Option C

Web Science
IB Computer Science
Intro
- Exhausting information dump
- Most difficult part is PHP/HTML/mySQL
- Overlaps with Topic 3
- HL is Random
- Why did I do this to my students?
- Study Guide out soon

☕ Caffeine + 🤖 ChatGPT + ♥ Love of CS = The CS Classroom

What is the internet?
- A very large global network that allows the users to access the world wide
web.
- The internet is the infrastructure, or the hardware that that manages the flow
and storage of information.
- The internet is a network (WAN or wide area network)- which is a group of
computers and devices that connected through wired and wireless
connections via switches and routers.
- The world wide web is the collection of all the web pages on the internet that
can accessed in a browser.
- A website is a collection of pages on a specific topic, accessed by a URL.
- A web page is an individual page in a website.
Internet vs. World Wide Web

Internet World Wide Web (WWW)

A global network of connected devices and A system of interconnected hypertext
computers. documents accessed via the internet.

Can be accessed via various devices such Can be accessed via the internet using web
as computers, mobile devices, and tablets. browsers on compatible devices.

Includes all connected devices and Includes all websites and web pages
networks worldwide. accessible via the internet.

Uses standardized protocols such as TCP/IP Uses standardized protocols such as HTTP
and DNS. Email, FTP (File Transfer Protocol) and HTML.
and Email are considered part of the
internet, but not the WWW.
How does the internet work? (Topic 3)
- Every website is stored on a server, which is just a
computer. Every computer has an IP address.
(192.168.0.1)
- An IP address is the most direct way to reach a
server.
- When you access a website from your web browser,
you send a request to that server for its contents.
- Data is transmitted across the internet using data
packets through all the switches, routers and hubs
(the internet’s plumbing) that make up the internet.
What are protocols? (Topic 3)
- a set of rules and guidelines that
govern how data is transmitted,
received, and processed across a
network
- define the format, timing,
sequencing, and error control of
data transmitted over the network
- Examples: TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, SMTP,
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
Why are protocols important? (Topic 3)
1) Allow successful communication to take place
2) Ensure data integrity processes such as error checking
3) Regulate speed of data packet flow; prevent a device from sending at a faster
rate than the receiving device can receive
4) Manages packet switching
URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
- A URL is like the address you type into your browser. Ex: www.google.com
- A URL has a protocol, domain name, and web page/file name.
URI (Uniform Resource Identifier)
- All URLs are URIs, but not all URIs are URLs
- URLs allow you to access a resource, while, URIs simply identify a resource
- In the following example, #date need not be included to access the resource.
Web Browser (Client)
- software application that is used to access and display
content on the World Wide Web
- allows users to view web pages, download files, and
interact with web-based applications
- use various technologies to render web pages, such as
HTML, CSS, and JavaScript
- allow users to manage bookmarks, history, and
preferences
- communicate with web servers using the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) or its secure variant, HTTPS
- Examples: Google Chrome, Safari, Mozilla Firefox
Cookies
- small text files that are stored on a user's computer or mobile device by a website
that the user visits
- allowing websites to remember user preferences, login information, and other data
- contains a unique identifier that allows the website to recognize the user's browser
on subsequent visits
Process
1) Website sends a cookie to the user's browser,
2) Cookie stored on the user's computer or mobile device
3) Website used cookie to keep track user's preferences, such as language settings,
font size, or display options
4) Website uses identifier to read cookie on subsequent visits and serve content to user
User Implications of Cookies
- Can be used to track user behavior
across multiple website
- This information can then be used
to deliver targeted advertising
- Can lead to privacy concerns
URLs and DNS (Domain Name System)
1) When you type a URL into your web browser and hit enter, it gets sent to a DNS
server.
2) A Domain Name Server checks if a URL exists in it’s list of URLs and if so, it
returns the corresponding IP address to you, the user. Your web browser then
automatically sends a request using the IP address.
3) If not, it passes the user request on to other DNS servers in the hierarchy, until
there’s a match at which point, it sends you back the IP address.
4) When it’s found, the URL is sent back to the original DNS server and then the
user’s web browser to make the request.
The DNS Hierarchy
- DNS servers are a common resource,
regulated by the global, non-governmental
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names
and Numbers (ICANN), Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF), and World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C)
- DNS servers are operated and manages by
ISPs (Internet Service Providers), Domain
Name Registrars (GoDaddy etc.)
- The DNS system has no fixed number of
DNS servers globally, but it is a massive
network of servers operated
collaboratively.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
- A protocol for transmitting
information on the WWW
- Anytime you request a webpage, you
are using HTTP
- When you send a request to that web
server using an IP, you do it using a
protocol called hypertext transfer
protocol (HTTP).
- All this means is that information that
you send to the server using an IP
address must be written and stored in
a very specific way, following the
rules of HTTP.
HTTP Request Cycle Steps (1)
1. DNS resolution: Client sends a DNS (Domain Name System) request to a DNS
server, which returns the IP address of the server.
2. Connection establishment: Once the IP address of the server is known, the
client establishes a TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) connection with
server.
3. Request sending: The client sends an HTTP request to the server over the
established TCP connection.
4. Request processing: The server receives the request and processes it.
HTTP Request Cycle Steps (2)
5. Response generation: Once the server has processed the request and
located the requested resource, it generates an HTTP response containing
the requested resource.
6. Response transmission: The server sends the HTTP response back to the
client over the established TCP connection.
7. Rendering: The client receives the HTTP response and renders the content,
typically using HTML, CSS, and JavaScript.
8. Connection termination: Once the client has received the response, the
TCP connection is closed
HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)
-This is a secure version of HTTP.
All data sent and received via HTTPS is encrypted.
- This encryption follows a certain standard, which can be either SSL (Secure
Sockets Layer) or TLS (Transport Layer Security).
- It uses a digital certificate, which a website needs to apply for from a
certificate authority, which will check if their website is authentic and
trustworthy.
- Your browser will check and validate this certificate before accepting data
from the server.
HTTPS Request Cycle Steps (1)
1. DNS resolution: Client sends a DNS (Domain Name System) request to a DNS
server, which returns the IP address of the server.
2. Connection establishment: Once the IP address of the server is known, the
client establishes a TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) connection with
server. This is done using the Transport Layer Security (TLS) or Secure Sockets
Layer (SSL) protocol.
HTTPS Request Cycle Steps (2)
3. Handshake: During the connection establishment phase, the client and server
perform a TLS/SSL handshake to negotiate the encryption algorithms and
exchange cryptographic keys that will be used to secure the communication
between them. The server also sends its digital certificate to the client during
this phase.
4. Certificate verification: The client (browser) checks the digital certificate sent
by the server to verify that it is valid and issued by a trusted certificate
authority (CA). This involves checking the certificate chain, verifying the digital
signature on the certificate, and checking the validity period of the certificate.
HTTPS Request Cycle Steps (3)
5. Request sending: Once the client has verified the server's digital certificate, it sends an
HTTP request to the server over the established secure TCP connection.
6. Request processing: The server receives the request and processes it.
7. Response generation: Once the server has processed the request and located the
requested resource, it generates an HTTP response containing the requested resource.
8. Response transmission: The server sends the HTTP response back to the client over the
established TCP connection.
9. Rendering: The client receives the HTTP response and renders the content, typically using
HTML, CSS, and JavaScript.
10. Connection termination: Once the client has received the response, the TCP connection
is closed
Ports
- Communication endpoint used by a network protocol to
identify a specific process or service running on a device.
- Ports are identified by numbers ranging from 0 to 65535,
and each number is associated with a specific protocol or
service.
- Examples:
- port 80 is commonly used for HTTP web traffic
- port 443 is used for HTTPS secure web traffic
- Important for allowing multiple network services to run
simultaneously on a device, each with its own unique
identifier to receive data
What is HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)?
- used to create web pages and other types of
documents that are intended for display in a
web browser
- used to structure content on web pages and
provides a way to add text, images,
multimedia, links, and other types of content
to a web page
- based on a set of tags that are used to
indicate how content such as headings,
paragraphs, lists, tables, and forms should be
displayed on the page
- Used in conjunction with CSS and Javascript
What is Client-Side Scripting?
- the process of using scripting or
programming languages to add
interactive or dynamic behavior to
web pages and web applications
- Client-side scripts (code) are
executed in the web browser
- Examples of languages used in
client-side scripts include HTML,
CSS, and Javascript
- Javascript is the most commonly
used language to add interactivity
What is Server-Side Scripting?
- the process of using scripts or programming languages to generate web pages
on the server-side before sending them to the client (i.e., the user's web
browser)
- Scripts are typically written in languages like PHP, C#, Java, Ruby, etc.
Process
1) The user uses their web browser to request a web page from a web server
2) A script (some code) is executed on the server, which can access a data on a
database, manipulate that or other data, and generate some
HTML/CSS/Javascript
3) The generated output is returned to client-side to be displayed in the user’s
browser.
CGI (Common Gateway Interface)
- A program that functions as an intermediary for executing server-side scripts
on web servers
- Sort of a middle-man, accepting an incoming request, executing the
corresponding script, and returning the result to the client
- Enables web servers to execute server-side scripts (in PHP, C#, etc.) to produce
dynamic content
- Largely been replaced by language-specific solutions for executing code on
web servers and returning the result to the user
<html>
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta name="description" content="My first webpage">
<meta name="author" content="Your Name">
<title>My Webpage</title>
</head>
<body>
<header>
<h1>Welcome to My Webpage</h1>
</header>
<main>
<p>This is my first webpage. I'm so excited!</p>
</main>
<footer>
<p>Copyright © 2022 My Webpage. All rights
reserved.</p>
</footer>
</body>
</html> example_1.html
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>My Form Example</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Enter Your Details</h1>
<form>
<label for="name">Name:</label>
<input type="text" id="name" name="name"><br>

<label for="email">Email:</label>
<input type="email" id="email" name="email"><br>

<input type="submit" value="Submit">

</form>
</body>
</html>
<html>
<head><title>My Form Example</title></head>
<body>
<form>
<label for="name">Name:</label>
<input type="text" id="name"
name="name"><br>
<label for="email">Email:</label>
<input type="email" id="email"
name="email"><br>

<label for="age">Age:</label>
<select id="age" name="age">
<option value="18">18</option>
<option value="19">19</option>
<option value="20">20</option>
<option value="21">21</option>
<option value="22">22</option>
</select><br>

<input type="submit" value="Submit">

</form>
</body>
PHP
<?php
- a server-side scripting language that for ($i = 1; $i <= 10; $i++) {
is used to create dynamic web if ($i % 2 == 0) {
pages. echo $i . " is even<br>";
}
- Can be embedded into HTML code }
and is executed on the server side ?>
before the HTML is sent to the
client's browser.
- Can interact with databases,
generate dynamic content, and
perform a wide range of other tasks.
mySQL
<?php
- Relational database management
system (RDBMS) that is used to …
store and manage data. // execute query
$sql = "SELECT * FROM mytable";
- A piece of software a that can $result = mysqli_query($conn,
create and manipulate a database $sql);
- Used widely in server-side scripting …
with languages like PHP. ?>
How do PHP and mySQL work together?
1. A PHP script is written to access and manipulate data stored in a MySQL
database.
2. When a user requests a web page that requires data from the database, the
PHP script is executed on the server side.
3. The PHP script connects to the MySQL database and retrieves the necessary
data.
4. The PHP script then generates HTML code based on the retrieved data and
sends it back to the client's browser for display.
<form method="post" action="main.php">
<label for="name">Name:</label>
<input type="text" id="name" name="name"><br>

<label for="email">Email:</label>
<input type="email" id="email" name="email"><br>

<label for="age">Age:</label> <?php

<select id="age" name="age">
<option value="18">18</option>
<option value="19">19</option>
<option value="20">20</option>
<option value="21">21</option>
<option value="22">22</option>
</select><br>
<input type="submit" value="Submit">
</form>
if ($_SERVER["REQUEST_METHOD"] ==
"POST") {
$name = $_POST["name"];
$email = $_POST["email"];
$age = $_POST["age"];
echo "<h1>Form Data:</h1>";
echo "<p>Name: $name</p>";
echo "<p>Email: $email</p>";
echo "<p>Age: $age</p>";
}
?>
<?php
// Connect to database // Insert data into database
$db_host = 'localhost'; $sql = "INSERT INTO my_table (name, email,
$db_name = 'my_database'; city) VALUES ('$name', '$email',
$db_user = 'my_user'; '$city')";
$db_pass = 'my_password';
if ($conn->query($sql) === TRUE) {
$conn = new mysqli echo "New record created
($db_host, $db_user, $db_pass,
successfully";
$db_name);
} else {
// Check connection
echo "Error: " . $sql . "<br>" .
if ($conn->connect_error) { $conn->error;
die("Connection failed: " . }
$conn->connect_error);
} // Close database connection
$conn->close();
// Retrieve form data ?>
$name = $_POST['name'];
$email = $_POST['email'];
$city = $_POST['city'];
<?php
// Connect to database
$db_host = 'localhost';$db_name = 'my_database';
$db_user = 'my_user';$db_pass = 'my_password';

$conn = new mysqli($db_host, $db_user, $db_pass, $db_name);

// Check connection
if ($conn->connect_error) {
die("Connection failed: " . $conn->connect_error);
}

// Retrieve data from database

$sql = "SELECT * FROM my_table";
$result = $conn->query($sql);

// Output data as table

if ($result->num_rows > 0) {
echo "<table>";
echo "<tr><th>Name</th><th>Email</th><th>City</th></tr>";
while($row = $result->fetch_assoc()) {
echo "<tr><td>" . $row["name"] . "</td><td>" . $row["email"] .
"</td><td>" . $row["city"] .
// Retrieve data from database
$sql = "SELECT * FROM my_table";
$result = $conn->query($sql);

// Output data as table

if ($result->num_rows > 0) {
echo "<table>";
echo "<tr><th>Name</th><th>Email</th><th>City</th></tr>";
while($row = $result->fetch_assoc()) {
echo "<tr><td>" . $row["name"] . "</td><td>" . $row["email"] .
"</td><td>" . $row["city"] .
 /* Set the font family and font size
CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) for the whole page */
body {
font-family: Arial, sans-serif;
- Used to style and format HTML font-size: 16px;
}
documents
- Examples include layout, font and /* Style the headings */
h1 {
color font-size: 24px;
- Separates presentation of a website font-weight: bold;
color: blue;
from content text-decoration: underline;
- We can store store css in a .css }
document and apply it to multiple h2 {
HTML documents so that they share font-size: 20px;
color: green;
the same visual styling. }
 Static Web Pages Dynamic Web Pages

Fixed content that rarely

Content changes Dynamic content that frequently changes

Server-side
processing No server-side processing Server-side processing

Limited client-side
Client-side processing, mostly basic
processing scripts Rich client-side processing using JavaScript and AJAX
Interactivity Minimal interactivity High level of interactivity
Performance Fast loading times Slower loading times

Easy to maintain, no need Requires more maintenance due to frequent updates and
Maintenance for frequent updates changes

Brochure websites, small

Examples business websites Social media websites, e-commerce websites
Javascript
- High-level, interpreted programming
language that is used to create
interactive effects within web
browsers.
- often used in conjunction with
HTML and CSS to create dynamic
web pages and web applications.
- Client-side scripting language,
meaning that it runs on the user's
web browser rather than the server,
allowing for faster and more
responsive web applications.
XML (eXtensible Markup Language)
- Used for encoding data in a
format that is structured and
both human and
machine-readable
- Usages:
- Transmitting data between
software applications
- Transmitting data between a
server and client online
- Storing configuration data for
applications (especially Android
apps)
XHTML (eXtensible Markup Language)
- Combines the benefits of XML and
HTML
- XHTML can be processed by XML
tools and meets the standard of
XML, but can also be displayed in a
browser as HTML
- Can be used in data-heavy
applications, so that the data can
easily and efficiently be displayed in
an intuitive manner
XSLT (eXtensible Stylesheet Language Transformations)
- A language that is executed by a software
program called an XSLT processor
- Purpose is instruct XSLT processor how to
transform XML into HTML, XHTML, or even
XML in a different format
- Usage:
- Displaying XML in browser: Turn XML into HTML
or XHTML to be displayed in a web browser
- Generating reports: XSLT can be used to
transform XML data into PDF or Excel Documents
- System Integration: Can be used to take XML
and reformat it for compatibility with other
software systems
What is a Search Engine?
- a software program or online service that
enables users to search for information on the
internet by entering keywords or phrases
related to their search query
- use algorithms to search through vast amounts
of data stored on web servers and to present
the most relevant results to the user.
- Examples: Google, Bing, DuckDuckGo
How do search engines work? (1)
- Use automated software programs called crawlers, spiders or bots to scan the web for content.

1) Crawling - the search engine's crawler to scan the web, following links from page to page to
collect content

2) Indexing - Once the crawler has collected the content, it is organized and stored in a searchable
index, along with information about the page, such as the title, URL, and other metadata.

3) Ranking - When a user enters a search query, the search engine's algorithm retrieves the most
relevant pages from the index and ranks them based on a number of factors, including the
relevance of the content, the quality of the website, the popularity of the page, and other
factors.
How do search engines work? (2)
4) Deliver Results - The search engine returns a list of results based on the user's
search query, with the most relevant pages appearing at the top of the list.

5) Refinement - Users can refine their search results using a variety of tools,
including filters, sorting, and advanced search options.

- Search engines use complex algorithms to determine the relevance and quality
of content and to rank pages accordingly.
- These algorithms are constantly evolving to provide better search results and
to stay ahead of attempts to manipulate search rankings.
Typical Search Engine Metrics
1) Relevance - the relevance of a web page to the user's query, taking into account factors such as
the title tag, headings, content, and meta descriptions.

2) Authority - the number and quality of links pointing to it. Pages with more high-quality links are
generally considered to be more authoritative.

3) User experience - factors such as page load time, mobile-friendliness, and ease of navigation
to determine the user experience of a web page.

4) Freshness - more recently updated pages are often given a higher ranking.

5) Engagement - how users engage with a web page, taking into account factors such as
click-through rate, bounce rate, and time spent on the page. Pages with high engagement are
generally considered to be more valuable to users and are given a higher ranking.
Metatags
- HTML tags that provide information about a web page to search engines and
other applications that may access the page.
- Typically placed in the head section of an HTML document and provide
information such as the page's title, description, keywords, author, and
encoding.
- help search engines and other web services to identify and categorize the
contents of a webpage
Metatags Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>My Website</title>
<meta name="description" content="This is a website about web
development">
<meta name="keywords" content="web development, HTML, CSS,
JavaScript">
<meta name="author" content="John Doe">
</head>
<body>
<!-- page content goes here -->
</body>
</html>
Surface Web
- Refers to content accessible by
standard search engines
- Includes publicly available content
viewable in web browsers
- Majority of content exists in the
deep web
Deep Web
- Refers to parts of the web not indexed by
standard search engines
- Includes private networks, dynamically
generate content, non-public databases,
etc.
- Includes password-protected pages
- Includes pages with no incoming links
Dark Web
- A subset of the deep web
intentionally hidden from search
engines
- Requires specialized software like
TOR, a web browser designed to
ensure anonymity to access
- Typically associated with illicit
activity
Search Engine Algorithms: PageRank
- Analyzes links between web pages to rank relevant web pages in terms of
importance
- A web page is considered more credible if other pages link to it
- Each web page assigned a score between 0 and 1 based on quality and quality
of incoming links

Considerations

- Quantity of incoming links

- Quality (rank) of incoming links
- Relevance of incoming links
Page Rank Algorithm + Outlinks & Inlinks
- Inlinks - links from other web pages to web page being ranked
- Outlinks - links from web page being ranked to other web pages

Factors Determining the Value of an Inlink

- PageRank score of the inlink’s web page

- Number of outlinks from the inlink’s web page (fewer outlinks means higher
value)
Search Engine Algorithms: HITS (Hyperlink-Induced Topic
Search) Algorithm
1) Identifies a set of web pages relevant to the user query
2) Gives each web page an authority score based on the number and quality of
incoming links (Assesses important as a source of information on the query
topic)
3) Gives each web page a hub score based on the number and quality of outgoing
links (based on the pages it is linking to)
4) Combines authority and hub score to generate a combined score for each web
page
5) Ranks web pages based on this score
SEO (Search Engine Optimization)
- The practice of
optimizing websites
and their content to
rank higher in search
engine results pages
(SERPs) for relevant
keywords and phrases.
5 Techniques for Improving SEO Ranking
1) Keyword optimization - Using relevant keywords throughout a web page's
content, including headings, meta tags, and descriptions
2) Content creation - Creating high-quality, informative, and engaging content
3) Link building - Building high-quality backlinks from reputable sources
4) Site structure optimization - Optimizing a website's structure, including
navigation, sitemap, and URL structure, can help search engines crawl and
index a website more efficiently
5) Mobile optimization - optimizing a website for mobile can improve user
experience and lead to higher search rankings, as search engines prioritize
mobile-friendly sites.
Black Hat vs. White Hat SEO
- White Hat SEO - ethical and
legitimate techniques used to
improve a website's search engine
ranking
- Black Hat SEO - the use of unethical
or deceptive techniques to improve
a website's search engine ranking
5 Examples of Black Hat SEO Techniques
1) Cloaking - presenting different content or URLs to users and search engines in
order to manipulate search rankings.
2) Keyword stuffing - using excessive amounts of keywords or phrases on a page
in order to manipulate search rankings.
3) Hidden text or links - hiding text or links on a page that are only visible to
search engines, not users, in order to manipulate search rankings.
4) Link farming - creating artificial links to a website in order to manipulate
search rankings.
Web Paradigms Web 1.0 Web 2.0 Web 3.0
Intelligent web
Description Static web pages Dynamic web pages applications
Presentation of User-generated content Machine learning and
Primary Focus Information and collaboration artificial intelligence
Semantic Web
AJAX, PHP, Ruby on Rails, technologies,
Technology HTML, CSS, JavaScript JavaScript libraries Blockchain, AI
Interactive, Social, Personalized, Predictive,
User Experience Read-only, Passive User-driven Proactive
Cloud-based and Decentralized and
Data Storage Local distributed distributed
Text, Images, Audio, Structured and
Video, User-generated Unstructured Data, IoT
Data Type Text and Images data devices
Intelligent Assistants,
Social Media Platforms, Smart Contracts, Web3
Examples Early Websites Blogs, Wikis apps
 Semantic Web vs. Traditional Web
Aspect Traditional Web Semantic Web
Structured and linked data with
standardized formats and
Mostly unstructured data with no ontologies (one piece of data is
Data standard way of describing it connected to other pieces)
Search engines can understand the
Keyword-based searching with meaning of the data and retrieve
Searching limited accuracy more relevant and accurate results
Data is presented in a
Data is presented as web pages with machine-readable format and can
Human reading unstructured text be easily processed and analyzed
Semantic Web Example

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>

<rdf:RDF xmlns:rdf="http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#"
xmlns:foaf="http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/"
xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/">
<foaf:Person rdf:about="http://example.com/john">
<foaf:name>John Doe</foaf:name>
<foaf:homepage rdf:resource="http://example.com/johns_blog"/>
<foaf:knows rdf:resource="http://example.com/jane"/>
<foaf:knows rdf:resource="http://example.com/bob"/>
<dc:date>1980-01-01</dc:date>
</foaf:Person>
</rdf:RDF>
Grid Computing
- Type of distributed computing that
involves sharing computing resources
across multiple networks to achieve a
common goal.
- Networks can be located in different
geographical locations and connected
by various types of communication
technologies.
- Typically used by organizations with
high-performance computing needs,
such as government agencies,
universities, and research institutions.
Grid Computing Pros & Cons
Pros
Improved performance by allowing
tasks to be distributed across
multiple resources, reducing
processing time.
Reduced costs by allowing
organizations to share resources
rather than investing in specialized
hardware or software.
Allows resources to be used on
demand, allowing organizations to
scale resources up or down as
needed.
Cons
Presents security risks due to the
sharing of resources and data across
multiple networks.
Can be complex to set up and
manage due to the distributed nature
of the architecture.
Relies heavily on network
connectivity, making it vulnerable to
disruptions and downtime.
Mobile Computing
- Refers to the use of portable
computing devices such as
smartphones, tablets, and laptops
that can operate on battery power
and are designed for use while on
the move.
 Mobile Computing Pros & Cons
Pros
Portability: Mobile devices are designed to be portable,
making them easy to carry and use on the go.
Connectivity: Mobile devices are equipped with wireless
connectivity options such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and
cellular data, making it easy to stay connected while on
the move.
Cost: Mobile devices are often more affordable than
desktop computers and laptops, making them a more
accessible option for many users.
Cons
Limited Screen Size: The small screen size on mobile
devices can make it difficult to work with complex
applications or view detailed content.
Battery Life: Mobile devices require frequent charging
due to their small battery size, limiting their use for
extended periods of time.
Security Risks: Mobile devices can be easily lost or
stolen, putting sensitive data at risk. Additionally,
mobile apps may contain security vulnerabilities that
can be exploited by hackers.
Ubiquitous Computing
- Also known as pervasive computing,
refers to the concept of integrating
computer technology seamlessly into
everyday life through various devices and
sensors.
- Allows users to interact with digital
systems and services without requiring
significant attention or effort.
- Examples: mobile devices, wearable
computers, smart homes, and the
Internet of Things (IoT)
Ubiquitous Computing Pros & Cons
Pros
Increased convenience and efficiency
Greater connectivity and information access
Ability to adapt to user needs
Potential for improving quality of life
Enables seamless integration of technology into
daily life
Cons
Privacy concerns
Security risks
Cost of implementing and maintaining technology
Potential for technology dependence
Potential for loss of human interaction
P2P Computing

- Involves a decentralized network architecture where individual

computers are connected to each other to share resources.
- Each computer in a P2P network acts as both a client and a
server, and can request and provide resources to other
computers in the network.
- Allows for efficient resource sharing and distribution, as there is
no central server that has to handle all the requests.
- Often used for sharing files and media, as well as for distributed
computing tasks such as scientific research and data
processing.
P2P Computing Pros & Cons
Pros Cons
Decentralized architecture provides high fault Lack of control and regulation can result in
tolerance and scalability security risks and illegal activities
Cost-effective as there is no need for a dedicated Limited resources and slower performance as
server compared to centralized systems
Enhanced privacy as there is no central authority
to monitor or control user activity
Increased availability of data as multiple peers can
share and distribute data
Cloud Computing
- Cloud computing refers to the delivery
of computing resources over the
internet, on a pay-per-use basis.
- It involves the use of remote servers to
store, manage, and process data, rather
than relying on local hardware and
software.
- Users can access cloud services from
anywhere with an internet connection,
using a web browser or mobile app.
Cloud Computing Pros & Cons
Pros
Scalability: The cloud offers scalability, meaning
businesses can easily add or remove resources as
needed.
Cost savings: Cloud computing can offer cost savings
as businesses only pay for what they use, instead of
having to purchase and maintain their own
infrastructure.
Flexibility: Cloud computing offers flexibility, allowing
businesses to work from anywhere with an internet
connection.
Cons
Downtime: Because the cloud is hosted by a third
party, businesses may experience downtime if the
cloud service goes down.
Security concerns: Storing data in the cloud can
raise security concerns, as businesses have less
control over their data and may be at risk for
breaches.
Dependency on third-party providers: Businesses
may become overly reliant on third-party cloud
providers, making it difficult to switch providers or
move data back in-house.
Cloud Computing vs. Grid Computing
Grid Computing Cloud Computing

relies on a distributed network of computers relies on centralized data centers that are
that are owned by different organizations owned and managed by a single
organization

emphasizes the sharing of computing provides on-demand access to computing

resources across multiple organizations and resources within a single organization
locations

more difficult to secure, since it relies on a more secure, since it is managed by a single
decentralized network of computers that organization that can enforce consistent
may have different security policies and security policies
configurations
Interoperability
- Interoperability in the context of computing refers to the ability of different
systems, applications, devices, and services to work together seamlessly.
- Interoperable systems are compatible with each other, meaning they can
communicate and exchange data without any issues.
- Standardization: Interoperability often relies on the use of standardized
protocols, data formats, and interfaces to ensure that different systems can
communicate effectively.
- Flexibility: Interoperable systems are designed to be flexible and adaptable,
allowing them to work with a wide range of other systems and technologies.
Standards
- Established guidelines or specifications that determine how certain
technologies or processes should operate.
- Developed to ensure compatibility and interoperability between different
systems, applications, and devices.
- Examples: TCP/IP protocol for internet communication, the HTML and CSS
standards for web development, and the ISO 9001 standard for quality
management systems.
What are open standards?
- Open standards provide a publicly
available specification for a specified
task
- Agreed set of rules or methods that
allow interoperability between different
devices
- Everyone knows what the standards are
- Examples:
- HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)
- TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol)
- CSS (Cascading Style Sheets)
Benefits of Open Standards
1) Interoperability - Various devices can communicate with each other
2) Encourages Innovation - no fees to make your devices compatible with others,
which means that more people can create new and unique, compatible
devices
3) Longevity - Open standards typically developed and maintained by a large,
diverse community - means they are likely to be used for a long time
4) Security - because the standards are open, more people can analyze them and
make recommendations to make software better and more secure
Standards vs. Protocols
- standard - document that specifies a set of requirements, specifications, or
guidelines that must be followed in order to achieve a certain level of quality
or compatibility.
- protocol - set of rules or guidelines that define how devices or systems
should communicate with each other
- Example: standard might specify the physical characteristics of a network,
such as the types of cables and connectors that can be used, while a network
might define how devices on the network should encode and transmit data.
What is the ISO?
- The International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) is an independent,
non-governmental organization that
develops and publishes standards for
various industries, including computing.
- Develops standards for software and
hardware to ensure compatibility and
interoperability across different systems
and platforms
- Establishes standards for network
protocols, security, and communication
technologies
Creative Commons License
- A Creative Commons license is a type
of copyright license that allows
creators to share their work with
others while retaining some rights
over it.
- Used when creators want to make
their work available to the public but
still maintain control over how it is
used.
- Allows others to use and share the
work without seeking explicit
permission, as long as they follow the
terms of the license.
HL
Graph Theory + WWW
- Graph theory is branch of mathematics used extensively in the context of the
World Wide Web (WWW)
- The Web can be represented as a graph, with web pages as nodes and
hyperlinks as edges between the nodes.
- Graph theory algorithms are used to analyze the structure and properties of
this web graph.
- Examples: PageRank & HITS Algorithms
Directed Graph (aka Web Graph)
- a mathematical representation of the
World Wide Web, where web pages are
represented as nodes and hyperlinks
as arrows..
- The arrows indicate the direction of
the link from one web page to
another.
- The Bowtie Model is a specific way to
represent the WWW as a Directed
Graph
Bowtie Model Components
1) The core: This includes the central and most densely connected part of the
web. It is made up of a small number of highly interconnected pages that form
the backbone of the web.
2) IN-Nodes: These are the pages that all have links to the core, have no links
from the core to themselves. They may be important resources or services, but
they are not central to the structure of the web.
3) OUT-Nodes: These are all the pages that that he core links to, but do not link
back to the core. They may include sites that are dependent on the core for
traffic, such as e-commerce or news sites.
Bowtie Model
4) Tendrils: These are the pages that can be reached from the in- or
out-components, but cannot reach the core. They may be small, specialized
sites or pages that are not well connected to the rest of the web.
5) Tubes: These are the pages that link the different components together. They
may include directories, search engines, and other pages that provide
navigation and connections between different parts of the web.
Sub-Graph
- A sub-graph is a subset of a larger
graph that contains only a portion
of its nodes and edges.
- It can be created by selecting a
specific set of nodes and edges
from the larger graph and isolating
them into a smaller graph.
- Sub-graphs are commonly used in
graph theory and network analysis
to simplify complex graphs and to
focus on specific areas of interest
within a larger network.
Ambient Intelligence
- refers to the integration of technology in the environment to create
smart spaces that can interact with humans in a natural and intuitive
way.
- involves the use of sensors, wireless networks, and other technologies to
create smart environments that can monitor and respond to changes in
the user's environment, such as their location, activities, and social
context.
- Example: a smart home system that uses sensors, machine learning
algorithms, and other technologies to adjust lighting, temperature, and
other environmental factors based on user behavior and preferences.
Collective Intelligence
- refers to the ability of a group of individuals to collaborate and pool their knowledge,
skills, and experiences to solve problems, make decisions, or create new ideas.
- based on the idea that the intelligence of a group can be greater than that of any
individual member, and that through collaboration and communication, groups can
achieve outcomes that are superior to those of even the most knowledgeable
individuals.
- Collective intelligence can be facilitated by technology, such as social media platforms,
wikis, or crowdsourcing tools, which allow groups to share and collaborate on
information in real-time.
- Example: Wikipedia
Power Law Distribution (“Power Laws”) + WWW
- Power laws describe a relationship
between two variables where one
variable's frequency or magnitude is
inversely proportional to its rank or
size
- power laws describe the distribution
of links to web pages, where a small
number of pages (known as hubs)
have a disproportionately large
number of links pointing to them,
while the majority of pages have
relatively few links.
Power laws have been used to explain the structure of the World Wide Web, which
has a highly skewed distribution of incoming and outgoing links among its pages. The
power law distribution suggests that there are a few highly connected nodes (known
as "hubs" or "super-nodes") that are much more connected than most of the other
nodes in the network. This is often referred to as the "rich get richer" effect.

In the context of the WWW, power laws help explain why some websites become
incredibly popular and attract large numbers of incoming links, while most websites
have relatively few links. This is because when a new site is created, it is more likely
to receive incoming links from sites that are already popular and highly connected,
thus increasing its own popularity and connectivity in a self-reinforcing cycle. This
leads to a highly skewed distribution of incoming links and creates the bowtie shape
of the web as described by the Bowtie Model.