-message-channel-receiver (SMCR) model of communication.[10] The
SMCR model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded
upon by other scholars.
Berlo's communication process is a simple application for person-to-person communication,
which includes communication source, encoder, message, channel, decoder, and
communication receiver.[11] In addition, David Berlo presented some factors that influence the
communication process between two people. The factors include communication skills,
awareness level, social system, cultural system, and attitude.[12]
Berlo's communication process starts at the source, which is the part that produces the
message using its communication skills, attitude, knowledge, social system, and culture. After
the message is developed, which are elements in a set of symbols,[12] the sender step begins.
The encoding process is where the motor skills take place by speaking, writing, touching, etc.
[11]
 The message goes through the channel which carries the message.[3] Then the receiver step
begins. The decoding process is where the sensory skills take place by hearing, seeing, feeling
touch, etc. Finally, the communication process ends at the destination, which is the part that
interprets the message using its communication skills, attitude, knowledge, social system, and
culture.[11]

Schramm[edit]
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: message (what type of
things are communicated), source/emissor/sender/encoder (by whom), form (in which form),
channel (through which medium), destination/receiver/decoder (to whom). Wilbur Schramm
(1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired
and undesired) on the target of the message.[13] Between parties, communication includes acts
that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These
acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends
on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form
make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself,
another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels
of semiotic rules:

1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols).

2. Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users).
3. Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a
common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some
sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-
talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative
competences within social interactions.

Barnlund[edit]
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of
communication.[14] The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that
individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form, a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second
attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses
on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be
interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from
one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself.
A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and
the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or
gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence
of noise on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may
be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this
send-receive model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and
receiver each possess something that functions as a codebook, and that these two codebooks
are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like codebooks is implied by
the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual
difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous
process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold
Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one
they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society.[15]
[page needed]
 His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built
themselves out of media with very different properties: stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he
called 'space binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires
and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is
stone and 'time binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their
authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape
communication in their society.

Constructionist[edit]
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider[example needed] that authors
like Richard Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is
a progression from Lasswell's attempt to define human communication through to this century
and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of
communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated
from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in
communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving
Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model
(which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and
sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote: "If
words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse,
then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style" (Lanham 10). This
is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we
actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves
analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand
communication. Goffman wrote: "What does seem to be required of the individual is that he
learn enough pieces of expression to be able to 'fill in' and manage, more or less, any part that
he is likely to be given" (Goffman 73), highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The
construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing
message is for the transmission model. Therefore, any look into communication theory should
include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Goffman that
style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that
scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events.
[weasel words]
 Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and
integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one
probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
[weasel words]

Communication model terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):

 noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a message. For example:
 o physical noise or external noise which are environmental distractions such as poorly
heated rooms, startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some where else,
and someone talking really loudly near you.
o physiological noise are biological influences that distract you from communicating
competently such as sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by
speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being
really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a cough.
o psychological noise are the preconception bias and assumptions such as thinking
someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t
speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
o semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and distracting such as using the
word tri-syllabic instead of three syllables.
 sender; the initiator and encoder of a message;
 receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the decoder of a message;
 decode; translates the sender's spoken idea/message into something the receiver
understands by using their knowledge of language from personal experience;
 encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own meaning into the
word/message;
 channel; the medium through which the message travels such as through oral
communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or written communication (letters, email,
text messages);
 feedback; the receiver's verbal and nonverbal responses to a message such as a nod for
understanding (nonverbal), a raised eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a
question to clarify the message (verbal);
 message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is sent to the receiver by
the sender which conveys an idea.
Humans act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people
or things. Language is the source of meaning. Meaning arises out of the social interaction
people have with each other. Negative responses can consequently reduce a person to nothing.
Our expectations evoke responses that confirm what we originally anticipated, resulting in a
self-fulfilling prophecy.

Linear[edit]
This is a one-way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a
message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. In this model there is no
feedback or response which may allow for a continuous exchange of information (F.N.S. Palma,
1993).
The linear communication model was first introduced by Shannon and Weaver in 1949. In this
model, the message travels one direction from the sender to the receiver. In other words, once
the sender sends the message to the receiver, the communication process ends. Many
communications online use the linear communication model. For example, when you send an
email, post a blog, or share something on social media. However, the linear model does not
explain many other forms of communication including face-to-face conversation.

Interactive/convergence[edit]
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the
receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original
sender. This model has added feedback, indicating that communication is not a one way but a
two way process. It also has "field of experience" which includes our cultural background,
ethnicity, geographic location, extent of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated
over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.

The Interactive Model.

 For example, – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the receiver, then the original
sender has to wait for the IM from the original receiver to react. Or a question/answer
session where you just ask a question then you get an answer.

Communication theory framework[edit]

Main article: Theory of communication

Communication theory can be seen from one of the following viewpoints:

 Mechanistic: This view[who?] considers communication as a perfect transaction of a message

from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
 Psychological: This view[who?] considers communication as the act of sending a message to a
receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
 Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view considers communication to be
the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can
also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is. The
Constructionist View assumes that "truth" and "ideas" are constructed or invented through
the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the Constructionist View or the
constitutive view as it's called in his article, as "…an ongoing process that symbolically
forms and re-forms our personal identities." (Craig, 125). The other view of communication,
the Transmission Model, sees communication as robotic and computer-like. The
Transmission Model sees communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and
the perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, "…in human
life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life,
information flow is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another"
(Lanham, 7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of
communication[opinion] because it involves the interacting of human beings and the free
sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model
is a lesser way of communicating by saying "The transmission model is not merely a gross
over-simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human
communication" (Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or robots
so that's why it's essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication
well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts and data and
 they acquire meaning through the process of communication, or through interaction with
others.
 Systemic: This view[who?] considers communication to be the new messages created via
"through-put", or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it
travels through people.
 Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of
individuals and social groups.[17]
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of
communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and
axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
 communication codes

linear model
Interactional model

Berlos model

Transactional model
Chapter 1: Introducing Communication

By
Dr. Amy M. Corey

Communication is the process of creating, interpreting, and negotiating meaning. Communication can be
verbal, nonverbal, or textual. It can be aural, visual, or even physical. Although communication occurs in
a variety of different ways, it is always a learned behaviour. While most human beings are born with the
physical abilities to speak, to hear, to see, and so on, people must learn to communicate through codes,
symbols, and systems of language. In this way, communication is a collective practice in which people
use symbols to generate and interpret meaning.

Models of Communication
In order to explain the social process of communication, scholars have developed several models. The
three most well known models for communication are Linear, Interactional, and Transactional. As West
& Turner (2007) explain, each model sheds light on the development of communication, but emphasizes
different parts of the communication process. The models provide pictures, or visual representations, of
complex interactions. They are useful because they simplify the basic structure of communication and can
help us to understand that structure not just verbally, but also visually. Most importantly, they identify the
various elements of communication and serve as a kind of map to show how different parts of the
communication process are interrelated.
Linear Models
Originally developed by Shannon & Weaver in 1948, this model describes communication as a linear
process. (See Figure 1.1.) This model describes how a sender, or speaker, transmits a message to a
receiver, or listener. More specifically, the sender is the source of the message. A message may consist of
the sounds, words, or behaviours in a communication interaction. The message itself is transmitted
through a channel, the pathway or route for communication, to a receiver, who is the target or recipient of
the message. There may be obstacles in the communication process, or noise. Noise refers to any
interference in the channel or distortion of the message. This is a fairly simple model in which a message
is simply passed from sender to receiver.

Figure 1.1:
Shannon and Weaver Model

While the linear model was highly influential during the mid-20th century, this model is perhaps too
simple. Its limitations are easy to see if you pause to think about the beliefs about communication, or
assumptions, made in this model. First, this model assumes that communication only goes in one
direction. Here, a person can be a sender or receiver, but not both. This is problematic because
communication in action is more dynamic than the linear model suggests. In action, communication
involves a give and take between senders and receivers in which listeners are not simply passive
receptacles for a sender’s message. This model is also limited because it provides only one channel for
only one message. Finally, it implies that messages themselves are clear-cut with a distinct beginning and
a distinct end. However, communication is rarely, if ever, as neat and tidy as a linear model would
suggest.

Interactional Models
In the move to a more dynamic view of communication, interactional models follow two channels in
which communication and feedback flow between sender and receiver. Feedback is simply a response
that a receiver gives to a sender. (See Figure 1.2.) Feedback can be verbal (i.e. “yes”) or nonverbal (i.e. a
nod or smile). Most importantly, feedback indicates comprehension. It can help senders know if their
message was received and understood. By focusing on flow and feedback, interactional models view
communication as an ongoing process.
Figure 1.2:
Interactional Model

The final feature of this model is the field of experience. The field of experience refers to how
environment, experiences, culture, and even heredity can influence how a sender constructs a message.
Keep in mind that each person brings a unique field of experience to an interaction. Likewise, each
communication interaction is unique. While the interactional model is more dynamic than the linear
model, it still contains some limitations. For instance, this model implies that while people can be both
senders and receivers, they cannot do so simultaneously. In lived communication, roles are not quite so
clear-cut and in fact are much more fluid.

Transactional Models
The transactional is the most dynamic of communication models. One notable feature of this model is the
move from referring to people as senders and receivers to referring to people as communicators. This
implies that communication is achieved as people both send and receive messages. (See Figure
1.3.) Fundamentally, this model views communication as a transaction. In other words, communication is
a cooperative action in which communicators co-create the process, outcome and effectiveness of the
interaction. Unlike the linear model in which meaning is sent from one person to another, also unlike the
interactional model in which understanding is achieved through feedback, people create shared meaning
in a more dynamic process in the transactional model.

Figure 1.3:
Transactional Model
 This model also places more emphasis on the field of experience. While each communicator has a unique
field of experience, they must also inhabit a shared field of experience. In other words, communicators
must share at least some degree of overlap in culture, language, or environment if people are to
communicate at all. This model also recognizes that messages will influence the responses, or subsequent
messages, produced in the communication interaction. This means that messages do not stand alone, but
instead are interrelated. The principle of interrelation states that messages are connected to and build upon
one another. The transactional model forms the basis for much communication theory because (1) people
are viewed as dynamic communicators rather than simple senders or receivers, (2) there must be some
overlap in fields of experience in order to build shared meaning, and (3) messages are interdependent.
Resources for Communication Theory

There are many valuable online resources for communication students. The following are just a few you
can use. But remember, these are to be considered starting points for detailed references and not the
primary sources. It is always best to use the original.

 Dr. Pierce’s Old School Website

 IACACT’s Communicopedia
 National Communication Association web site
 International Communication Association web site
 Canadian Communication association web site
 Association of Internet Researchers

Sidebar 1.1: Research Resources

The transactional understanding of shared meaning has informed variety of communication theories. In
general terms, a theory comprises a way of seeing, interpreting, and explaining. A theory is a framework
for understanding. It illuminates social practices and helps to make sense of the everyday life-
world. Durham & Kellner (2001) suggest that we consider a theory as “a way of seeing, an optic, that
focuses on specific subject matter” (3). Think about a theory as an optic or a technology that enhances
vision. Just as there are many different communication theories, there are also many different visual
technologies. Sunglasses, contacts, or even virtual reality goggles each us help to see in a certain way. For
instance, when you put on a pair of glasses, it will cause you to see in a particular way, focusing things
near or far depending on the type of lens. In this way, every different theory will require a different way
of seeing the world of communication. The most important part of this metaphor is that a particular theory
will bring specific aspects of communication into focus yet may blur others. As you work through this
book, pay attention to the ways in which a particular perspective illuminates certain elements while
leaving others in shadow. Also think about how exploring different theories will provide a more
comprehensive look at communication while also allowing you to select those that will be of greatest use
for your interests in communication studies.

Theories of Meaning and Representation

Focus: Relationships between signs, meanings, and language systems

Semiotics
Semiotics (or semiology) is the study of signs. In its most basic definition, a sign is anything that carries
meaning. In this sense, a sign represents or stands for something other than itself. Semiotics was
pioneered by the French philosopher
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913). Saussure studied signs scientifically by breaking them down into two
parts: a signifier and a signified. A signifier is the actual form of the sign. It may appear as words, images,
sounds, etc. For example, as a signifier, the word rose designates a particular flower. The image in Table
1.1 also designates this flower. These are examples of signifiers, or the form that a sign may take.

In contrast, a signified is the meaning that is associated with the form of the signifier. The signified is the
meaning that is triggered in your head when you think of the red rose. Think for a moment. What does a
red rose signify? Does it “mean” something different than a yellow rose, for example? In many cultures, a
red rose signifies passion, whereas a yellow rose signifies friendship. Passion (or friendship), as a
conceptual meaning, is the signified. Signifieds are mental representations. Mental representations are
never purely individual, but instead comprise “shared conceptual maps” (Hall, 1997, p. 17). Conceptual
maps provide a common reference point that enable people to interpret and understand one another.

Photograph from unsplash.com. Photographer Carlos Quintero.

Table 1.1:
Signifier: A Rose is a Rose is a Rose. Which one is “Real”?

If a sign consists of both a signifier and a signified, what, then, is the relationship between them? The
relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary. In other words, there is no necessary
connection between a signifier and a signified. There is no “natural” reason that red signifies passion
whereas yellow signifies friendship. There may be a connection between the parts of a sign, but the
connection is socially, not naturally, determined. In this sense, there is nothing inherent in the colour
yellow that connects it to friendship. According to semiotics, all meanings are associations.

Another example of the arbitrary relationship between signifier and signified can be found in the word
tree. As an English language signifier, tree designates a plant with a wooden trunk, branches, and leaves.
However, in Spanish, árbol is the word, or signifier, used to designate the very same signified. Arbre is
the French signifier. The same signified can have many different signifiers. Here, the use of different
languages also points out that there is no inherent connection between a signifier and a signified.
Meanings are associations that are culturally determined.
Furthermore, meanings are always relational. We understand meaning based on similarities to and
differences from other signs within a system of signs. Take for example a traffic light. (See Figure 1.6.)
“GO” is associated with green whereas “STOP” is associated with red. Hall (1997) explains that in part,
this is understood through difference; go is not stop just as green is not red. And of course, there is
nothing inherent in the colour green that connects it to the action “GO.” In fact, the colour blue could just
as easily designate “GO”. This is a symbolic connection.

Figure 1.6: Meanings are Relational. When ‘green’ means “GO!”

Scholars who study semiotics are interested in both symbolic difference and symbolic association. They
study how the placement of signs constructs connections between otherwise unassociated meanings. Most
importantly, they point out that a sign’s meaning always depends on its context, or the environment of
other signs surrounding it. One of the main areas in which the concept of semiotic association is applied
lies in the critique of advertisements. Take for example advertisements for beer. In print, online, and on
television, beer ads often use images of slender, beautiful, sexually available women. Visually, these ads
juxtapose images of sexuality with images of alcohol. By surrounding signs for alcohol with signs of
sexuality, a semiotic association is created between the alcohol and sexual satisfaction. In fact, scholars
such as Berger (2007) suggest that consumers never actually purchase the advertised products, but instead
consumers purchase the ideas, or associated meanings, present in the advertising image. Using the
concept of semiotic association, Berger argues that consumers purchase the promise of sexual satisfaction
rather than the actual, particular brand of beer.

Semiotics also offers a detailed vocabulary for understanding and differentiating signs. Much of this
vocabulary was developed by 20th century American philosopher C.S. Peirce. He developed definitions
and charted the differences between different types of signs. He defined an iconic sign as one that bears a
resemblance to what is depicted. A photograph of a rose is considered an iconic sign because it bears a
resemblance to a rose (Table 1.1). Likewise, a drawing of a rose is also iconic (Table 1.1). Symbolic
signs, like traffic lights discussed above have no necessary relationship between signifier and signified.
Symbolic signs carry arbitrary meaning. Finally, unlike a symbolic sign, an indexical sign holds an
inherent relationship between a sign and its meaning. For example, if you were to see smoke coming from
a mountain ridge, it would indicate that there is a fire. In this sense, it can be said that smoke indexes fire.
Representation
The semiotic tradition has had a tremendous impact on larger theories of representation. In his influential
work in this area, Stuart Hall (1997) explains this is because, “in language, we use signs and symbols –
whether they are sounds, written words, electronically produced images, musical notes, even objects – to
stand for or represent to other people our concepts, ideas, and feelings” (Hall, 1997, p. 1, emphasis
added). According to Hall, (1 representation is a central communication process by which people make
and share meanings, and (2 language is a significant system of representation.

Hall explained this concept in three major approaches, or paradigms, of representation: Reflective,
Intentional, and Constituitive. First, the Reflective Paradigm draws upon the metaphor of a mirror. In this
view, language functions like a mirror to reflect meanings that exist in objects and in the environment. A
key assumption to this approach is that there is one true and unchanging meaning present in an object.
Here, meaning is a product of the object itself. This is also called an essentialist viewpoint, or “the
conventional view…that ‘things’ exist in the material and natural world; that their material or natural
characteristics are what determines or constitutes them; and that they have a perfectly clear meaning,
outside of how they are represented” (Hall, 1997, p. 5, emphasis original). However, the Reflective
Paradigm is problematic because it focuses on meanings that are simply and objectively observed by
people rather than the meanings that are created and exchanged between people.

The second approach is the Intentional Paradigm. According to this view, “words mean what their author
intends them to mean” (Hall, 1997, p. 25). An author imposes his or her unique meaning on an audience
through the use of language. It is important to keep in mind that while as individual speakers or authors,
we each use language to convey unique messages; there is no guarantee that a message will be heard or
understood as intended. One of the problems with the intentional approach to representation is that there
is no way to account for the fact that different listeners or readers may interpret a sentence, poem, or even
a work of art differently.

Finally, Hall explains the constituitive paradigm. Developing the semiotic standpoint, he states that
objects, people, and things in and of themselves do not carry meaning. Instead, human beings construct
meaning for the environment, events, and objects. This paradigm is closely associated with social
constructionism, or the view that reality is a product of communication. How reality is understood at a
given social, historical moment is determined by the conventions of communication unique to that
moment. Simply put, reality is socially constructed through ongoing and interconnected patterns of
representation.

In the constituitive paradigm, “we must not confuse the material world, where things and people exist,
and symbolic practices and processes through which representation, meaning and language operate”
(Hall, 1997, p. 25). To be clear, constructionists do not deny the physical existence of the world. Instead,
they argue that the physical world does not exist meaningfully until it has been represented.
Constructionists also recognize that signs always have a material dimension. For instance, there is a
material quality to images or letters on paper or as digital impulses on screen or that sounds arise from
vocal chords to form speech. The key difference for constructionists lies in that the material world does
not present itself objectively to human beings. Rather, we come to know and to understand only through
our communication with others.

Systems and Interactional Theories

Focus: Relationships between social structures and social interaction

General Systems Theory

General Systems Theory (GST) is used to study the nature of complex systems. Systems themselves are
collections of different elements that work together to form a cohesive unit. GST is applied in a variety of
different fields from technology and natural sciences to social sciences. In communication studies, GST
has a range of applications, especially in interpersonal and organizational settings. In this view, families
and corporations are perfect examples of systems. They are each made up of different elements such as
members of a family or divisions of a corporation that interact to form a single unit, or system. GST
focuses on how an individual system structures the communication within that system.

In The Pragmatics of Human Communication (1967), Watzlawick, Bavelas, & Jackson emphasize that

although every system is unique, all systems consist of two components: objects and attributes. An object
refers to the parts of a system. Objects may be members of a family or divisions of a corporation, as noted
above. Attributes refer to the qualities of the objects. For instance, individual characteristics or
personalities are attributes. Most importantly, the interaction among the objects forms a series of
relationships. Relationships tie the individual objects in a system together.

In addition to objects, attributes, and relationships, other fundamental properties of open systems include:
wholeness, interdependence, nonsummativity, equifinality, feedback, and circularity. Wholeness refers to
the idea that any one part of the system cannot be understood on its own, but only in relation to the other
parts of the system. Systems cannot be understood as pieces, but only as a unit. For example, we can learn
more about the Sinto family by analyzing their interactions together rather than simply analyzing Pat’s
communication behaviours alone. In this way, “family members are not isolated persons, but their
relationships among one another must be taken into account in order to fully understand the individuals
and the family as a unit” (Littlejohn, 1992, p. 40). Secondly, the parts of a system are interdependent. The
concept of wholeness implies that if there is a change or disruption in one part of the system, it will affect
the whole system. So, if Pat begins to drink heavily, it will have an impact not only on Pat’s behaviour,
but also on the entire Sinto family. In the systems view, Pat’s drinking cannot be isolated because
members of a family are interdependent. Nonsummativity names the idea that a system is irreducible. In
other words, a system is always more than the sum of its parts. A family as a unit has more value than the
total of its individual members. Equifinality refers to the ability of a system to achieve the same goal
through different means “because it is the nature of the organization which is determinate” (Watzlawick
et al., 1967, p. 127, emphasis added). Essentially, the principle of equifinality offers different
explanations for the same outcome. As parents, Pat and Terry Sinto may use a variety of different
methods to secure the obedience of their children, Chris and Jessie. Discussion, discipline, or even bribery
can all be used to achieve the same result. Likewise, if corporate management wants to increase profit in
an organizational system, they may cut budget expenses or increase sales. Either method could achieve
the same goal.

Feedback is the information or input received by the system. A system will use the input to self-regulate.
Negative feedback helps a system to adapt and to make adjustments. For instance, if Chris and Jessie
don’t do household chores, Pat and Terry could use discussion to provide feedback. When Chris and
Jessie receive the feedback, they can then make the necessary adjustments to the system (i.e. do the
chores). This is considered negative feedback not because it is necessarily harsh or bad, but because it
causes a change within the system. In contrast, positive feedback will keep a system going with no
change. So, when Chris and Jessie do not do household chores and still receive an allowance, they are
receiving positive feedback. As positive feedback, the allowance communicates that there is balance
within the system and that no changes need to be made.

Circularity names the principle that systems develop patterns of recurring communication. Recurring
patterns in turn structure the communication process for that system. GST brings into focus a cyclical
model in which systems are self-perpetuating. Here, a system creates communication, and communication
in turn sustains the system. For instance, when Pat begins to drink heavily, Terry complains and nags.
When Terry complains and nags, Pat begins to drink heavily. The cycle of
drinking/complaining/complaining/drinking forms a self-continuing system. Circularity implies a causal
and continuous relationship. (See Figure 1.7.)

Figure 1.7: Circularity in General Systems Theory

Symbolic Interactionism
George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) is largely credited with developing Symbolic Interactionism (SI).
Although Mead published very little during his lifetime, a collection of his lectures titled Mind, Self, and
Society (1934) was published posthumously. This work laid the foundations for SI. SI was named by
Mead’s student Herbert Blumer, and continued to be developed throughout the 20th century. SI has been
extremely influential in communication studies as well as in sociology. Because it has been so influential,
its applications vary widely. Although approaches may vary, the major principles of SI concern (1) the
role of symbols, (2) the role of self concept, and (3) the relationship between symbols, self, and society.

(1) Symbols play a significant role in human life and behaviour

SI states that all human life is mediated by symbols and that it is the use of symbols that defines the
human experience. In this way, humanity has a symbolic source, not merely a biological one. Thus it can
be said that human beings are not born, but instead are made. Secondly, just as humanity is a process, so
too, is society itself. Society is the product of human beings using symbols.

(2) Self concept is a significant factor in human life and behaviour

SI emphasizes the importance of agency. Agency is defined as an individual’s ability to act within a social
system. It implies that an individual has some degree of choice or independence. SI brings into focus the
idea that human beings are actively involved in shaping their own behaviour. Secondly, SI is concerned
with the ways in which individuals develop self concept. Self concepts are the “relatively stable set of
perceptions people hold about themselves” (West & Turner, 2007, p. 99). They are self-formed identities
that develop over time in interaction with others. Self concepts, in turn, provide important motives for
behaviour. An individual’s beliefs, values, feelings, and evaluations of themselves affect how they
interact with others. Individuals will interpret, monitor and guide their own behaviour according to their
ideas and perceptions of themselves.

(3) The relationships between symbols, self, and society

People and groups are influenced by social processes. Simply put, social norms constrain individual
behaviour. While individuals have some degree of agency, as noted above, there is always a tension
between individual freedoms and societal restraints. Finally, SI argues that social norms and even social
structures are created through interaction. Society is neither fixed nor unchanging, but instead is a product
of symbolic interaction that is subject to interpretation and (re)construction.

Lively’s (2009) case study used SI to analyze the professionalism of paralegal assistants in private law
firms. Drawing from Becker (1970), Lively focused on the way that “the symbol ‘profession’ organizes
the way individuals think about work; ‘professional’ and ‘professionalism’ constitute symbols that
organize how individuals think about their own and others’ behaviour or status in the
workplace…” (Lively, 2009, p. 346). She analyzed how paralegal assistants actively construct
professional images of themselves. They do so through a common concept of professionalism, which is
defined through displays of competence (knowledge and skills necessary to perform job tasks) and
demeanor (appearance, attitude, and manner). Symbolically, the degree of adherence to professionalism
affected the paralegal’s self concepts. The degree of adherence to professionalism also constructed a
specific corporate culture in private law firms. SI analysis emphasized that the paralegals have a degree of
agency, or control over their own behaviour. At the same time, they are also constrained by the norms of
professional behaviour in their firm. In the case of paralegal professionalism, people are using symbols to
(1) develop a sense of self, (2) to interact with others (e.g. attorneys, paralegals, and clients), and (3) to
construct meaning and culture within the law firm itself.
One of the contributors to this book is Dr. Mark Johns from Luther College in Decorah Iowa, USA.
Luther College is a small 4-year residential college and Dr. Johns was the chair of the Communication
Department. Dr. Johns is not only active in the Association of Internet Researchers (AoIR), he is a
Reverend in the Lutheran church. He is a great example of how one person can blend multiple interests
into one career.

Dr. Mark D. Johns – A Symbolic Interactionism Scholar

People and groups are influenced by symbols and social processes. At the same time, social structure is
created through symbolic interaction of people and groups. While this may sound similar to GST, there
are important differences between the two theories. At base, GST brings into focus the structure of a
system and analyzes how the structure determines behaviour. It is based on the idea that human behaviour
is a product of the system to which it belongs. SI inverts that formula and seeks to explain how symbol
use creates social structures. In SI, social structures are products, not determinants of interaction

Critical and Cultural Studies

Focus: Relationships between culture, power, and social difference

Critical and Cultural Studies comprise a branch of theory that explores the relationships between culture
and power. Research here is based on the ideas that (1) power permeates all social relationships and (2)
power finds a material form in cultural practices and artefacts. Power implies access to and control of
both people and resources. Power may refer to the control of government, institutions, and even social
groups, but for Critical and Cultural research, the concept of power is much more complex. Power refers
to any “…social relations of difference and struggle over resources of a material or cultural
character” (Casey, Casey, Calvert, French, & Lewis, 2008, p. 216). By referring to the struggle over not
just material resources, such as land or money, but also cultural resources, such as meaning and
language, these theories bring communication and representation into focus. Secondly, Critical and
Cultural Studies point out that “power is not something that is imposed from the top of society down onto
its oppressed bottom layers. Power is everywhere…” (Rose, 2007, p. 143). Consequently, a great deal of
this research focuses on every day, often taken for granted practices. Forms of popular culture, various
media texts, subcultures, and visual images make up the artefacts and data that these researchers analyze.
Finally, as Casey et al. point out, the social relations of difference are key to Critical and Cultural Studies
because this research also seeks to understand the various ways in which social groups are oppressed.
Social groups are often oppressed along lines of class, gender, race, age, and ethnicity. Research here
seeks to bring oppression to light in order to analyze and abolish it. It is not just academic, but also
practical and political. In this way, Critical and Cultural Studies are dedicated to using scholarship for
progressive social change.

Critical Theory
A great deal of work in this area has been influenced by the work of Karl Marx (1818-1883). Class was
the form of social difference that most interested him. He considered class division as the most
fundamental organizing factor in capitalist society. Marxist theories analyze how people are divided into
classes, and how the capitalist ruling class (bourgeoisie) dominates and exploits its workers (proletariat).
While class divisions and economic systems are central to understanding Marx, it is also important to
distinguish Marxism as a theory from political and economic systems of Communism. Politically, a
Communist state relies on a single-party system. Economically, it is based on nationalized industries and
the state ownership of property. Communism is a form of government and an economic system that is
more narrowly defined than Marxism. Marxist theory is a philosophy that provides a critical analysis of
capitalism as well as a theory for social change. In communication studies, Marxist thought has a much
wider range of applications, especially because Marx himself was not only concerned with economic
production, but also with the production and control of ideas.
For Marx, those who control the means of production control much more than economic flows, they also
control the flow of culture, ideas, and values in society. In The German Ideology (1845), Marx writes that
“the ideas of the ruling class are, in every age, the ruling ideas: i.e. the class which is the dominant
material force in society, is at the same time its dominant intellectual force. The class which has the
means of material production at its disposal has control at the same time over the means of mental
production…” (Marx, 1845/1963, p. 93). Simply put, those who control economic production also control
cultural production. Because ‘the one who pays the piper calls the tune,’ capitalist forms of culture, art,
and media become the bearers of capitalist ideology.

Developing Marxist thought in the 20th century were scholars from The Frankfurt School for Social
Research (f. 1923). Scholars such as Theodor Adorno (1903-1969), Walter Benjamin (1892-1940), Max
Horkheimer (1895-1973), and Herbert Marcuse (1898-1979) were also concerned with the production and
distribution of culture and ideology. They argue that public discourse has been eclipsed by private
industry and that consumer goods have come to dominate people’s consciousness. Making a distinction
between true needs and false needs, they consider unnecessary consumer goods to be false needs. They
considered true needs to be the deep, essential needs of human beings. Human beings need to be
independent, autonomous, creative participants in the life-world. People need to have a voice in the public
sphere and to be active in their own government. However, capitalism has remained strong by inculcating
desires for unnecessary cultural commodities. You need only walk into a local Super-Mart to see what the
Frankfurt School theorists mean. Take, for example, the dozens of different brands, varieties, and even
scents of air fresheners available. Or conduct a web search, where examples of unnecessary commodities
abound online. They argue that the proliferation of commodities is distracting and prevents people from
fulfilling their true needs for autonomy and creativity. True needs are eclipsed by false needs. Under
capitalism, freedom of choice is reduced to the freedom to choose between consumer goods, not between
political or economic systems. In this way, the right to make political choices has become less important
than the right to make consumer choices.

These theorists were also concerned with the transformation of culture into industry. The process of
commodifiction names how a piece of culture such as music or a work of art can become a product whose
value lies only in its price rather than in its artistic quality. Some theorists, like Theodor Ardorno, were
particularly concerned with popular music. For him, popular music was a product to be bought and sold
rather than an authentic work of art or a creative expression. He argued that this was an effect of the mass
production techniques used after the industrial revolution. If popular music was to be produced in a
standardized way, it would lose its unique artistic qualities. He also argued that by using assembly-line
techniques, the production of a musical album was no different than the production of a bar of soap or an
automobile. While mass production ensured that a greater number of units could be purchased at a lower
price, Adorno argued that profit motives would have negative effects on the artistry of popular music, and
culture in general.

He also regarded mass production as a dangerous development because it threatened to break down the
traditional cultural hierarchy. This hierarchy values High Culture such as fine art or opera because it is
exclusive and refined. It also values Low Culture such as folk music or mendhi (henna tattoos) because
they are produced for small, local communities and are therefore unique and authentic. However, these
forms of culture have lost their inherent value as they have become mass-produced. For example,
Frankfurt School theorists would argue that Vincent Van Gough’s “The Starry Night” is a work of fine art
(an example of High Culture). However, it is degraded when reproduced onto thousands of coffee mugs
or refrigerator magnets. Likewise, mendhi has been practiced in many Eastern cultures for centuries (an
example of Folk or Low Culture). It, too, has lost unique cultural value because thousands of identical
stencils for henna tattoos can now be easily purchased nearly anywhere in the West. Both of these
examples show a concern for culture and commodification.
From Critical Theory to Cultural Studies
Marxist and Frankfurt School theories are successful in analyzing the relationships between culture and
economy. Clearly, this line of research remains focused on class hierarchy as the most important feature
of social difference. However, Critical Theory may not adequately address other categories of social
difference such as gender, race, or sexuality. Cultural Studies picks up here by bringing into focus other
features of social difference. Additionally, Cultural Studies does not simply critique the dominant or
“ruling” ideology, but instead, looks at the struggle between different ideologies. The assumption made
here is that society is comprised of different social groups who vie for power through cultural resources.
The struggle does not occur on a grand battlefield, but instead the struggle occurs in people’s everyday
practices and forms of popular culture. For instance, television viewing, cinema, web surfing, and
subcultures of music and fashion are important elements of daily life in many Western cultures. Cultural
Studies does not view these as “innocent” amusements, but instead brings into focus the struggles
between culture, entertainment, power, and ideology.

Cultural Studies also brings into focus cultures of resistance. For instance, in Subculture: The Meaning of
Style (1979), Dick Hebdige analyzed the punk rock movements of the late 1970s and early 1980s in
Britain. Viewed in mainstream society as a social problem, Hebdige instead looked at the aggressive,
even anarchist bases of punk as an important cultural expression of disenfranchised youth. He argued that
punk must be seen in the social context of economic decline and racial unrest. Instead of condemning
punk as a menace to society, he explored the complex and dynamic practices by which British youth
expressed their disillusion through creating unique styles of music and fashion. Through punk, British
youth created a means not just to mark a distinctive identity, but also a political position against the status
quo.

Other case studies concerning musical subcultures have focused on diaspora, or the spread of large group
migrations as people move outside of their traditional homelands. For instance, Bennett (2002,
2001/2005) analyzed how East Indian youth transformed bhangra, a form of Punjabi folk music. As many
Indian families settled in large Western cities including Toronto, London, and New York, they were
forced to negotiate tensions between tradition and assimilation. Indian diasporic youth responded by
mixing the traditional bhangra style with other genres of music such as techno, pop, rap, and reggae.
These practices created “…a means for young Asians to construct new identities which both reflect their
cultural roots while at the same time articulating new cultural sensibilities based on their experiences
growing up in Britain” (Bennett, 2001/2005, p. 105), Canada, and U.S.A, respectively. By creating a new
musical subculture, East Indian youth found a way of honouring their heritages while also carving out an
identity distinct to a younger generation.

Ethnicity and identity are important topics in this field. Cultural Studies research also focuses on how
people use popular culture to create, or even claim, identity. Claiming generally refers to white middle
class youth who take up cultural practices that are outside of their own ethnic upbringing. For example,
many teens have adopted an ethnic identity through the music, dance, fashion, and slang popular in hip-
hop and Latino cultures. Nell Bernstein (2006) calls the phenomena “goin’ gangsta” or “choosin’
cholita.” The phenomena have even been parodied on television programs such as The
Simpsons and South Park as well as in films such as Malibu’s Most Wanted. For many teens, ethnicity is
the “spice” that livens up the dish of mainstream white culture. bell hooks (1999) has called this process
“eating the Other.” Here, white youth metaphorically consume Other cultures when claiming an ethnic
identity. This line of thought analyzes white privilege and takes a critical stance on power and racism.

These examples of Cultural Studies research focus on subculture and resistance, as well as power and
ethnicity. Yet other research in Cultural Studies has been heavily influenced by Feminist Theory. These
studies bring issues of gender and sexuality into focus. Much work here examines negative or narrowly
stereotyped representations of women in television, film, advertisements, and other forms of popular
culture. For instance, in Dreamworlds: Desire, Sex, and Power (1991, 1995, 2008), Sut Jhally analyzed
the ways in which women are portrayed in music video. In a detailed investigation, he identified the roles
of women as highly sexualized and argued that through these representations women are symbolically
annihilated. Symbolic annihilation refers to the ways in which women are absent, trivialized, or otherwise
marginalized. His critique seeks to open a dialogue about these issues and to combat stereotypes. As this
body of work continues to grow, greater attention is also being paid to issues of masculinity. (See Chapter
4: Gendered Communication) Ultimately, this branch of Cultural Studies works to open up definitions of
masculinity, femininity, and sexuality as well as to work toward creating a more democratic space of
representation.

Wrapping It Up
The world of communication is dynamic, complex, and diverse. Its different elements, environments, and
expressions will be explored throughout this book. As you work through the various chapters, remember
the optical metaphor discussed earlier. Each chapter will provide a unique way of seeing communication
by bringing specific aspects into focus. In doing so, the chapters will help you to expand your horizons by
illuminating different communication contexts and features. The more perspectives you explore, the
better able you will be to develop a richer and more comprehensive understanding of human
communication.

Glossary

Shared Conceptual Maps

Groups of mental labels that describe how mental labels are grouped together or classified. While mental
labels do exist inside an individual’s head, they also must be socially determined. In this way, shared
conceptual maps provide a common reference point that enable people to think individually yet also to
interpret and understand one another collectively.

Critical Theory

This is a branch of research that focuses on the relationships between culture and power. Critical Theory
is based in Marxist philosophy and analyzes the control and circulation of ideas within capitalist societies.
This research identifies the relationships between culture and economy and focuses on class as the most
important feature of social difference.

Cultural Studies

While related to Critical Theory, Cultural Studies also focuses on other features of social difference such
as gender, race, sexuality, and ethnicity. This research is concerned with the process in which different
social groups vie for power through cultural resources.

General Systems Theory (GST)

GST is used to study the nature of complex systems. It explores the structure of a system by charting out
how a system is organized. It views a system as a whole (rather than a sum of its parts) that is circular or
self-perpetuating. GST brings into focus the structure of a system and analyzes how the structure
determines behaviour. It is based on the idea that human behaviour is a product of the system to which it
belongs.

Interactional models of communication

 This model follows two channels in which communication and feedback flow between sender and
receiver. This model adds the concept of field of experience to the communication process.

Linear model of communication

This model is credited to Shannon & Weaver (1949), and includes a sender (source of message) and
receiver. It is a one-way path for communication.

Paradigms of representation

A paradigm is a major approach, or a comprehensive set of ideas that make up a way of viewing the
world. The three paradigms of representation are Reflective, Intentional, and Constituitive. Each makes
up a unique way of viewing the process of meaning-making.

Semiotics

The study of signs. A sign is anything that stands for something else. Semiotic studies are concerned with
the relationship between a sign and its meaning. They take a sign apart to see how meanings are
associated with signs and how systems of signs shape the social construction of meaning.

Transactional Models

These models move away from referring to people as senders and receivers to referring to people
as communicators. Fundamentally, this model views communication as a transaction – a cooperative
action in which communicators co-create the process, outcome and effectiveness of the interaction.

Understanding This Chapter

1. One of the basic tenets of communication theory is that one “cannot, not communicate.” Do you think
this is true? Why or why not?
2. There are three basic models of communication discussed in this chapter. Do you think that it is time to
develop a fourth model? Perhaps one that addresses the interactivity of digital and internet
communication? What would it look like? Can you draw it?
3. Is Marxist theory still relevant to today’s society? Why or why not?
4. Multiple Online Games like Fortnite are virtual worlds where people congregate and interact using
avatars. If you were to analyze Fortnite using “Semiotics” would you classify the avatars as signifiers?
signifieds? signs? symbols? Perhaps they are none of these?

References

Adorno, T. (1991). The culture industry: Selected essays on mass culture. London: Routledge.

Becker, H. (1970). Sociological work: Method and substance. Chicago: Aldine.

Bennett, A. (2001, 2005). Cultures of popular music. Berkshire and New York: Open University Press.

Berger, A. A. (2007). Ads, fads, and consumer culture. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littleford.
Bernstein, N. (2006). Goin’ gangsta, choosin’ cholita. In S. Maasik & J. Solomon (Eds.) Signs of life in the
USA: Readings on popular culture for writers (5th ed). (pp. 606-611). Boston: Bedford St. Martins.

Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic Interactionism. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Casey, B., Casey, N., Calvert, B., French, L., & Lewis, J. (2008). Television studies: The key concepts, 2nd
ed. New York: Routledge.

Durham, M.G., & Kellner, D.M. (Eds.) (2001). Media and cultural studies: Key works. Malden, MA:
Blackwell.

Hall, S. (1997). The work of representation in S. Hall (Ed.) Representation: Cultural representations and
signifying practices (pp. 13-73). London: Sage.

Hebdige, D. (1979). Subculture: The Meaning of style. London: Routledge.

hooks, b. (1999). Black looks: Race and representation. Boston: South End Press.

Jhally, S. (Writer, Editor, Producer). (2008). Dreamworlds 3: Desire, sex, and power in music video.
Northampton, MA: Media Education Foundation.

Levinson, S.C. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Littlejohn, S. J. (1992). Theories of human communication (4th ed.) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Lively, K.J. (2009). Occupational claims to professionalism: The case of paralegals. Symbolic Interaction
24 (3), 343-365.

Marx, K. (1963). Selected writings in sociology and social philosophy. T. Bottomore & M. Rubel (Eds.)
Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Mead, G.H. (1934). Mind, self, and society from the standpoint of a social behaviorist. C.W. Morris (Ed.)
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Peirce, C.S. (1960). Collected papers (c. Hartshorn & P. Weiss, Eds.) Cambridge, MA: The Kelnap Press of
Harvard University Press.

Rose, G. (2007). Visual methodologies: An introduction to the interpretation of visual materials. 2nd ed.
London: Sage

Saussure, F. de (1959). Course in general linguistics. London: Fontana.

Shannon, C., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana: University of
Illinois Press.

Watzlawick, P., Beavin-Bavelas, J., & Jackson, D.D. (1967). Pragmatics of human communication: A study
of interactional patterns, pathologies, and paradoxes. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.

West, R., & L.H. Turner. (2007). Introducing communication theories: Analysis and application (3rd ed.)
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Communication Theories
Actor-Network Theory (ANT) 1980
Actor-Network Theory suggests that human and non-human factors are equally influential in the
success of technological innovation and scientific knowledge-creation. The theory looks at how
networks are formed and how these networks contribute to these successes. It suggests that no
one person or thing is solely responsible for these advancements. Therefore, both an actor and
a network are responsible for achieving these outcomes.
Actor–network theory (ANT) is a theoretical and methodological approach to social
theory where everything in the social and natural worlds exists in constantly shifting networks of
relationships. It posits that nothing exists outside those relationships. All the factors involved in a
social situation are on the same level, and thus there are no external social forces beyond what
and how the network participants interact at present. Thus, objects, ideas, processes, and any
other relevant factors are seen as just as important in creating social situations as humans.
ANT was first developed at the Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation (CSI) of the École nationale
supérieure des mines de Paris in the early 1980s by staff (Michel Callon, Madeleine
Akrich, Bruno Latour) and visitors (including John Law).[2] The 1984 book co-authored by John
Law and fellow-sociologist Peter Lodge (Science for Social Scientists; London: Macmillan Press
Ltd.) is a good example of early explorations of how the growth and structure of knowledge
could be analyzed and interpreted through the interactions of actors and networks.
Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST)1968
Groups and organizations create rules and resources which are defined as structures. These
structures form social systems which develop a life of their own. The quality of the structure
affects decision making, and decisions also affect the structure.

Several university students decide to form a study group to prepare for an upcoming exam.
After class, the students gather in the library and take stock of their situation. Some are male
and some are female. Some have notes on the class lectures; several don’t. Two students
currently have an ‘A’ in the course; everyone else has a ‘B’ or lower. One person can access the
professor’s lecture slides with his smart phone, while another student has some lectures on
tape. Three people have only one hour to devote to the group and need to make the most of
their time. So, how will the study session proceed? Who will lead the group? Which resources
will be used and in what manner? What style of study will the group employ: lecture, discussion
or reading? What will the group aim to accomplish? What material will be covered? How will
people ask questions and who will answer them?

The formation of group structures and their influence on communication and decision making is
the domain of Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST).

Anthony Giddens, Baron Giddens MAE (born 1938) is an English sociologist who is known

for his theory of structuration and his holistic view of modern societies. He is considered to be
one of the most prominent modern sociologists and the author of at least 34 books, published in
at least 29 languages, issuing on average more than one book every year. In 2007, Giddens
was listed as the fifth most-referenced author of books in the humanities.[4][5] He has academic
appointments in approximately twenty different universities throughout the world and has
received numerous honorary degrees

Agenda Setting Theory 1970

Agenda Setting Theory states that mass media organizations determine what the general
population considers newsworthy by deciding how much attention a news story receives. The
term salience transfer is commonly used and refers to the ability of the media to transfer their
agendas onto the public.
Agenda-setting theory was formally developed by Max McCombs and Donald Shaw in a study
on the 1968 American presidential election. Agenda setting is a social science theory; it also
attempts to make predictions. The theory also suggests that media has a great influence to their
audience by instilling what they should think about, instead of what they actually think. That is, if
a news item is covered frequently and prominently, the audience will regard the issue as more
important.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory 1960
Cognitive Dissonance is the psychological conflict that results from holding two contradictory or
incompatible beliefs or attitudes. For example, one can like a person, but disapprove of their
habits. The theory suggests that a person looks for balance in their beliefs. Therefore, in order
to reduce dissonance, one will avoid hearing opposing viewpoints or change their beliefs to
match their actions.
Cognitive dissonance theory of communication was initially advanced by American psychologist
Leon Festinger in the 1960s. Festinger theorized that cognitive dissonance usually arises when
a person holds two or more incompatible beliefs simultaneously.[59] This is a normal occurrence
since people encounter different situations that invoke conflicting thought sequences. This
conflict results in a psychological discomfort. According to Festinger, people experiencing a
thought conflict try to reduce the psychological discomfort by attempting to achieve an emotional
equilibrium. This equilibrium is achieved in three main ways. First, the person may downplay the
importance of the dissonant thought. Second, the person may attempt to outweigh the dissonant
thought with consonant thoughts. Lastly, the person may incorporate the dissonant thought into
their current belief system.
Communication Accommodation Theory 1970
Communication Accommodation Theory describes when people accommodate or adjust their
communication styles to others. These changes in verbal and nonverbal styles are done through
two ways: divergence and convergence. Divergence is used to highlight group identity through
touting the differences of the group they identify with. Divergence is often used by groups with
strong ethnic or racial pride. Convergence is used more often by powerless individuals for social
approval and focuses on matching the communication styles of the person with whom they are
speaking to.
When a junior employee in an organization is talking to a higher level employee, both the people
tend to accommodate each other by realizing their differences in social status and rankings or
positions.
1970 s
Communication accommodation theory (CAT) is a theory of communication developed
by Howard Giles. This theory concerns "(1) the behavioral changes that people make to attune
their communication to their partner, (2) the extent to which people perceive their partner as
appropriately attuning to them."[1] The basis of the theory lies in the idea that people adjust (or
accommodate) their style of speech to one another. Doing this helps the message sender gain
approval from the receiver, increases efficiency in communication between both parties, and
helps the sender maintain a positive social identity. This theory is concerned with the links
between language, context, and identity. [2][3] It focuses on both the intergroup and interpersonal
factors that lead to accommodation, as well as the ways that power, macro and micro-context
concerns affect communication behaviors.[3] Accommodation is usually considered to be
between the message sender and the message receiver, but the communicator also often
accommodates to a larger audience- either a group of people that are watching the interaction
or society in general.

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Confirmation Bias
Confirmation Bias is a theory which explains why people view the world selectively. It states that
people continue to view the world selectively by choosing information and media which
reinforces their beliefs.
Constructivism
People who are more cognitively complex will be more successful communicators because they
possess the ability to create customized and sophisticated messages that pursue multiple
communication goals.
Cultivation Theory 1960
Cultivation Theory argues media shapes a persons sense of reality. Because many acquire
information through mediated sources rather than direct experience, their world view becomes
influenced by these sources. For example, Cultivation Theory suggests that people who would
be defined as heavy television viewers see the world as more violent that it actually is.
Cultivation theory suggests that people who are exposed regularly to media over long periods
of time perceive the world’s social realities as presented on media and it affects the audiences’
attitudes and behaviors.[2]
Founded by George Gerbner in the 1960s, and later expanded upon by Gerbner and Larry
Gross, cultivation theory initially began as a way to test the impact that television viewing had
on viewers, particularly with regard to violence.[3] The key proposition of the theory was that "the
more time people spend 'living' in the television world, the more likely they are to believe social
reality aligns with reality portrayed on television."[4] Cultivation theory is thus positivistic insofar
as it assumes the existence of objective reality and value-neutral research.

For example, television messages about violence are likely to be especially resonant to an

individual who lives in a city with a high crime rate. Between the television message and the
real-life crime rate, cultivation effects will be amplified, enhancing the belief that the world is a
mean and scary place.
Cultural Studies
Cultural Studies theorists suggest that mass media represents ideologies of the dominant class
in a society. They believe that media is influenced by profit, since corporations run the media.
Cultural Studies theorists are curious about the effect of power on culture.
Dramatism
Dramatism states that life is drama. Therefore, one can understand a speaker’s motive through
the dramatistic pentad of act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose. The greatest motive of
rhetoric is to purge guilt, and there can only be persuasion if the audience identifies with the
speaker.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
The Elaboration Likelihood Model looks at how attitudes are formed and changed. It suggest
there are two routes of persuasion. The central route is where attitudes are changed through a
logical thought process. This route requires more attention, but is also allows for the major
change. The peripheral route uses surface characteristics, such as speaker’s credibility, to
judge the message. This route creates smaller shifts in attitude.
Face Negotiation Theory 1985
Face Negotiation Theory highlights conflict style differences between collectivist and
individualistic cultures. Collectivist cultures place value on the group and therefore adopt a
conflict style of avoiding or integrating to give others mutual face. Individualistic cultures place
value on the individual and in an attempt to protect self-face, they adopt a dominating conflict
style.
Face-Negotiation Theory is a theory conceived by Stella Ting-Toomey in 1985, to understand
how people from different cultures manage rapport and disagreements.[1] The theory posited
"face", or self-image when communicating with others,[1] as a universal phenomenon that
pervades across cultures. In conflicts, one's face is threatened; and thus the person tends to
save or restore his or her face. This set of communicative behaviors, according to the theory, is
called "facework". Since people frame the situated meaning of "face" and enact "facework"
differently from one culture to the next, the theory poses a cultural-general framework to
examine facework negotiation. It is important to note that the definition of face varies depending
on the people and their culture and the same can be said for the proficiency of facework
Framing
“Frames” are defined as the way in which we interpret media presented to us, and that these
frames function as a way to organize social meanings. Since the media decides what we view
and how we view it, they also influence the way in which we interpret information. In a sense,
they tell us what to think about, and how to think about it.
Genderlect
Genderlect theory sees masculine and feminine communication styles as two different cultural
dialects — neither of which is more superior than the other. Genderlect states that these forms
of communication are simply different in their focus: masculine discourse is based on building
status and independence, while feminine conversation is used as a way to build rapport and
connection.
Groupthink
Groupthink is when groups make faulty decisions because they fail to critically analyzing their
options and weigh alternatives. This typically occurs in highly cohesive groups who are more
concerned with maintaining group unity than finding the best option.
Hypodermic Needle Theory 1940
The Hypodermic Needle Theory, also known as the ‘magic bullet’ theory, says the media has a
powerful and direct effect on audiences by ‘injecting’ them with messages. The Hypodermic
Needle Theory no longer carries the respect it once did since its accuracy was found to be
questionable.
The hypodermic needle model (known as the hypodermic-syringe model, transmission-
belt model, or magic bullet theory) is a model of communication suggesting that an intended
message is directly received and wholly accepted by the receiver. The model was originally
rooted in 1930s behaviourism and largely considered obsolete for a long time, but big
data analytics-based mass customisation has led to a modern revival of the basic idea.
The "Magic Bullet" or "Hypodermic Needle Theory" of direct influence effects was based on
early observations of the effect of mass media, as used by Nazi propaganda and the effects
of Hollywood in the 1930s and 1940s.[1] People were assumed to be "uniformly controlled by
their biologically based 'instincts' and that they react more or less uniformly to whatever 'stimuli'
came along".[2] The "Magic Bullet" theory graphically assumes that the media's message is a
bullet fired from the "media gun" into the viewer's "head".[3] Similarly, the "Hypodermic Needle
Model" uses the same idea of the "shooting" paradigm. It suggests that the media injects its
messages straight into the passive audience.[4] This passive audience is immediately affected
by these messages. The public essentially cannot escape from the media's influence, and is
therefore considered a "sitting duck".[4] Both models suggest that the public is vulnerable to the
messages shot at them because of the limited communication tools and the studies of the
media's effects on the masses at the time.[5] It means the media explores information in such a
way that it injects in the mind of audiences as bullets.
The "magic bullet" and "hypodermic needle" models originate from Harold Lasswell's 1927
book, Propaganda Technique in the World War.[6] Recent work in the history of communication
studies have documented how the two models may have served as strawman theory or
fallacy[7] or even a "myth".[8] Others have documented the possible medical origins of the
metaphor of the magic bullet model.[

Muted Group Theory 1975

Muted Group Theory states that because language is man-made women remain reduced and
excluded. Because words and norms have been created by men, women are disadvantaged in
public. As women become less muted and more vocal, the dominant position of males in society
will diminish.
Muted group theory (MGT), created by Edwin Ardener and Shirley Ardener in 1975, is
a communication theory that focuses on how marginalized groups are muted and excluded via
the use of language. The main idea of MGT is that "Language serves its creators better than
those in other groups who have to learn to use the language as best they can."[1]
The term mutedness refers to a group's inability to express themselves due to this inequity.
[1]
 The theory describes the relationship between a dominant group and its subordinate group(s)
as being as follows: 1) the dominant group contributes mostly to the formulation of the language
system, including the social norms and vocabulary, and 2) members from the subordinate
group(s) have to learn and use the dominant language to express themselves. However,
this translation process may result in the loss and distortion of information as the people from
subordinate groups cannot articulate their ideas clearly.[1] The dominant group may also ignore
the voice of the marginalized group. All these may eventually lead to the mutedness of the
subordinate group. Although this theory was initially developed to study the different situations
faced by female and male, it can also be applied to any marginalized group that is muted by the
inadequacies of their languages.

The Narrative Paradigm

The Narrative Paradigm suggests that we as a people are storytelling animals. It states that
instead of using traditional logic, we are more open to judging the credibility of a speaker
through narrative logic, which analyzes if their stories are well put together (coherence) and
sound true (fidelity). Narrative logic allows those who are not educated in oratory and
persuasion to make judgments; therefore, allowing for a more democratic system.
Priming
Priming refers to the ability of the media to control the interpretation of new information by
feeding the public prior information. This prior context set frames of reference within the
audience members, which ultimately effects their judgments. For example, the media has
primed us as to what constitutes a credible person.
Proxemics
Proxemic theory looks at how different cultures develop and define space. On an unconscious
level people internalize three types of space: 1) intimate space: our personal “bubble” for friends
and intimates relationships; 2) social and consultative spaces: the space for routine social
interactions with acquaintances and strangers; 3) public space: the space where impersonal
and anonymous interactions occur. Each culture creates their own distances for what they feel
is appropriate.
Social Exchange Theory
Social Exchange Theory posits an ‘economic’ exchange for in interpersonal relationships.
Meaning, the relationships is enhanced by satisfying each others self-interest. In this theory,
self-interest is not regarded as a bad thing, but rather as a concept that builds the relationship.
Social Learning Theory 1960
Social Learning Theory argues that people learn from each other through observing, imitating,
and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory
explains how human behavior can be shaped by continuous reciprocal interaction between
cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences.
Social learning theory is a theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes that
new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others.[1] It states that learning is
a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through
observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or
direct reinforcement.[2] In addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs through
the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement.
When a particular behavior is rewarded regularly, it will most likely persist; conversely, if a
particular behavior is constantly punished, it will most likely desist.[3] The theory expands on
traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior is governed solely by reinforcements, by
placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes in the learning individual.
[1]

Social Penetration Theory

Social Penetration Theory looks at how superficial relationships evolve to intimate relationships.
The theory states it is a gradual evolution due primarily to self-disclosure between parties. But,
while this self-disclosure can be effective in creating intimate relationships, it can also leave one
or more persons vulnerable.
Spiral of Silence 1947- 74
The Spiral of Silence theory states that people are less likely to express their opinions if they are
the minority. This is because they fear they will be isolated by the majority and suffer social
rejection.
The spiral of silence theory is a political science and mass communication theory proposed by
the German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. It states that a social group or society
might isolate or exclude members due to the members' opinions. This stipulates that individuals
have a fear of isolation. This fear of isolation consequently leads to remaining silent instead of
voicing opinions. Media are an important factor that influences both the dominant idea
and people's perception of what the dominant idea is. The assessment of one's social
environment may not always correlate with reality.[1]
Standpoint Theory
Standpoint Theory claims that each person is seated in a different rank among the social
hierarchy. Because of this, each person views the social climate from a different vantage point,
which only provides a small look at the social whole. But the theory also claims that those who
are lower on the social ladder tend to have a greater understanding of the social whole, rather
than those higher up.
Symbolic Interactionism Theory
Symbolic Interaction Theory suggests that the concept of self is created by three principles: 1)
Meaning: that we act towards and things according to the meanings we apply to them. 2)
Language: that we negotiate meaning through symbols. 3) Thought: that thought modifies our
interpretations. Symbolic interactionism implies that without communication there would be no
self concept.
Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
Theory of Planned Behavior is the same as Theory of Reasoned Action in that it says personal
attitudinal judgments and social-normative considerations influence a person’s intentions to
perform a behavior, but TPB adds a third element: perceived behavioral control. This element
being the perception of how easy or difficult it is to perform the behavior.
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
Theory of Reasoned Action looks at how behaviors can be influenced by influencing a person’s
intentions. TRA states that two main factors tell a person whether or not to perform a behavior:
1) personal attitudinal judgments: the evaluation of the action; and, 2) social-normative
considerations: what one believes others think they should do.
 Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Uncertainty Reduction Theory states that when strangers meet, their primary goal is to reduce
levels of uncertainty. Uncertainty meaning, being unsure of how to behave (or how the other
person will behave), and unsure of what to think of the other person. For example, if they like
the person or do not like the person. According to this theory, they will use communication to
reduce this uncertainty.
Uses and Gratifications Theory1940-48
The Uses and Gratifications Theory assumes audiences actively seek out media to satisfy
individual needs. With this assumption, the Uses and Gratifications Theory looks to answer
three questions: what do people do with the media, what are their underlying motives for using
said media, and what are the pros and cons of this individual media use.
Uses and gratifications theory (UGT) is an approach to understanding why and how people
actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs. UGT is an audience-centered
approach to understanding mass communication.[1] Diverging from other media effect theories
that question "what does media do to people?", UGT focuses on "what do people do with
media?"[2] It postulates that media is a highly available product and the audiences are the
consumers of the same product.
This communication theory is positivistic in its approach, based in the socio-
psychological communication tradition, and focuses on communication at the mass media scale.
[3]
 The driving question of UGT is: Why do people use media and what do they use them for?
UGT discusses how users deliberately choose media that will satisfy given needs and allow one
to enhance knowledge, relaxation, social interactions/companionship, diversion, or escape.[4][5][6]
It assumes that audience members are not passive consumers of media. Rather, the audience
has power over their media consumption and assumes an active role in interpreting and
integrating media into their own lives. Unlike other theoretical perspectives, UGT holds that
audiences are responsible for choosing media to meet their desires and needs to achieve
gratification. This theory would then imply that the media compete against other information
sources for viewers' gratification.[7]
UGT has a heuristic value today because it gives communication scholars a "perspective
through which a number of ideas and theories about media choice, consumption, and even
impact can be viewed".[8]

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter2-140301074341-phpapp01/95/chapter-2-theories-of-
communication-1-638.jpg?cb=1400721974

for communication theory slides

Journalism and Mass Communication " 2003 Kalyani Suresh

CHAPTER 2:

Theories of Communication

Chapter 1 focused on the developmental stages of Communication and summed

up Communication as a complex and dynamic process leading to the evolution of
meaning.
The study of communication and mass media has led to the formulation of many
theories: structural and functional theories believe that social structures are
real and function in ways that can be observed objectively; cognitive and
behavioral theories tend to focus on psychology of
individuals; interactionist theories view social life as a process of
interaction; interpretive theories uncover the ways people actually understand
their own experience; and critical theories are concerned with the conflict of
interests in society and the way communication perpetuates domination of one
group over another .
The earliest theories were those propounded by Western theorists Siebert,
Paterson and Schramm in their book Four Theories Of the Press (1956). These
were termed "normative theories" by McQuail in the sense that they "mainly
express ideas of how the media ought to or can be expected to operate under a
prevailing set of conditions and values." Each of the four original or classical
theories is based on a particular political theory or economic scenario.
I) CLASSICAL THEORIES
Authoritarian Theory
According to this theory, mass media, though not under the direct control of the
State, had to follow its bidding. Under an Authoritarian approach in Western
Europe, freedom of thought was jealously guarded by a few people (ruling
classes), who were concerned with the emergence of a new middle class and were
worried about the effects of printed matter on their thought process. Steps were
taken to control the freedom of expression. The result was advocacy of complete
dictatorship. The theory promoted zealous obedience to a hierarchical superior
and reliance on threat and punishment to those who did not follow the censorship
rules or did not respect authority. Censorship of the press was justified on the
ground that the State always took precedence over the individual's right to
freedom of expression.
This theory stemmed from the authoritarian philosophy of Plato (407 - 327 B.C),
who thought that the State was safe only in the hands of a few wise
men. Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679), a British academician, argued that the
power to maintain order was sovereign and individual objections were to be
ignored. Engel, a German thinker further reinforced the theory by stating that
freedom came into its supreme right only under Authoritarianism.
The world has been witness to authoritarian means of control over media by both
dictatorial and democratic governments.
Libertarianism or Free Press Theory
This movement is based on the right of an individual, and advocates absence of
restraint. The basis of this theory dates back to 17th century England when the
printing press made it possible to print several copies of a book or pamphlet at
cheap rates. The State was thought of as a major source of interference on the
rights of an individual and his property. Libertarians regarded taxation as
institutional theft. Popular will (vox populi) was granted precedence over the
power of State.
Advocates of this theory were Lao Tzu, an early 16th century philosopher, John
Locke of Great Britain in the17th century, John Milton, the epic poet
("Aeropagitica") and John Stuart Mill, an essayist ("On Liberty"). Milton
in Aeropagitica in 1644, referred to a self righting process if free expression is
permitted "let truth and falsehood grapple." In 1789, the French, in their
Declaration Of The Rights Of Man, wrote "Every citizen may speak, write and
publish freely." Out of such doctrines came the idea of a "free marketplace of
ideas." George Orwell defined libertarianism as "allowing people to say things you
do not want to hear". Libertarians argued that the press should be seen as
the Fourth Estate reflecting public opinion.
What the theory offers, in sum, is power without social responsibility.
Social Responsibility Theory
Virulent critics of the Free Press Theory were Wilbur Schramm, Siebert and
Theodore Paterson. In their book Four Theories Of Press, they stated "pure
libertarianism is antiquated, outdated and obsolete." They advocated the need for
its replacement by the Social Responsibility theory. This theory can be said to
have been initiated in the United States by the Commission of The Freedom Of
Press, 1949. The commission found that the free market approach to press
freedom had only increased the power of a single class and has not served the
interests of the less well-off classes. The emergence of radio, TV and film
suggested the need for some means of accountability. Thus the theory advocated
some obligation on the part of the media to society. A judicial mix of self
regulation and state regulation and high professional standards were imperative.
Social Responsibility theory thus became the modern variation in which the duty
to one"s conscience was the primary basis of the right of free expression.
Soviet Media/Communist Theory
This theory is derived from the ideologies of Marx and Engel that "the ideas of the
ruling classes are the ruling ideas". It was thought that the entire mass media was
saturated with bourgeois ideology. Lenin thought of private ownership as being
incompatible with freedom of press and that modern technological means of
information must be controlled for enjoying effective freedom of press.
The theory advocated that the sole purpose of mass media was to educate the
great masses of workers and not to give out information. The public was
encouraged to give feedback as it was the only way the media would be able to
cater to its interests.
Two more theories were later added as the "four theories of the press" were not
fully applicable to the non-aligned countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, who
were committed to social and economic development on their own terms. The two
theories were:
Development Communication Theory
The underlying fact behind the genesis of this theory was that there can be no
development without communication. Under the four classical theories, capitalism
was legitimized, but under the Development communication theory, or
Development Support Communication as it is otherwise called, the media
undertook the role of carrying out positive developmental programmes, accepting
restrictions and instructions from the State. The media subordinated themselves
to political, economic, social and cultural needs. Hence the stress on
"development communication" and "development journalism". There was tacit
support from the UNESCO for this theory. The weakness of this theory is that
"development" is often equated with government propaganda.
Democratization/Democratic Participant Media Theory
This theory vehemently opposes the commercialization of modern media and its
top-down non-participant character. The need for access and right to
communicate is stressed. Bureaucratic control of media is decried.
2) MAGIC BULLET/ HYPODERMIC NEEDLE/ STIMULUS RESPONSE THEORY
Before the first World War, there was no separate field of study on
Communication, but knowledge about mass communication was accumulating. An
outcome of World War I propaganda efforts, the Magic Bullet or Hypodermic
Needle Theory came into existence. It propounded the view that the mass media
had a powerful influence on the mass audience and could deliberately alter or
control peoples' behaviour.
Klapper (1960) formulated several generalizations on the effects of mass media.
His research findings are as follows: "Mass-media ordinarily does not serve as a
necessary and sufficient cause of audience effect, but rather functions through a
nexus of mediating factors and influences. These mediating factors render mass-
communication as a contributory agent in a process of reinforcing the existing
conditions."
The main mediating factors which he considers responsible for the functions and
effects of mass communications are
- selective exposure i.e., people's tendency to expose themselves to those mass
communications which are in agreement with their attitudes and interests; and
- selective perception and retention i.e., people's inclination to organize the
meaning of mass communication messages into accord with their already existing
views.
3) TWO STEP FLOW THEORY
In the early 40"s, before the invention of television, Lazarsfeld, Berelson and
Goudet conducted an American survey on mass campaigns. The study revealed
that informal social relationships had played a part in modifying the manner in
which individuals selected content from the media campaign. The study also
indicated that ideas often flowed from the radio and newspapers to opinion
leaders and from them to the less active sections of society. Thus, informal social
groups have some degree of influence on people and mould the way they select
media content and act on it.
Figure 2.1
 Source: CIA Advertising at www.ciadvertising.org/ortega/Theories.htm (used by permission)

4) ONE STEP FLOW THEORY

This theory simply stated that mass communication media channels communicate
directly to the mass audience without the message being filtered by opinion
leaders.
5) MULTI STEP FLOW THEORY
This was based on the idea that there are a number of relays in the
communication flow from a source to a large audience.
6) USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
This theory propounded by Katz in 1970, is concerned with how people use media
for gratification of their needs. An outcome of Abraham Maslow's Heirarchy of
Needs, it propounds the fact that people choose what they want to see or read
and the different media compete to satisfy each individual"s needs.
In the hierarchy of needs, there are five levels in the form of a pyramid with the
basic needs such as food and clothing at the base and the higher order needs
climbing up the pyramid. The fulfillment of each lower level need leads to the
individual looking to satisfy the next level of need and so on till he reaches the
superior-most need of self-actualization.
Figure 2.2
 Source :William G Huitt - Valdosta University at chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/ (used by permission)

The Uses and Gratifications approach reminds us that people use media for
many purposes. As media users become increasingly confronted with choices, this
approach should direct our attention to the audience. Lull's television research
found that families used television for communication facilitation, relationship
building, intimacy, and for structuring the day. In general researchers have found
four kinds of gratifications:
1. Information - we want to find out about society and the world- we want to
satisfy our curiosity. This would fit the news and documentaries which both give
us a sense that we are learning about the world.
2. Personal Identity - we may watch the television in order to look for models
for our behaviour. So, for example, we may identify with characters that we see in
a soap. The characters help us to decide what feel about ourselves and if we
agree with their actions and they succeed we feel better about ourselves.
3. Integration and Social Interaction - we use the media in order to find out
more about the circumstances of other people. Watching a show helps us to
empathize and sympathize with the lives of others so that we may even end up
thinking of the characters in programme as friends.
4. Entertainment - sometimes we simply use the media for enjoyment,
relaxation or just to fill time.
Riley and Riley (1951) found that children in peer groups used adventure stories
from the media for group games while individual children used media stories for
fantasizing and daydreaming. The study thus found that different people use the
same messages from the media for different purposes.
Katz replaced the question "what do media do to people?" with the question
"what do people do with the media?" Katz, Gurevitch & Hass found that the
media are used by
individuals to meet the following specific needs :
Cognitive needs (acquiring information, knowledge and understanding);
Affective needs (emotional, pleasurable experience);
Personal integrative needs (strengthening self image);
Social integrative needs (strengthening self image);
Tension release needs (escape and diversion)
McQuail, Blumler and Brown suggested the following individual needs
categories:
1) Diversion (emotional release)
2) Personal Relationships (substitute of media for companionship).
3) Personal identity or individual psychology (value reinforcement, self
understanding.)
4) Surveillance (information that may help an individual accomplish tasks.)
B. Rubin and Bantz (1989) studied the uses and gratifications of "new
technology" by examining VCR use. They found the following motives for VCR use:
1) library storage of movies and shows
2) watching music videos
3) Using exercise tapes
4) renting movies
5) letting children view
6) time-shifting
7) Socializing by viewing with others
8) Critical viewing including TV watching and studying tapes
7) SPIRAL OF SILENCE THEORY
Propounded by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, this theory states that the media
publicizes opinions that are mainstream and people adjust their opinions
according to their perceptions to avoid being isolated. Individuals who perceive
their own opinion as being accepted will express it, whilst those who think
themselves as being a minority, suppress their views. Innovators and change
agents are unafraid to voice different opinions, as they do not fear isolation.
Figure 2.3
 Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

8) CONSISTENCY THEORIES (1950s)

Festinger formulated the consistency theories that talked about people"s need
for consistency in their beliefs and judgements. In order to reduce dissonance
created by inconsistencies in belief, judgments and action people expose
themselves to information that is consistent with their ideas and actions, and they
shut out other communications.
9) McCOMBS AND SHAW"S AGENDA SETTING THEORY

This theory puts forth the ability of the media to influence the significance of
events in the public's mind. The media set the agenda for the audience's
discussion and mentally order and organize their world. The theory is consistent
with a "use and gratification" approach. McCombs and Shaw assert that the
agenda-setting function of the media causes the correlation between the media
and public ordering of priorities. The people most affected by the media agenda
are those who have a high need for orientation
10) Media Dependency Theory

Developed by Ball-Rokeach and DeFluer, the key idea behind this theory is that
audiences depend on media information to meet needs and reach goals, and social
institutions and media systems interact with audiences to create needs, interests,
and motives in the person. The degree of dependence is influenced by the number
and centrality of information functions and social stability. Some questions that
this theory raised were :
Do media create needs?
Do people turn to media to achieve gratification and satisfy needs?
Are media needs personal, social, cultural, political, or all of these?
"The media are our friends"??
11) STEPHENSON"S PLAY THEORY
Play is an activity pursued for pleasure. The daily withdrawal of people into the
mass media in their after hours is a matter of subjectivity. The effect of mass
communication is not escapism nor seducing the masses. Rather it is seen as anti-
anxiety producing, and are regarded as communication-pleasure.
12) MODELING BEHAVIOUR THEORY

Behaviors which are modeled from media experiences can become habitual if
found useful and/or if they are reinforced in the environment. This is not about
violent or criminal behavior.
13) STALAGMITE THEORIES

These theories suggest that mediated experiences induce long term effects that
are very difficult to measure. The effects are like stalagmite drippings building up
over time. Meaning Theory and the Cultivation Theory are two of the most
significant Stalagmite theories.
MEANING THEORY
Media experiences mould meanings by putting things in a particular framework.
Does "NYPD Blue" depict the real world of New York City police detectives?
Questions like this are coming from a Meaning Theory focus on media.
CULTIVATION THEORY
George Gerbner tried to determine the influence of television on viewers" ideas of
the environment they lived in. He found that dominance of TV created a common
view of the world and that it homogenized different cultures. TV portrayed the
society as a bad place to live in leading to people becoming distrustful of the
world. Over time, particular symbols, images, messages, meanings become
dominant and are absorbed as the truth. Cultural stereotypes, ways of assessing
value and hierarchies are established.
Figure 2.4
 Source : From the Internet at www.colorado.edu/.../Theory/ cultivation/sld001.htm

14) Diffusion of innovations theory

Pioneered in 1943 by Bryce Ryan and Neil Gross of Iowa State University this

theory traces the process by which a new idea or practice is communicated
through certain channels over time among members of a social system. The
model describes the factors that influence people's thoughts and actions and the
process of adopting a new technology or idea.
15) Social learning theory

Formulated by Albert Bandura at Stanford University, this specifies that mass-

media messages give audience members an opportunity to identify with attractive
characters that demonstrate behavior, engage emotions, and allow mental
rehearsal and modeling of new behavior. The behavior of models in the mass
media also offers vicarious reinforcement to motivate audience members'
adoption of the behavior.
Baran and Davis (2000) classify mass communication theories into three broad
categories:
1. microscopic theories that focus on the everyday life of people who process
information - for example, uses and gratifications, active audience theory, and
reception studies;
2. middle range theories that support the limited effects perspective of the
media - for example, information flow theory, diffusion theory, and
3. macroscopic theories that are concerned with media's impact on culture and
society - for example, cultural studies theory.
Theories of mass communication have always focused on the "cause and effects"
notion, i.e. the effects of the media and the process leading to those effects, on
the audience's mind. Harold Lasswell and Berelson have succinctly expressed
this idea. Lasswell's essential question is timeless (1949): "Who says what in
what channel to whom with what effects?" Berelson said: "Some kinds of
communication, on some kinds of issues, brought to the attention of some kinds
of people, under some kinds of conditions, have some kinds of effects." (1949).
Figure 2.5

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

Wilbur Schramm stated: "In fact, it is misleading to think of the communication

process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We
are little switchboard centers handling and rerouting the great endless current of
information.... " (Schramm W.1954) quoted in McQuail & Windahl (1981)
16) The Osgood and Schramm circular model emphasizes the circular
nature of communication.
The participants swap between the roles of source/encoder and receiver/decoder.
 Figure 2.6

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

17) Gerbner's General Model

Gerbner's General Model also emphasizes the dynamic nature of human communication.
 Figure 2.7

Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

18) the Shannon-Weaver Model.

Shannon and Weaver produced a general model of communication known after
them as the Shannon-Weaver Model. It involved breaking down an information
system into sub-systems so as to evaluate the efficiency of various
communication channels and codes. They propose that all communication must
include six elements:
Source
Encoder
Channel
Message
Decoder
Receiver
This model is often referred to as an " information model" of communication. A
drawback is that the model looks at communication as a one-way process. That is
remedied by the addition of the feedback loop. Noise indicates those factors that
disturb or otherwise influence messages as they are being transmitted
Figure 2.8
 Source: CCMS-Infobase at http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/

19) Berlo's S-M-C-R Model

Berlo"s SMCR (SOURCE, MESSAGE, CHANNEL, and RECEIVER) model focuses on

the individual characteristics of communication and stresses the role of the
relationship between the source and the receiver as an important variable in the
communication process. The more highly developed the communication skills of
the source and the receiver, the more effectively the message will be encoded and
decoded.
Berlo's model represents a communication process that occurs as a SOURCE
drafts messages based on one's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and
social and cultural system. These MESSAGES are transmitted along CHANNELS,
which can include sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. A RECEIVER interprets
messages based on the individual's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge,
and social and cultural system. The limitations of the model are its lack of
feedback
Figure 2.9
 Source: from the Internet

Terms used in the chapter:

Mass-media:
It is a collective phrase that represents not only the press, cinema, radio,
television and internet, but also to some extent, books magazines, pamphlets ,
direct mail literature, posters, folk media, and natural communication methods
such as rumours, education and preaching. It is so termed because its reach
extends to vast heterogeneous populations. Generally the mass media employ
technological means to communicate to the masses. They are founded on the idea
of mass production and distribution. Wiebe defined mass media as those readily
available to the general public.
Selective attention:
The media are full of competing messages. The process of screening vast amount
of information in which one has no interest through mental filters is called
selective attention, for example, an adult will be more tuned to listening to the
news while a child would rather watch a cartoon show.
Selective perception:
This is the tendency to interpret communication messages in terms of one"s
existing attitudes. People of distinct psychological character same media content
in different ways. This depends on factors such as age, values, family, opinions
etc. Selective perception is influenced by social relationships.
Selective retention:
The ability of an individual to retain certain messages in his mind while ignoring
others is called selective retention. This is influenced by various psychological and
physiological factors such as choice, values, culture, emotions etc.
Selective exposure:
Some individuals are exposed to certain media effects/messages while some are
not. This screening aspect depends on many factors such as reach of media,
accessibility, age, cultural acceptability, taboos, etc.
Opinion leaders/change agents:
The opinions of people in a group are influenced by what they hear from "opinion
leaders". An individual who is a member of a group manifests certain
characteristics in his thinking and behaviour that contribute to the formation of
"public opinion". The opinion of the leader is based on rational thinking due to
education and experience. They weigh the pros and cons of the information they
receive and then give their judgement on it.
Encoder:
In the process of communication, the sender or source of the message is referred
to as the encoder.
Decoder:
The person receiving the message and decodes it is referred to as the decoder.
Feedback:
Feedback, a term form cybernetics, the study of messages. It refers to an inquiry,
response or experiment. Feedback can be positive (when the required result is
achieved) or negative; instantaneous(when the response is immediate) or
delayed. Feedback is used to gauge the effectivenss of a particular message put
forth or situation that has taken place.
Noise:
In all communication, there is a sender, a message/communication and a
receiver. The meaning of a message is greatly dependent on the culture in which
it is transmitted. The sender encodes a message, the receiver decodes it. Between
the sender, the message and receiver, noise gets in the way and complicates the
process. A noiseless communication does not exist. There always is some kind of
noise entering the communication. Noise can be physical noise for example static
or psychological i.e. when culture, taboos or values come into play to disrupt the
normal transmission process of communication. Misunderstanding of a particular
message i.e. distortion of meaning is a form of noise, example, the game of
Chinese Whisper"a person starts off with a particular message and the original
message may be distorted by the time it comes to the final player.
Readings
Quiz
Review questions and assignments
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Channels of com
Information Channel Information Richness

Face-to-face conversation High

Videoconferencing High

Telephone conversation High

E-mails Medium

Handheld devices Medium

Blogs Medium

Written letters and

Medium
memos

Formal written documents Low

Spreadsheets Low