Electromagnetic Waves

Introduction

1
 Why study electromagnetic waves?

Motivation:

Most basic of all ECE courses: Electromagnetics provides the foundation

for all electrical sciences and engineering. All of circuit theory and power
engineering is a special case (low frequency, where dimensions are small
relative to a wavelength).
Electromagnetics explains physical phenomena: What is light? How do
electric and magnetic fields behave?

Important to know about EM: Extremely important for areas such as

antenna design, microwave engineering, RF design. Also very important for
power engineering and micro/nano-electronics. It is also good to know for
all areas of ECE.

2
 Applications

Antennas Radar

Wireless Communications RFID RF circuits

3
 Applications (cont.)

Computer and Electronic Applications:

❖ At higher frequencies transmission line effects issues become more important.

It becomes necessary to model the electromagnetic performance of the system
(simple circuit theory is no longer adequate).

❖ Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) and Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

also become important at high frequency due to radiation and coupling effects.

4
 Course Theme (cont.)

High Frequency
A microwave integrated circuit.
A cell-phone base-station antenna.

A microstrip antenna array. A microwave filter constructed from microstrip. 5

6
7
8
9
 Notation

Circuit quantities:
▪ v(t) is a time-varying function.
▪ V is a phasor (complex number).
Note:
“Handscript SF” font is used for
time-domain vector quantities.
Field quantities: (This font has been placed on
Blackboard for you.)
▪ E(t) is a time-varying vector function.
▪ E is a phasor vector (complex vector).

▪ Ex(t) is a time-varying component of a vector function.

▪ Ex is a phasor component of a vector function.

10
 Statics
Definition: No time variation. In terms of frequency, f = 0 [Hz]

The electromagnetic field splits into two independent parts:

Electrostatics: (q, E) charge produces electric field

Magnetostatics: (I, B) current produces magnetic field

The static approximation is usually accurate for d << 0

(d is the dimension of the circuit or device).

0 = c / f (free - space wavelength)

Example:
The electric field from a 60 [Hz] power line mainly comes from the charge on it.
The magnetic field from a 60 [Hz] power line mainly comes from the current on it.
11
 Statics (cont.)
Example: f = 60 [Hz]
Note: This is an exact (defined) value since 1983.

0 = c / f
c = 2.99792458  108 m/s

f = 60  Hz 

This gives:
0 = 4.9965  106  m 
= 4,996.5  km 
= 3.097.8  miles

Clearly, most circuits fall into the static-approximation category at 60 [Hz]!

12
 Statics (cont.)
The following are special cases of electromagnetics at low frequency:

▪ Circuit theory

▪ Electronics

▪ Power engineering

▪ Magnetics (design of motors, generators, transformers, etc.)

Examples of high-frequency systems that are not modeled by statics:

▪ Antennas

▪ Transmission lines

▪ Microwaves

▪ Optics
13
 Charge
Proton : q = e  1.602176634 10−19  C
Electron : q = −e = −1.602176634 10−19  C

1 C  (1/1.602 10−19 ) protons = 6.242 1018 protons

p Atom

Ben Franklin
14
 Charge Density
1) Volume charge density v [C/m3]

a) Uniform (homogeneous) volume charge density

++++
++++ v Example: protons floating in space.
++++

V

Q Uniform cloud of charge density

Q
v = [C/m3 ]
V
15
 Charge Density (cont.)
b) Non-uniform (inhomogeneous) volume charge density

Q dQ
v ( x, y, z ) = lim =
V →0 V dV
+ + ++
+ + ++
+ + ++

 v ( x, y , z )

( x, y , z ) dV

dQ Non-uniform cloud of charge density

Example: Protons are closer together as we move to the right.

16
 Charge Density (cont.)
Q
v ( x, y, z ) = lim
V →0 V

Q
 v ( x, y , z )  Q  v ( x, y, z ) V
V

so dQ = v ( x, y, z ) dV
 v ( x, y , z )

Hence ( x, y , z ) dV

Q =  v ( x, y, z ) dV
V dQ
V = volumetric region of space

17
 Charge Density (cont.)
2) Surface charge density s [C/m2]

Example: Protons are sprayed onto a sheet of paper.

S
 s ( x, y , z )
( x, y , z )

Non-uniform sheet of surface charge density

+ + ++ Q
+ + ++
+ + ++

Q Q
 s = lim [C/m 2 ] s = [C/m 2 ]
S →0 S S
Non-uniform Uniform
18
 Charge Density (cont.)
S = surface
S
 s ( x, y , z )
( x, y , z )

Q
s  [C/m 2 ]
Q S

so
dQ =  s ( x, y, z ) dS

Hence

Q =   s ( x, y, z ) dS
S
19
 Charge Density (cont.)
3) Line charge density l [C/m]

Example: Protons are sprayed onto a thread.

( x, y , z )
+ + ++ + + + +
+ + +
+ +
+
l  l ( x, y , z )

Q
Non-uniform line charge density

Q Q
l = lim [C/m] l = [C/m]
l →0 l l

Non-uniform Uniform
20
 Charge Density (cont.)
( x, y , z ) C = contour
+ + + ++ + + + +
+ +
+ +
+
l  l ( x, y , z )

Q
Q
l  [C/m]
l
so
dQ = l ( x, y, z ) dl

Hence

Q =  l ( x, y, z ) dl
C
21
Review of Coordinate Systems
z
P ( x, y , z )

An understanding of coordinate systems is

important for doing EM calculations.

22
 Kinds of Integrals That Often Occur
Q=  d (scalars in integral,
scalar result)
C Surface
Line integrals :
VAB =  E  dr (vectors in integral,
scalar result)
integrals : C Q =   s dS (scalars in integral,
scalar result)
I =  J s  nˆ dl (vectors in integral,
scalar result)
S

C I =  J  nˆ dS (vectors in integral,
scalar result)
 Rˆ S
E= d (vector in integral,
4 R 2 vector result)  s Rˆ
C 0 E= dS (vector in integral,

S
4 0 R 2 vector result)

Q =   v dV (scalars in integral,
scalar result)
We wish to be able to
Volume V perform all of these
integrals : v Rˆ calculations in various
E= dV (vector in integral,
coordinate systems.
V
4 0 R 2 vector result)

23
 Rectangular Coordinates
z Position vector: r = xx
ˆ + yy
ˆ + zz
ˆ

P ( x, y , z )
Short hand notation:

r r = ( x, y , z )
ẑz
ẑz
ŷy Note:
x̂x y We have the “tip to tail” rule when
xˆx + ˆ adding vectors.
yy

ŷy
x

Note:
A unit vector direction is defined by increasing one coordinate variable
while keeping the other two fixed.

Note: Different notations are used for vectors in the books.

24
 Rectangular Coordinates
z
dy dS = dxdy
dx
Differentials

dz

y dS = dxdz

dS = dydz
x
We increase x, y, or z
dV = dx dy dz starting from an initial
point (blue dot).

Note:
dS may be in three different forms.
25
 Rectangular (cont.)
Path Integral (we need dr)
z
B

C dr
dl = dr
A r
r + dr
r = xx
ˆ + yy
ˆ + zz
ˆ
y

dr = d ( r ) = dr
x dr = xˆ dx + yˆ dy + zˆ dz

Note on notation: The symbol dl is often used instead of dr .

26
 Cylindrical Coordinates
y
z


 x
P (  ,, z )
z x =  cos 


. y y =  sin 
z=z

x
 = x2 + y2
 = tan −1 ( y / x )
z=z

27
 Cylindrical (cont.)
z
ẑ Unit Vectors

.  Note:
A unit vector direction is defined by
̂ increasing one coordinate variable while
keeping the other two fixed.

x y Note: ̂ and ˆ depend on (x, y)

 ̂
This is why we often prefer to
 express them in terms of
x xˆ and yˆ

(Constant vectors can be pulled outside of an integral.)

28
 Cylindrical (cont.)
Expressions for unit vectors (illustrated for ̂ )

y
 Assume ˆ = A1 xˆ + A2 yˆ
̂


x Solve for A1: Similarly,

ˆ  xˆ = A1 xˆ  xˆ + A2 yˆ  xˆ A2 = ˆ  yˆ
A1 = ˆ  xˆ  
= cos  −  
2 
= ˆ xˆ cos 
= sin 
so A1 = cos 

Hence, we have ˆ = xˆ cos  + yˆ sin 

29
Cylindrical (cont.)

Summary of Results

ˆ = xˆ cos  + yˆ sin 
ˆ = xˆ ( − sin  ) + yˆ cos 
zˆ = zˆ
xˆ = ˆ cos  + ˆ ( − sin  )
yˆ = ˆ sin  + ˆ cos 
zˆ = zˆ

30
 Cylindrical (cont.)
z
ẑ Example:

.
 Express the r vector in
 cylindrical coordinates.
̂
r
r = xx
ˆ + yy
ˆ + zz
ˆ
y

x
Substituting from the previous tables of unit vector transformations and
coordinate transformations, we have

( ) (
r = ˆ cos  + ˆ ( − sin  ) (  cos  ) + ˆ sin  + ˆ cos  ) (  sin  ) + zzˆ
ˆ ) ( cos 2  + sin 2  ) + zz
= (  ˆ
= 
ˆ + zz
ˆ
31
 Cylindrical (cont.)
z
ẑ

r

. ˆ
̂
ẑz
y
̂

x
r = 
ˆ + zz
ˆ

Note: r   ˆ + zz
ˆ +  ˆ
32
 Cylindrical (cont.)
Differentials
dS =  d  d
z
Note:
d dS may be in three different forms.

 dz
dS =  d dz
d  d
dS = d  dz
y

We increase , , or z
starting from an initial
x
dV =  d  d dz point (blue dot).

Note: The angle  must be in radians here.

33
 Cylindrical (cont.)
Path Integrals
First, consider differential changes along any of the three coordinate directions.

d
y y
z
 d
d dz
d 
x x y
x

dr = ˆ d  dr = ˆ (  d ) dr = zˆ dz

Note: The angle  must be in radians here.

34
 Cylindrical (cont.)
Note: A change in z is not shown, but is possible.
In general:

dr = ˆ d  + ˆ (  d ) + zˆ dz C
y

ˆ d 
d
dr
d

If we ever need to find the

x
length along a contour:

( d  ) + (  d ) + ( dz )
2 2 2
d = dr =

 (  d )
35
 Spherical Coordinates
z z

P ( r, ,  )  P ( r, ,  )
 
z z


r
. y

r
. y

x x

Note: 0     Note:  = r sin 

36
 Spherical (cont.)
z
x = r sin  cos 
y = r sin  sin 
 P ( r, ,  )
z = r cos 

z


r
. y r = x2 + y 2 + z 2
 = cos −1 ( z / r )
x  = tan −1 ( y / x )

Note:  = r sin 
Recall: x =  cos 
y =  sin 

37
 Spherical (cont.)
z Unit Vectors
Note:
A unit vector direction is defined by
r̂ increasing one coordinate variable while
keeping the other two fixed.
ˆ

y

Note: rˆ , ˆ, ˆ depend on ( x, y , z )

38
 Spherical (cont.)
Transformation of Unit Vectors
z

rˆ = xˆ sin  cos  + yˆ sin  sin  + zˆ cos 

r̂  = xˆ cos  cos  + yˆ cos  sin  + zˆ ( − sin  )
ˆ ˆ = xˆ ( − sin  ) + yˆ cos 

y
xˆ = rˆ sin  cos  +  cos  cos  + ˆ ( − sin  )

x yˆ = rˆ sin  sin  +  cos  sin  + ˆ cos 

zˆ = rˆ cos  +  ( − sin  )

39
 Spherical (cont.)
z
Example:
Express the r vector in
r̂ spherical coordinates.
ˆ r = xx
ˆ + yy
ˆ + zz
ˆ
r  y

Substituting from the previous tables of

x unit vector transformations and coordinate
transformations, we have:

( )
r = rˆ sin  cos  +  cos  cos  + ˆ ( − sin  ) ( r sin  cos  )

+ ( rˆ sin  sin  +  cos  sin  + ˆ cos  ) ( r sin  sin  )

+ ( rˆ cos  +  ( − sin  ) ) r cos 

40
 Spherical (cont.)
z

After simplifying:

r̂ r = rr
ˆ
ˆ
r̂r 
y

ˆ + 
ˆ + 
Note : r  rr ˆ

41
 Spherical (cont.)
Differentials
 d = ( r sin  ) d We increase r, , or 
z starting from an initial
point (blue dot).

d 

dS = ( r 2 sin  ) d d
r

d
y
Note:
dr dS may be in three different
rd forms (only one is shown).
The other two are:
x dS = r sin  drd
dV = r sin  dr d d
2
dS = r drd

Note: The angles  and  must be in radians here.

42
 Spherical (cont.)
Path Integrals
z

z z dr
dr r 
d
dr
d
r y
y y
x  d = r sin  d
x x

dr = rˆ dr dr = ˆ ( r d ) dr = ˆ ( r sin  d )

dr = rˆ dr + ˆ rd + ˆ r sin  d

Note: The angles  and  must be in radians here.

43
 Summary

dr = xˆ dx + yˆ dy + zˆ dz
dS =  d  d
dr = ˆ d  + ˆ (  d ) + zˆ dz (on horizontal surface)

dS =  d dz
dr = rˆ dr + ˆ rd + ˆ r sin  d
(on surface of cylinder)

dV = dx dy dz
dS = ( r 2 sin  ) d d
dV =  d  d dz
(on surface of sphere)

dV = r 2 sin  dr d d

44
 Note on dr Vector
Note that the formulas for the dr vector never change, no matter
which direction we go along a path (we never add a minus sign!).

Example: Integrating along a horizontal radial path in cylindrical coordinates.

dr = ˆ d  + ˆ (  d ) + zˆ dz
B

VAB =  E  dr dr = ˆ d 
A

y B y A
C C
E = ˆ E + ˆE + zE
ˆ z
dr dr
B A B
x x
 VAB =  E d 
 A  B  A  B
A
d  0 d  0

Note:
This form does not change, The limits take care of the direction of dr.
regardless of which limit is larger.
45
 Example
Given:
J = xˆ ( x ) [A/m 2 ]

Find the current I crossing a hemisphere (z > 0) of radius a,

in the outward direction.

z
nˆ = rˆ
Hemisphere
I =  J  nˆ dS
S

J
y

x
46
 Example (cont.)
I =  J  nˆ dS rˆ = xˆ sin  cos  + yˆ sin  sin  + zˆ cos 
S
 = xˆ cos  cos  + yˆ cos  sin  + zˆ ( − sin  )
=  J  rˆ dS
ˆ = xˆ ( − sin  ) + yˆ cos 
S

=  ( xˆ J x )  rˆ dS
xˆ = rˆ sin  cos  +  cos  cos  + ˆ ( − sin  )
S
yˆ = rˆ sin  sin  +  cos  sin  + ˆ cos 
=  J x ( sin  cos  ) dS
S zˆ = rˆ cos  +  ( − sin  )
=  ( x )( sin  cos  ) dS
S
x = r sin  cos 
=  ( a sin  cos  )( sin  cos  ) dS y = r sin  sin 
S
z = r cos 
= a  ( sin  cos  ) dS
2 2

S
47
 Example (cont.)
I = a  ( sin 2  cos 2  ) dS
S dS = r 2 sin  d d
2  /2
=a  ( sin 2
 cos 2
 ) sin  d d
a 2

0 0
2  /2
= a3   ( sin  cos 2  ) sin  d d
2

0 0 Note :
2
 /2 1
 ( sin  ) sin  d   d = ( 2 ) =
= a ( )
2
3 2 cos
0
2
0
 /2
= a 3 ( )  ( sin  ) d
3
Note :
0  /2
2
2  sin 3  d =
= a ( )  
3 0
3
3  2  3
I =  a [A]
 3 
48