Whati

sComput
erNet
wor
k?

Acomput ernet
workisasetofdevi
cesconnectedthroughl
inks.Anodecanbecomput er
,
pri
nter
,oranyotherdev
icecapabl
eofsendingorreceiv
ingt
hedat a.Thel
i
nksconnect
ingthe
nodesareknownascommuni cati
onchannels.

ComputerNet
wor kusesdi
str
ibut
edpr
ocessi
nginwhi
chtaski
sdivi
dedamongsever
al
computer
s.I
nstead,asi
ngl
ecomputerhandl
esanent
ir
etask,
eachsepar
atecomput
erhandl
es
asubset.

Fol
l
owi
ngar
etheadv
ant
agesofDi
str
ibut
edpr
ocessi
ng:

Securi
ty:I
tpr
ovidesli
mitedi
nteract
ionthatausercanhavewit
htheent
ir
esystem.Forexampl
e,
abankallowstheuserstoaccesstheirownaccountst
hroughanATM wit
houtal
lowi
ngthem t
o
accessthebank'sent
ir
edatabase.

Fasterpr
oblem sol
vi
ng:
Mul
ti
plecomput
erscansol
vet
hepr
obl
em f
ast
ert
hanasi
ngl
emachi
ne
workingal
one.

Securi
tyt
hroughredundancy:Mul
ti
plecomputersrunni
ngthesameprogr
am atthesameti
me
canprovi
dethesecuri
tythroughr
edundancy.Forexample,
iff
ourcomput
ersrunthesame
progr
am andanycomput erhasahardwareerror
,thenot
hercomputer
scanoverri
deit
.

Comput
erNet
wor
kTut
ori
alI
ndex

Pr
erequi
sit
e

Ther
eisnot
hingspeci
fi
cpr
erequi
sit
eforl
ear
ningcomput
ernet
wor
k.

Audi
ence

OurComput
erNet
wor
kTut
ori
ali
sdesi
gnedt
ohel
pbegi
nner
sandpr
ofessi
onal
s.

Pr
obl
ems

Weassurethatyouwi
llnotfi
ndanyprobl
em inthi
sComput
erNet
wor
kTut
ori
al.Buti
fther
eis
anymi
stake,pl
easeposttheprobl
em i
ncontactfor
m

Whati
saComput
erNet
wor
k?

ComputerNetworki
sagroupofcomput
ersconnect
edwi t
heachotherthr
oughwir
es,opti
cal
fi
bresoropt
ical
li
nkssot
hatvari
ousdev
icescanint
eractwit
heachotherthr
oughanetwork.
Theai
m oft
hecomput
ernet
wor
kist
heshar
ingofr
esour
cesamongv
ari
ousdev
ices.

Inthecaseofcomputernet
wor
ktechnol
ogy
,ther
ear
esev
eral
typesofnet
wor
kst
hatv
aryf
rom
simpletocomplexl
evel
.

Component
sOfComput
erNet
wor
k:Maj
orcomponent
sofacomput
ernet
wor
kar
e:

NI
C(net
wor
kint
erf
acecar
d)

NI
Cisadev icet
hathelpsthecomputert
ocommuni cat
ewithanotherdevice.Thenetwor
k
i
nter
facecardcont
ainsthehardwar
eaddresses,thedata-
li
nklay
erprotocol uset
hisaddr
esst
o
i
denti
fythesyst
em onthenetworksothati
ttransfer
sthedatatothecorrectdesti
nati
on.

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofNI
C:wi
rel
essNI
Candwi
redNI
C.

Wi
rel
essNIC:Al
lthemodernl
apt
opsuset
hewirel
essNIC.I
nWirel
essNI
C,aconnect
ioni
s
madeusi
ngtheantennat
hatempl
oyst
heradi
owav et
echnol
ogy
.

Wi
redNI
C:Cabl
esuset
hewi
redNI
Ctot
ransf
ert
hedat
aov
ert
hemedi
um.

Hub

Hubisacentraldev
icethatspli
tst
henetworkconnecti
onintomult
ipl
edevi
ces.Whencomputer
r
equestsfori
nformati
onfrom acomputer,
itsendstherequestt
otheHub.Hubdist
ri
butest
his
r
equesttoall
theinter
connectedcomputer
s.

Swi
tches

Switchisanetworkingdevicethatgroupsal
lthedevicesov
erthenetwor kt
otransfert
hedata
toanotherdevi
ce.Aswi tchisbett
erthanHubasi tdoesnotbroadcastthemessageov ert
he
network,i
.e.
,i
tsendst hemessaget othedevi
ceforwhi chi
tbelongsto.Ther
efore,
wecansay
thatswit
chsendst hemessagedi rectl
yfr
om sourcetothedesti
nati
on.

Cabl
esandconnect
ors

Cablei
satransmi
ssi
onmedi
athatt
ransmi
tst
hecommuni
cat
ionsi
gnal
s.Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypes
ofcabl
es:

Twi
stedpai
rcabl
e:I
tisahi
gh-
speedcabl
ethatt
ransmi
tst
hedat
aov
er1Gbpsormor
e.

Coaxial
cable:
Coaxi
alcabl
eresemblesli
keaTVinstal
l
ati
oncabl
e.Coaxialcabl
eismor
e
expensi
vethantwi
stedpai
rcabl
e,butitpr
ovi
desthehi
ghdatatr
ansmissionspeed.

Fibr
eopticcabl
e:Fi
breopti
ccableisahigh-
speedcablet
hatt
ransmitst
hedatausingl
i
ght
beams.Itprovi
deshi
ghdatat r
ansmissi
onspeedascomparedtoothercabl
es.I
tismore
expensi
veascompar edt
oot hercabl
es,soi
tisi
nstal
l
edatthegovernmentl
evel
.
Rout
er

Routeri
sadev icet
hatconnect
stheLANt othei
nter
net.Ther
outeri
smai
nlyusedt
oconnect
thedist
inctnet
worksorconnectt
heint
ernettomult
ipl
ecomputers.

Modem

Modem connectsthecomputert
ot heint
ernetov
ert
heexi
sti
ngtel
ephoneli
ne.Amodem i
snot
i
ntegr
atedwit
ht hecomputermotherboar
d.Amodem isasepar
atepartonthePCsl
otf
oundon
t
hemot her
board.

UsesOfComput
erNet
wor
k

Resourceshari
ng:Resour
ceshari
ngist
heshar
ingofresour
cessuchasprogr
ams,print
ers,
and
dataamongt heusersonthenet
workwit
houtt
herequir
ementofthephy
sical
locat
ionofthe
resour
ceanduser.

Server-Cl
ientmodel:
Comput ernetworki
ngisusedint
heser v
er-
cli
entmodel.Aser
verisa
centralcomputerusedtostoretheinf
ormationandmaint
ainedbythesyst
em admini
strat
or.
Cli
ent sarethemachinesusedtoaccesst heinf
ormat
ionst
oredintheserv
erremotel
y.

Communi cati
onmedium:
Computernetworkbehavesasacommunicat
ionmedi
um amongthe
users.Forexample,
acompanycontai
nsmor ethanonecomput
erhasanemailsyst
em whi
ch
theempl oyeesusef
ordai
lycommunicati
on.

E-commer ce:Computernetworkisalsoi
mport
antinbusinesses.Wecandothebusinessover
theint
ernet.Forexample,
amazon. com i
sdoi
ngtheirbusi
nessov ert
hei
nter
net
,i.
e.,
theyare
doingthei
rbusinessovertheint
ernet.

Feat
uresOfComput
ernet
wor
k

Feat
uresofComput
erNet
wor
k

Al
i
stOfComput
ernet
wor
kfeat
uresi
sgi
venbel
ow.

Communi
cat
ionspeed

Fi
l
eshar
ing

BackupandRol
lbacki
seasy

Sof
twar
eandHar
dwar
eshar
ing

Secur
it
y

Scal
abi
l
ity

Rel
i
abi
l
ity
Communi
cat
ionspeed

Networ
kpr ov
idesust
ocommunicateov
ert
henetwor kinafastandeff
ici
entmanner
.For
exampl
e,wecandov i
deoconf
erenci
ng,
emailmessaging,
etc.overt
heinter
net
.Ther
efor
e,t
he
computernet
workisagr
eatwaytoshar
eourknowledgeandideas.

Fi
l
eshar
ing

Fi
leshar
ingi
soneoft
hemajoradvantageoft
hecomput
ernet
wor
k.Comput
ernet
wor
kpr
ovi
des
ustosharet
hef
il
eswit
heachother.

BackupandRol
lbacki
seasy

Sincethefi
l
esarestor
edint
hemainserv
erwhi
chi
scent
ral
l
ylocat
ed.Ther
efor
e,i
tiseasyt
o
takethebackupfr
om themainser
ver
.

Sof
twar
eandHar
dwar
eshar
ing

Wecani nst
all
theapplicat
ionsont
hemainser
ver,t
heref
ore,t
heusercanaccessthe
appli
cat
ionscentr
all
y.So,wedonotneedtoi
nstal
lthesoft
wareoneverymachine.Si
mil
arl
y,
hardwar
ecanal sobeshared.

Secur
it
y

Networ
kallowsthesecur
it
ybyensur
ingt
hatt
heuserhast
her
ightt
oaccesst
hecer
tai
nfi
l
es
andappl
icati
ons.

Scal
abi
l
ity

Scalabil
it
ymeanst hatwecanaddt henewcomponent sonthenetwork.Networkmustbe
scalablesot
hatwecanext endthenet workbyaddi
ngnewdev i
ces.But,i
tdecreasest
hespeed
oftheconnecti
onanddat aoft hetransmissi
onspeedalsodecr
eases,thi
sincreasest
he
chancesoferroroccurr
ing.Thisproblem canbeovercomebyusingtherouti
ngorswitchi
ng
devices.

Rel
i
abi
l
ity

Comput
ernetworkcanuset
heal
ter
nat
ivesour
cef
ort
hedat
acommuni
cat
ioni
ncaseofany
har
dwar
efail
ure.

Comput
erNet
wor
kAr
chi
tect
ure

Comput
erNetwor kArchit
ect
ureisdefinedast
hephy si
cal
andlogi
caldesi
gnoft
hesoft
war
e,
har
dware,
protocols,
andmedi aofthet r
ansmi
ssionofdat
a.Si
mplywecansaythathow
comput
ersareorganizedandhowt asksareal
locatedt
othecomputer.

Thet
wot
ypesofnet
wor
kar
chi
tect
uresar
eused:
Comput
erNet
wor
kAr
chi
tect
ure

Peer
-To-
Peernet
wor
k

Cl
i
ent
/Ser
vernet
wor
k

Peer
-To-
Peernet
wor
k

Peer-
To-Peernet
workisanetworkinwhichall
thecomput
ersar
eli
nkedt
oget
herwi
thequal
pri
vi
legeandresponsi
bil
i
tiesf
orprocessi
ngthedata.

Peer
-To-
Peernet
wor
kisusef
ulf
orsmal
lenv
ironment
s,usual
l
yupt
o10comput
ers.

Peer
-To-
Peernet
wor
khasnodedi
cat
edser
ver
.

Speci
alper
missi
onsareassignedt
oeachcomputerf
orshar
ingt
her
esour
ces,
butt
hiscanl
ead
toaprobl
em i
fthecomputerwitht
her
esourcei
sdown.

Comput
erNet
wor
kAr
chi
tect
ure

Adv
ant
agesOfPeer
-To-
PeerNet
wor
k:

I
tisl
esscost
lyasi
tdoesnotcont
ainanydedi
cat
edser
ver
.

I
fonecomput
erst
opswor
kingbut
,ot
hercomput
erswi
l
lnotst
opwor
king.

I
tiseasyt
osetupandmai
ntai
naseachcomput
ermanagesi
tsel
f.

Di
sadv
ant
agesOfPeer
-To-
PeerNet
wor
k:

InthecaseofPeer
-To-
Peernet
wor
k,i
tdoesnotcont
ainthecent
rali
zedsy
stem .Ther
efor
e,i
t
cannotbackupthedat
aasthedat
aisdi
ffer
enti
ndif
ferentl
ocat
ions.

I
thasasecur
it
yissueast
hedev
icei
smanagedi
tsel
f.

Cl
i
ent
/Ser
verNet
wor
k

Cli
ent/Ser
vernet
worki
sanetworkmodel desi
gnedf
ortheenduserscal
l
edcl
ients,t
oaccess
theresour
cessuchassongs,
video,
etc.f
rom acent
ral
computerknownasServer.

Thecent
ral
cont
rol
l
eri
sknownasaser
verwhi
l
eal
lot
hercomput
ersi
nthenet
wor
kar
ecal
l
ed
cl
ient
s.

Aser
verper
for
msal
lthemaj
oroper
ati
onssuchassecur
it
yandnet
wor
kmanagement
.

Aser
veri
sresponsi
blef
ormanagi
ngal
lther
esour
cessuchasf
il
es,
dir
ect
ori
es,
pri
nter
,et
c.

Allt
hecl
ient
scommunicat
ewi t
heachotherthroughaserver
.Forexample,
ifcl
i
ent1want
sto
sendsomedatat
ocl
ient2,thenitf
ir
stsendstherequestt
otheserverf
orthepermi
ssi
on.The
ser
versendst
her
esponset
othecl
i
ent1t
oini
ti
atei
tscommuni
cat
ionwi
tht
hecl
i
ent2.

Comput
erNet
wor
kAr
chi
tect
ure

Adv
ant
agesOfCl
i
ent
/Ser
vernet
wor
k:

ACli
ent
/Ser
vernet
wor
kcont
ainst
hecent
ral
i
zedsy
stem.Ther
efor
ewecanbackupt
hedat
a
easi
l
y.

ACli
ent
/Servernet
wor
khasadedi
cat
edser
vert
hati
mpr
ovest
heov
eral
lper
for
manceoft
he
whol
esystem.

Secur
it
yisbet
teri
nCl
i
ent
/Ser
vernet
wor
kasasi
ngl
eser
veradmi
nist
erst
heshar
edr
esour
ces.

I
tal
soi
ncr
easest
hespeedoft
heshar
ingr
esour
ces.

Di
sadv
ant
agesOfCl
i
ent
/Ser
vernet
wor
k:

Cl
i
ent
/Ser
vernet
wor
kisexpensi
veasi
trequi
rest
heser
verwi
thl
argememor
y.

AserverhasaNet
workOper
ati
ngSy
stem(
NOS)t
opr
ovi
det
her
esour
cest
othecl
i
ent
s,butt
he
costofNOSisver
yhi
gh.

I
trequi
redadedi
cat
ednet
wor
kadmi
nist
rat
ort
omanageal
lther
esour
ces.

Comput
erNet
wor
kComponent
s

Computernetworkcomponentsarethemajorpart
swhi chareneededtoinstal
lthesof
twar
e.
Someimportantnetworkcomponentsar
eNI C,swi
tch,cable,hub,
rout
er,andmodem.
Dependi
ngont hetypeofnetwor
kthatweneedt oinst
all,
somenet workcomponentscanalso
beremoved.Forexample,t
hewirel
essnetworkdoesnotr equir
eacable.

Fol
l
owi
ngar
ethemaj
orcomponent
srequi
redt
oinst
all
anet
wor
k:

NI
C

NI
Cst
andsf
ornet
wor
kint
erf
acecar
d.

NICisahar
dwar
ecomponentusedt
oconnectacomput
erwi
thanot
hercomput
eront
oa
net
work

I
tcansuppor
tat
ransf
err
ateof10,
100t
o1000Mb/
s.

TheMACaddr essorphy
sical
addr
essisencodedont
henet
wor
kcardchi
pwhi
chisassi
gnedby
theIEEEt
oidenti
fyanet
workcar
duniquel
y.TheMACaddr
essi
sst
oredint
hePROM
(Progr
ammableread-
onl
ymemor y
).

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofNI
C:
Comput
erNet
wor
kComponent
s

Wi
redNI
C

Wi
rel
essNI
C

Wi
redNIC:
TheWir
edNICi
spresenti
nsi
det
hemot
her
boar
d.Cabl
esandconnect
orsar
eused
wi
thwi
redNICt
otr
ansf
erdat
a.

Wir
elessNI C:Thewi
rel
essNICcont
ainst
heantennatoobtai
ntheconnect
ionov
ert
hewi
rel
ess
net
wor k.Forexampl
e,l
aptopcomput
ercont
ainsthewir
elessNI
C.

Hub

AHubi sahar dwaredev i

cethatdividesthenetworkconnecti
onamongmul ti
pledevi
ces.When
computerrequestsforsomei nformat i
onfrom anetwork,i
tfi
rstsendstherequesttotheHub
thr
oughcable.Hubwi ll
br oadcastthisrequesttot
heent i
renetwork.Al
lthedeviceswi
llcheck
whethert
her equestbelongst othem ornot.Ifnot
,ther
equestwi l
lbedropped.

Theprocessusedbyt heHubconsumesmorebandwidthandl
imitstheamountof
communi cat
ion.Nowadays,
theuseofhubi
sobsolet
e,anditi
sreplacedbymoreadv
anced
computernetworkcomponentssuchasSwi
tches,
Routers.

Swi
tch

Aswi t
chisahardwar edev i
cethatconnect smul t
ipl
edev i
cesonacomput ernetwor k.ASwi tch
contai
nsmor eadvancedf eatur
est hanHub.TheSwi tchcontai
nstheupdat edtablet hatdecides
wherethedataistransmi ttedornot .Swit
chdel i
versthemessaget othecor r
ectdest inati
on
basedont hephysi
cal addr esspresentintheincomi ngmessage.ASwi tchdoesnotbr oadcast
themessaget otheent i
renet workliketheHub.I tdeter
minesthedevicetowhom t hemessage
i
st obetransmit
ted.Ther efore,
wecansayt hatswitchprovi
desadirectconnectionbet weenthe
sourceanddesti
nat i
on.Itincreasest hespeedoft henetwork.

Rout
er

Arout
eri
sahardwar
edevicewhichisusedtoconnectaLANwit
hani nter
netconnect
ion.I
tis
usedt
orecei
ve,
anal
yzeandfor
war dthei
ncomingpacket
stoanothernetwor
k.

Ar
out
erwor
ksi
naLay
er3(
Net
wor
klay
er)oft
heOSIRef
erencemodel
.

Ar
out
erf
orwar
dst
hepacketbasedont
hei
nfor
mat
ionav
ail
abl
eint
her
out
ingt
abl
e.

I
tdet
ermi
nest
hebestpat
hfr
om t
heav
ail
abl
epat
hsf
ort
het
ransmi
ssi
onoft
hepacket
.

Adv
ant
agesOfRout
er:

Secur
it
y:Thei
nfor
mat
ionwhi
chi
str
ansmi
tt
edt
othenet
wor
kwi
l
ltr
aver
set
heent
ir
ecabl
e,but
t
heonl
yspeci
fi
eddev
icewhi
chhasbeenaddr
essedcanr
eadt
hedat
a.

Rel
iabi
li
ty:I
ftheserv
erhasstoppedfuncti
oni
ng,
thenet
wor
kgoesdown,
butnoot
hernet
wor
ks
ar
eaf f
ectedthatar
eservedbytherouter
.

Perfor
mance: Routerenhancestheover
all
per
formanceofthenetwork.Supposethereare24
workstat
ionsinanet workgenerat
esasameamountoftraffi
c.Thi
sincreasesthetr
affi
cloadon
thenetwork.Routerspli
tsthesi
nglenet
worki
ntotwonetworksof12wor kstat
ionseach,
reducesthetraf
fi
cl oadbyhalf
.

Net
wor
krange

Modem

Amodem isahardwaredev
icet
hatal
l
owst
hecomput
ert
oconnectt
othei
nter
netov
ert
he
exi
sti
ngt
elephonel
ine.

Amodem i
snoti
ntegr
atedwi
tht
hemot
her
boar
drat
hert
hani
tisi
nst
all
edont
hePCIsl
otf
ound
ont
hemother
boar
d.

I
tstandsforModul
ator
/Demodul
ator
.Itconv
ert
sthedi
git
aldat
aint
oananal
ogsi
gnal
overt
he
t
elephoneli
nes.

Basedonthediff
erencesi
nspeedandt
ransmi
ssi
onr
ate,
amodem canbecl
assi
fi
edi
nthe
fol
l
owingcategori
es:

St
andar
dPCmodem orDi
al-
upmodem

Cel
l
ularModem

Cabl
emodem

Cabl
esandConnect
ors

Cabl
eisat
ransmi
ssi
onmedi
ausedf
ort
ransmi
tt
ingasi
gnal
.

Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofcabl
esusedi
ntr
ansmi
ssi
on:

Twi
stedpai
rcabl
e

Coaxi
alcabl
e

Fi
bre-
opt
iccabl
e

Whati
sTr
ansmi
ssi
onmedi
a?

Transmissi
onmediai
sacommunicat
ionchannelt
hatcar
ri
esthei
nfor
mati
onf
rom t
hesender
totherecei
ver
.Dat
aistr
ansmi
tt
edthr
oughtheelectr
omagnet
icsi
gnal
s.
Themainfunct
ional
it
yofthetr
ansmissi
onmedi
aist
ocar
ryt
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
nthef
orm ofbi
ts
thr
oughLAN(LocalAreaNet
work).

I
tisaphy
sical
pat
hbet
weent
ransmi
tt
erandr
ecei
veri
ndat
acommuni
cat
ion.

I
nacopper
-basednet
wor
k,t
hebi
tsi
nthef
orm ofel
ect
ri
cal
signal
s.

I
naf
ibr
ebasednet
wor
k,t
hebi
tsi
nthef
orm ofl
i
ghtpul
ses.

I
nOSI(OpenSystem I
nter
connect
ion)phase,
transmi
ssi
onmedi
asuppor
tst
heLay
er1.
Ther
efor
e,i
tisconsi
deredtobeasaLay er1component.

Theelect
ri
cal
signal
scanbesentt
hrought
hecopperwi
re,
fibr
eopt
ics,
atmospher
e,wat
er,
and
vacuum.

Thecharact
eri
sti
csandqual
i
tyofdat
atr
ansmi
ssi
onar
edet
ermi
nedbyt
hechar
act
eri
sti
csof
medium andsi
gnal.

Tr
ansmi
ssionmedi
aisoftwot
ypesarewir
edmediaandwi
relessmedia.I
nwiredmedia,
medi
um char
act
eri
sti
csar
emoreimport
antwher
eas,i
nwir
elessmedia,si
gnal
charact
eri
sti
cs
ar
emoreimport
ant
.

Dif
ferenttr
ansmi
ssi
onmediahavedi
ff
erentpr
oper
ti
essuchasbandwi
dth,
del
ay,
costandease
ofinstal
l
ati
onandmaint
enance.

Thet
ransmi
ssi
onmedi
aisav
ail
abl
eint
hel
owestl
ayeroft
heOSIr
efer
encemodel
,i
.e.
,Phy
sical
l
ayer
.

Somef
act
orsneedt
obeconsi
der
edf
ordesi
gni
ngt
het
ransmi
ssi
onmedi
a:

Bandwi
dth:
Allt
hef act
orsareremaini
ngconstant
,thegr
eat
ert
hebandwi
dthofamedi
um,
the
hi
ghert
hedatatransmissi
onrateofasignal
.

Transmissi
onimpai
rment
:Whenther
ecei
vedsi
gnal
isnoti
denti
caltothetr
ansmi
ttedonedue
tothetr
ansmissi
onimpai
rment
.Thequal
i
tyoft
hesi
gnalswi
llgetdest
royedduet
o
tr
ansmissioni
mpair
ment.

I
nter
fer
ence:Anint
erf
erencei
sdefi
nedasthepr
ocessofdisr
upti
ngasi
gnal
wheni
ttr
avel
sov
er
acommunicati
onmedium ontheaddi
ti
onofsomeunwantedsignal
.

CausesOfTr
ansmi
ssi
onI
mpai
rment
:

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onmedi
a

At
tenuati
on:At
tenuat
ionmeanst
helossofener
gy,i
.e.,
thest
rengt
hoft
hesi
gnal
decr
easeswi
th
i
ncreasi
ngthedist
ancewhi
chcausesthel
ossofenergy.
Distor
tion:Distor
ti
onoccurswhent her
ei sachangeintheshapeoft hesignal.Thistypeof
di
st or
ti
oni sexami nedf
rom di
ff
erentsignal
shav i
ngdif
fer
entfrequencies.Eachf r
equency
componenthasi tsownpropagati
onspeed, sotheyr
eachatadi ff
erenttimewhi chleadstothe
delaydistort
ion.

Noi
se:
Whendatai
strav
ell
edov
erat
ransmi
ssi
onmedi
um,
someunwant
edsi
gnal
isaddedt
oit
whi
chcreat
est
henoi
se.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionOfTr
ansmi
ssi
onMedi
a:

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onmedi
a

Gui
dedTr
ansmi
ssi
onMedi
a

UnGui
dedTr
ansmi
ssi
onMedi
a

Gui
dedMedi
a

Iti
sdef
inedast
hephy
sical
medi
um t
hroughwhi
cht
hesi
gnal
sar
etr
ansmi
tt
ed.I
tisal
soknown
asBoundedmedi
a.

Ty
pesOfGui
dedmedi
a:

Twi
stedpai
r:

Twistedpairi
saphysi
calmediamadeupofapai rofcabl
estwi
stedwi t
heachother
.At wist
ed
paircabl
eischeapascomparedtoot hertr
ansmissi
onmedia.I
nstal
lati
onofthetwi
stedpair
cableiseasy,
anditi
sali
ghtweightcable.Thef
requencyr
angefortwistedpai
rcabl
eisfrom 0
to3.5KHz.

At
wist
edpai
rconsi
stsoft
woi
nsul
atedcopperwi
resar
rangedi
nar
egul
arspi
ral
pat
ter
n.

Thedegreeofr
educt
ioninnoi
seint
erfer
enceisdet
ermi
nedbythenumberoft
urnsperf
oot
.
I
ncreasi
ngthenumberoftur
nsperfootdecr
easesnoi
seint
erf
erence.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onmedi
a

Ty
pesofTwi
stedpai
r:

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onmedi
a

Unshi
eldedTwi
stedPai
r:

Anunshiel
dedtwist
edpairi
swidel
yusedi
ntel
ecommuni
cat
ion.Fol
l
owi
ngar
ethecat
egor
iesof
theunshi
eldedt
wistedpai
rcabl
e:
Cat
egor
y1:
Cat
egor
y1i
susedf
ort
elephonel
i
nest
hathav
elow-
speeddat
a.

Cat
egor
y2:
Itcansuppor
tupt
o4Mbps.

Cat
egor
y3:
Itcansuppor
tupt
o16Mbps.

Cat
egor
y4: I
tcansuppor
tupt
o20Mbps.Ther
efor
e,i
tcanbeusedf
orl
ong-
dist
ance
communicat
ion.

Cat
egor
y5:
Itcansuppor
tupt
o200Mbps.

Adv
ant
agesOfUnshi
eldedTwi
stedPai
r:

I
tischeap.

I
nst
all
ati
onoft
heunshi
eldedt
wist
edpai
riseasy
.

I
tcanbeusedf
orhi
gh-
speedLAN.

Di
sadv
ant
age:

Thi
scabl
ecanonl
ybeusedf
orshor
terdi
stancesbecauseofat
tenuat
ion.

Shi
eldedTwi
stedPai
r

Ashiel
dedtwi
stedpairisacabl
ethatcont
ainst
hemeshsur
roundi
ngt
hewi
ret
hatal
l
owst
he
hi
ghertr
ansmi
ssionrate.

Char
act
eri
sti
csOfShi
eldedTwi
stedPai
r:

Thecostoft
heshi
eldedt
wist
edpai
rcabl
eisnotv
eryhi
ghandnotv
eryl
ow.

Ani
nst
all
ati
onofSTPi
seasy
.

I
thashi
ghercapaci
tyascompar
edt
ounshi
eldedt
wist
edpai
rcabl
e.

I
thasahi
gherat
tenuat
ion.

I
tisshi
eldedt
hatpr
ovi
dest
hehi
gherdat
atr
ansmi
ssi
onr
ate.

Di
sadv
ant
ages

I
tismor
eexpensi
veascompar
edt
oUTPandcoaxi
alcabl
e.

I
thasahi
gherat
tenuat
ionr
ate.

Coaxi
alCabl
e

Coaxi
alcabl
eisv
erycommonl
yusedt
ransmi
ssi
onmedi
a,f
orexampl
e,TVwi
rei
susual
l
ya
coaxi
alcabl
e.
Thenameoft
hecabl
eiscoaxi
alasi
tcont
ainst
woconduct
orspar
all
elt
oeachot
her
.

I
thasahi
gherf
requencyascompar
edt
oTwi
stedpai
rcabl
e.

Theinnerconduct
orofthecoaxi
alcabl
eismadeupofcopper
,andtheouterconduct
ori
smade
upofcoppermesh.Themi ddl
ecoreismadeupofnon-
conducti
vecovert
hatseparat
esthe
i
nnerconductorfr
om t
heouterconduct
or.

Themiddl
ecorei
sresponsi
blefort
hedatatr
ansf
err
ingwher
east
hecoppermeshpr
event
s
fr
om t
heEMI(El
ect
romagneti
cinter
fer
ence)
.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onmedi
a

Coaxi
alcabl
eisoft
wot
ypes:

Basebandt
ransmi
ssi
on:
Iti
sdef
inedast
hepr
ocessoft
ransmi
tt
ingasi
ngl
esi
gnal
athi
gh
speed.

Br
oadbandtransmi
ssi
on:
Iti
sdef
inedast
hepr
ocessoft
ransmi
tt
ingmul
ti
plesi
gnal
s
si
mult
aneously.

Adv
ant
agesOfCoaxi
alcabl
e:

Thedat
acanbet
ransmi
tt
edathi
ghspeed.

I
thasbet
tershi
eldi
ngascompar
edt
otwi
stedpai
rcabl
e.

I
tpr
ovi
deshi
gherbandwi
dth.

Di
sadv
ant
agesOfCoaxi
alcabl
e:

I
tismor
eexpensi
veascompar
edt
otwi
stedpai
rcabl
e.

I
fanyf
aul
toccur
sint
hecabl
ecausest
hef
ail
urei
ntheent
ir
enet
wor
k.

Fi
breOpt
ic

Fi
breopt
iccabl
eisacabl
ethatusesel
ect
ri
cal
signal
sforcommuni
cat
ion.

Fi
breopt
icisacablet
hathol
dst
heopt
ical
fibr
escoat
edi
npl
ast
ict
hatar
eusedt
osendt
he
dat
abypulsesofl
ight
.

Theplasti
ccoat
ingpr
otect
stheopt
ical
fibr
esf
rom heat
,col
d,el
ect
romagnet
ici
nter
fer
ence
fr
om otherty
pesofwir
ing.

Fi
breopt
icspr
ovi
def
ast
erdat
atr
ansmi
ssi
ont
hancopperwi
res.

Di
agr
ammat
icr
epr
esent
ati
onoff
ibr
eopt
iccabl
e:
Tr
ansmi
ssi
onmedi
a

Basi
cel
ement
sofFi
breopt
iccabl
e:

Core:
Theopti
cal
fibr
econsistsofanarrowst
randofglassorpl
asti
cknownasacore.Acor
eis
ali
ghttr
ansmi
ssi
onar eaofthefi
bre.Themor
et hear
eaofthecore,t
hemorel
ightwi
llbe
tr
ansmit
tedi
ntot
hefibre.

Cl
addi
ng:Theconcentr
iclay
erofglassi
sknownascl addi
ng.Themai nfunct
ional
i
tyofthe
cl
addi
ngistoprov
idethelowerref
ract
ivei
ndexatthecoreint
erfaceastocausetheref
lect
ion
wi
thi
nthecoresothattheli
ghtwavesaretr
ansmit
tedthroughthefibr
e.

Jacket
:Theprot
ecti
vecoat
ingconsi
sti
ngofplast
ici
sknownasajacket
.Themainpur
poseofa
j
acketist
opreserv
ethefi
brestr
engt
h,absor
bshockandextr
afi
breprot
ecti
on.

Fol
l
owi
ngar
etheadv
ant
agesoff
ibr
eopt
iccabl
eov
ercopper
:

GreaterBandwi
dth:Thefi
breopti
ccabl
eprov
idesmor
ebandwidt
hascompar
edcopper
.
Therefor
e,thef
ibr
eopticcarr
iesmoredat
aascompar
edtocoppercabl
e.

Fast
erspeed:Fibr
eopt i
ccabl
ecarri
esthedatai
nthef
orm ofl
i
ght
.Thi
sal
l
owst
hef
ibr
eopt
ic
cabl
etocarrythesignal
satahigherspeed.

Longerdist
ances:
Thef
ibr
eopt
iccabl
ecar
ri
est
hedat
aatal
ongerdi
stanceascompar
edt
o
coppercable.

Bett
errel
i
abil
it
y:Thefi
breopt
iccablei
smor erel
i
ablet
hanthecoppercableasiti
simmunet
o
anytemperat
urechangeswhi
leitcancauseobstr
ucti
ntheconnect
ivi
tyofcoppercabl
e.

Thi
nnerandSt
urdi
er:
Fibr
eopticcabl
eist
hinnerandl
i
ght
eri
nwei
ghtsoi
tcanwi
thst
andmor
e
pul
lpr
essuret
hancoppercabl
e.

UnGui
dedTr
ansmi
ssi
on

Anungui
dedt
ransmi
ssiontr
ansmi
tst
heelectr
omagnet
icwav
eswi
thoutusi
nganyphy
sical
medi
um.Ther
eforei
tisal
soknownaswi
relesstr
ansmi
ssi
on.

I
nungui
dedmedi
a,ai
rist
hemedi
athr
oughwhi
cht
heel
ect
romagnet
icener
gycanf
loweasi
l
y.

Ungui
dedt
ransmi
ssi
oni
sbr
oadl
ycl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hreecat
egor
ies:

Radi
owav
es

Radi
owav
esar
etheel
ect
romagnet
icwav
est
hatar
etr
ansmi
tt
edi
nal
lthedi
rect
ionsoff
ree
space.

Radi
owav
esar
eomni
dir
ect
ional
,i
.e.
,thesi
gnal
sar
epr
opagat
edi
nal
lthedi
rect
ions.

Ther
angei
nfr
equenci
esofr
adi
owav
esi
sfr
om 3Khzt
o1khz.

I
nthecaseofr
adi
owaves,t
hesendi
ngandreceivi
ngant
ennaarenotal
i
gned,
i.
e.,
thewav
esent
byt
hesendi
ngant
ennacanberecei
vedbyanyrecei
vi
ngantenna.

Anexampl
eoft
her
adi
owav
eisFM r
adi
o.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onmedi
a

Appl
i
cat
ionsOfRadi
owav
es:

ARadi
owav
eisusef
ulf
ormul
ti
cast
ingwhent
her
eisonesenderandmanyr
ecei
ver
s.

AnFM r
adi
o,t
elev
isi
on,
cor
dlessphonesar
eexampl
esofar
adi
owav
e.

Adv
ant
agesOfRadi
otr
ansmi
ssi
on:

Radi
otr
ansmi
ssi
oni
smai
nlyusedf
orwi
dear
eanet
wor
ksandmobi
l
ecel
l
ularphones.

Radi
owav
escov
eral
argear
ea,
andt
heycanpenet
rat
ethewal
l
s.

Radi
otr
ansmi
ssi
onpr
ovi
desahi
ghert
ransmi
ssi
onr
ate.

Mi
crowav
es

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onmedi
a

Mi
crowav
esar
eoft
wot
ypes:

1,
Ter
rest
ri
almi
crowav
e

2,
Sat
ell
i
temi
crowav
ecommuni
cat
ion.

Ter
rest
ri
alMi
crowav
eTr
ansmi
ssi
on

Ter
rest
ri
alMicr
owavetr
ansmissi
onisatechnol
ogythatt
ransmit
sthefocusedbeam ofar
adi
o
si
gnalf
rom onegr
ound-
basedmicrowav
et r
ansmissi
onantennatoanother
.

Micr
owavesar
etheel
ect
romagnet
icwav
eshav
ingt
hef
requencyi
nther
angef
rom 1GHzt
o
1000GHz.

Micr
owavesareuni
dir
ecti
onal
asthesendi
ngandreceiv
ingant
ennai
stobeal
i
gned,
i.
e.,
the
wavessentbyt
hesendingant
ennaar
enarrowl
yfocussed.

I
nthi
scase,
ant
ennasar
emount
edont
het
ower
stosendabeam t
oanot
herant
ennawhi
chi
s
km away
.

I
twor ksonthelineofsightt
ransmi
ssi
on,
i.
e.,
theant
ennasmount
edont
het
ower
sar
ethe
di
rectsightofeachother.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofMi
crowav
e:

Fr
equencyr
ange:
Thef
requencyr
angeoft
err
est
ri
almi
crowav
eisf
rom 4-
6GHzt
o21-
23GHz.

Bandwi
dth:
Itsuppor
tst
hebandwi
dthf
rom 1t
o10Mbps.

Shor
tdi
stance:
Iti
sinexpensi
vef
orshor
tdi
stance.

Longdi
stance:
Iti
sexpensi
veasi
trequi
resahi
ghert
owerf
oral
ongerdi
stance.

Att
enuat
ion:Att
enuat
ionmeansl
ossofsi
gnal
.Iti
saf
fect
edbyenv
ironment
alcondi
ti
onsand
ant
ennasize.

Adv
ant
agesOfMi
crowav
e:

Mi
crowav
etr
ansmi
ssi
oni
scheapert
hanusi
ngcabl
es.

I
tisf
reef
rom l
andacqui
sit
ionasi
tdoesnotr
equi
reanyl
andf
ort
hei
nst
all
ati
onofcabl
es.

Microwavet
ransmi
ssi
onprovidesaneasycommuni
cat
ioni
nter
rai
nsast
hei
nst
all
ati
onofcabl
e
i
nt er
rai
nisqui
teadi
ff
icul
ttask.

Communi
cat
ionov
eroceanscanbeachi
evedbyusi
ngmi
crowav
etr
ansmi
ssi
on.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofMi
crowav
etr
ansmi
ssi
on:

Eavesdropping:
Aneavesdr
oppi
ngcr
eat
esinsecurecommuni
cat
ion.Anymal
i
cioususercan
cat
cht hesignali
ntheai
rbyusi
ngi
tsownantenna.

Outofphasesi
gnal
:Asi
gnal
canbemov
edoutofphasebyusi
ngmi
crowav
etr
ansmi
ssi
on.

Suscept
ibl
etoweathercondi
ti
on:Amicrowavetr
ansmissi
onissuscepti
blet
oweathercondi
ti
on.
Thi
smeanst hatanyenvi
ronment
alchangesuchasrai
n,windcandistor
tthesi
gnal
.

Bandwi
dthl
i
mit
ed:
All
ocat
ionofbandwi
dthi
sli
mit
edi
nthecaseofmi
crowav
etr
ansmi
ssi
on.

Sat
ell
i
teMi
crowav
eCommuni
cat
ion

Asat
ell
i
tei
saphy
sical
obj
ectt
hatr
evol
vesar
oundt
heear
thataknownhei
ght
.

Satel
l
itecommuni
cat
ioni
smor
erel
i
abl
enowaday
sasi
tof
fer
smor
efl
exi
bil
i
tyt
hancabl
eand
fi
breopti
csyst
ems.

Wecancommuni
cat
ewi
thanypoi
ntont
hegl
obebyusi
ngsat
ell
i
tecommuni
cat
ion.
HowDoesSat
ell
i
tewor
k?

Thesat
ell
i
teacceptsthesignalt
hati
str
ansmit
tedf
rom t
heear
thstat
ion,
andi
tampl
i
fiest
he
si
gnal
.Theamplif
iedsignali
sretr
ansmi
tt
edtoanot
hereart
hst
ati
on.

Adv
ant
agesOfSat
ell
i
teMi
crowav
eCommuni
cat
ion:

Thecov
eragear
eaofasat
ell
i
temi
crowav
eismor
ethant
het
err
est
ri
almi
crowav
e.

Thetr
ansmi
ssi
oncostoft
hesat
ell
i
tei
sindependentoft
hedi
stancef
rom t
hecent
reoft
he
cover
agear
ea.

Sat
ell
i
tecommuni
cat
ioni
susedi
nmobi
l
eandwi
rel
esscommuni
cat
ionappl
i
cat
ions.

I
tiseasyt
oinst
all
.

I
tisusedi
nawi dev
ari
etyofappli
cati
onssuchasweat
herf
orecast
ing,
radi
o/TVsi
gnal
br
oadcast
ing,
mobil
ecommuni cat
ion,et
c.

Di
sadv
ant
agesOfSat
ell
i
teMi
crowav
eCommuni
cat
ion:

Sat
ell
i
tedesi
gni
nganddev
elopmentr
equi
resmor
eti
meandhi
ghercost
.

TheSat
ell
i
teneedst
obemoni
tor
edandcont
rol
l
edonr
egul
arper
iodssot
hati
tremai
nsi
nor
bit
.

Thel
if
eoft
hesatel
l
itei
sabout12-
15year
s.Duet ot
hisr
eason,
anot
herl
aunchoft
hesat
ell
i
te
hast
obepl
annedbefor
eitbecomesnon-
funct
ional
.

I
nfr
ared

Ani
nfr
aredt
ransmi
ssi
oni
sawi
rel
esst
echnol
ogyusedf
orcommuni
cat
ionov
ershor
tranges.

Thef
requencyoft
hei
nfr
aredi
nther
angef
rom 300GHzt
o400THz.

Iti
susedforshor
t-
rangecommunicat
ionsuchasdatatr
ansferbet
weentwocel
lphones,
TV
remoteoper
ati
on,datat
ransf
erbet
weenacomput erandcel
lphoneresi
desi
nthesameclosed
area.

Char
act
eri
sti
csOfI
nfr
ared:

I
tsuppor
tshi
ghbandwi
dth,
andhencet
hedat
arat
ewi
l
lbev
eryhi
gh.

Inf
rar
edwavescannotpenet
rat
ethewal
ls.Ther
efor
e,t
hei
nfr
aredcommuni
cat
ioni
noner
oom
cannotbei
nter
rupt
edbythenearbyr
ooms.

Ani
nfr
aredcommuni
cat
ionpr
ovi
desbet
tersecur
it
ywi
thmi
nimum i
nter
fer
ence.

I
nfr
aredcommunicat
ioni
sunr
eli
abl
eout
sidet
hebui
l
dingbecauset
hesunr
ayswi
l
lint
erf
ere
wi
ththeinf
rar
edwaves.
Whati
sMul
ti
plexi
ng?

Mult
ipl
exi
ngisat echni
queusedtocombineandsendthemul
ti
pledat
ast r
eamsoverasingl
e
medium.Theprocessofcombini
ngthedatastreamsi
sknownasmulti
plexi
ngandhardware
usedformul
ti
plexingisknownasamult
iplexer
.

Multi
plexi
ngisachi
evedbyusingadev
icecal
l
edMult
ipl
exer(MUX)thatcombi
nesninputl
i
nes
togenerateasi
ngleout
putl
ine.Mul
ti
plexi
ngf
oll
owsmany-t
o-one,
i.
e.,ni
nputl
i
nesandone
outputli
ne.

Demulti
plexi
ngi
sachievedbyusi
ngadev i
cecall
edDemult
ipl
exer(DEMUX)av ai
labl
eatt
he
recei
vi
ngend.DEMUXsepar at
esasignali
ntoit
scomponentsignal
s(oneinputandnout
puts)
.
Theref
ore,wecansaythatdemul
ti
plexi
ngfol
lowstheone-
to-
manyappr oach.

WhyMul
ti
plexi
ng?

Thetr
ansmissi
onmedium i
susedt
osendt
hesi
gnal
from sendert
orecei
ver
.Themedi
um can
onl
yhaveonesignal
atati
me.

I
ftherearemult
ipl
esi
gnalstoshareonemedium, t
henthemedium mustbedi vi
dedinsucha
waythateachsi
gnali
sgivensomepor t
ionoftheavai
labl
ebandwidth.Forexample:
Ifther
ear
e
10signal
sandbandwidt
hofmedi um i
s100units,
thenthe10uniti
sshar edbyeachsignal
.

Whenmulti
plesi
gnalssharet
hecommonmedi um,t
her
eisapossi
bil
i
tyofcol
l
isi
on.
Mul
ti
plexi
ngconceptisusedtoav
oidsuchcol
l
isi
on.

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onser
vicesar
ever
yexpensi
ve.

Hi
stor
yofMul
ti
plexi
ng

Mult
ipl
exi
ngtechni
queiswi
del
yusedi
ntel
ecommuni
cat
ionsi
nwhi
chsev
eral
tel
ephonecal
l
s
ar
ecarri
edthr
oughasingl
ewir
e.

Mult
ipl
exi
ngorigi
nat
edi
ntel
egr
aphyi
ntheear
ly1870sandi
snowwi
del
yusedi
n
communicat
ion.

Geor
geOwenSqui
erdev
elopedt
het
elephonecar
ri
ermul
ti
plexi
ngi
n1910.

ConceptofMul
ti
plexi
ng
Mul
ti
plexi
ng

The'n'
inputl
i
nesar
etr
ansmi
tt
edt
hroughamul
ti
plexerandmul
ti
plexercombi
nest
hesi
gnal
sto
for
m acomposit
esi
gnal
.

Thecomposit
esignali
spassedthr
oughaDemultipl
exeranddemul t
ipl
exersepar
atesasi
gnal
tocomponentsi
gnalsandt
ransf
ersthem t
othei
rrespect
ivedest
inati
ons.

Adv
ant
agesofMul
ti
plexi
ng:

Mor
ethanonesi
gnal
canbesentov
erasi
ngl
emedi
um.

Thebandwi
dthofamedi
um canbeut
il
izedef
fect
ivel
y.

Mul
ti
plexi
ngTechni
ques

Mul
ti
plexi
ngt
echni
quescanbecl
assi
fi
edas:

Mul
ti
plexi
ngTechni
ques

Fr
equency
-di
vi
sionMul
ti
plexi
ng(
FDM)

I
tisananal
ogt
echni
que.

FrequencyDiv
isi
onMulti
plexi
ngisat
echniqueinwhi cht
heav
ail
abl
ebandwi
dthofasi
ngl
e
tr
ansmi ssi
onmedium i
ssubdivi
dedi
ntoseveralchannel
s.

Mul
ti
plexi
ngTechni
ques

Intheabovedi
agram,asi
ngletr
ansmissionmedi
um i
ssubdiv
idedint
osever
alf
requency
channel
s,andeachfr
equencychanneli
sgivent
odif
fer
entdevi
ces.Devi
ce1hasafrequency
channelofr
angefrom 1t
o5.

Theinputsi
gnal
sar
etr
anslatedint
ofrequencybandsbyusingmodul
ati
ont
echni
ques,
andt
hey
arecombinedbyamul
ti
plexertofor
m acomposi t
esignal
.

Themainaim oftheFDM i
stosubdi
videt
heav ai
l
abl
ebandwi
dthi
ntodi
ff
erentf
requency
channel
sandallocat
ethem t
odi
ffer
entdevi
ces.

Usingthemodul
ati
ontechni
que,
thei
nputsi
gnal
sar
etr
ansmi
tt
edi
ntof
requencybandsand
thencombinedt
oform acomposi
tesi
gnal
.

Thecarri
erswhi
chareusedf
ormodul
ati
ngt
hesi
gnal
sar
eknownassub-
car
ri
ers.Theyar
e
repr
esentedasf
1,f
2..
fn.

FDM i
smai
nlyusedi
nradi
obr
oadcast
sandTVnet
wor
ks.
Mul
ti
plexi
ngTechni
ques

Adv
ant
agesOfFDM:

FDM i
susedf
oranal
ogsi
gnal
s.

FDM pr
ocessi
sver
ysi
mpl
eandeasymodul
ati
on.

ALar
genumberofsi
gnal
scanbesentt
hroughanFDM si
mul
taneousl
y.

I
tdoesnotr
equi
reanysy
nchr
oni
zat
ionbet
weensenderandr
ecei
ver
.

Di
sadv
ant
agesOfFDM:

FDM t
echni
quei
susedonl
ywhenl
ow-
speedchannel
sar
erequi
red.

I
tsuf
fer
sthepr
obl
em ofcr
osst
alk.

ALar
genumberofmodul
ator
sar
erequi
red.

I
trequi
resahi
ghbandwi
dthchannel
.

Appl
i
cat
ionsOfFDM:

FDM i
scommonl
yusedi
nTVnet
wor
ks.

Iti
susedinFM andAM br
oadcast
ing.EachFM r
adi
ostati
onhasdi
ffer
entfr
equenci
es,
andthey
aremult
ipl
exedtofor
m acomposi
tesignal
.Themult
ipl
exedsi
gnal
istransmit
tedi
ntheai
r.

Wav
elengt
hDi
vi
sionMul
ti
plexi
ng(
WDM)

Mul
ti
plexi
ngTechni
ques

Wavel
engthDi
visi
onMul
ti
plexi
ngissameasFDM exceptt
hatt
heopt
ical
signal
sar
e
t
ransmi
ttedt
hrought
hef
ibreopti
ccabl
e.

WDM i
susedonf
ibr
eopt
icst
oincr
easet
hecapaci
tyofasi
ngl
efi
bre.

I
tisusedt
out
il
izet
hehi
ghdat
arat
ecapabi
l
ityoff
ibr
eopt
iccabl
e.

I
tisananal
ogmul
ti
plexi
ngt
echni
que.

Opt
icalsi
gnalsf
rom di
ff
erentsour
cear
ecombi
nedt
ofor
m awi
derbandofl
i
ghtwi
tht
hehel
pof
mul
tipl
exer.
Attherecei
vi
ngend,
demul
ti
plexersepar
atest
hesi
gnal
stot
ransmi
tthem t
othei
rrespect
ive
desti
nati
ons.

Mul
ti
plexi
ngandDemul
ti
plexi
ngcanbeachi
evedbyusi
ngapr
ism.

Pri
sm canperf
orm arol
eofmult
ipl
exerbycombini
ngt
hevari
ousopt
icalsi
gnalstof
orma
composit
esignal
,andthecomposi
tesignal
ist
ransmi
tt
edthr
oughafibr
eoptical
cabl
e.

Pr
ism al
soper
for
msar
ever
seoper
ati
on,
i.
e.,
demul
ti
plexi
ngt
hesi
gnal
.

Mul
ti
plexi
ngTechni
ques

Ti
meDi
vi
sionMul
ti
plexi
ng

I
tisadi
git
alt
echni
que.

I
nFrequencyDivi
sionMult
ipl
exi
ngTechni
que,all
signalsoper
ateatthesamet
imewithdi
ff
erent
f
requency,
butincaseofTimeDivi
sionMul
ti
plexi
ngt echni
que,al
lsi
gnal
soper
ateatt
hesame
f
requencywit
hdiff
erentt
ime.

InTi
meDivisi
onMul t
ipl
exi
ngtechnique,
thetot
alti
meav ai
labl
einthechannel
isdistr
ibut
ed
amongdif
ferentuser
s.Theref
ore,eachuseri
sall
ocat
edwi thdi
ff
erentt
imeinter
valknownasa
Timesl
otatwhichdataistobet r
ansmitt
edbythesender.

Ausert
akescont
rol
oft
hechannel
foraf
ixedamountoft
ime.

I
nTimeDi
visi
onMul
ti
plexi
ngt
echni
que,
dat
aisnott
ransmi
tt
edsi
mul
taneousl
yrat
hert
hedat
a
i
str
ansmi
tt
edone-
by-
one.

I
nTDM,thesi
gnal
istr
ansmit
tedi
nthefor
m offr
ames.Fr
amescontai
nacy
cleoft
imesl
otsi
n
whi
cheachfr
amecontai
nsoneormoresl
otsdedi
cat
edtoeachuser
.

Itcanbeusedt
omul
ti
plexbot
hdi
git
alandanal
ogsi
gnal
sbutmai
nlyusedt
omul
ti
plexdi
git
al
signal
s.

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofTDM:

Sy
nchr
onousTDM

Asy
nchr
onousTDM

Sy
nchr
onousTDM

ASy
nchr
onousTDM i
sat
echni
quei
nwhi
cht
imesl
oti
spr
eassi
gnedt
oev
erydev
ice.

I
nSy
nchr
onousTDM,
eachdev
icei
sgi
vensomet
imesl
oti
rr
espect
iveoft
hef
actt
hatt
hedev
ice
cont
ainst
hedat
aornot
.

I
fthedev
icedoesnothav
eanydat
a,t
hent
hesl
otwi
l
lremai
nempt
y.

I
nSy nchronousTDM,si
gnalsar
esentinthef
orm off
rames.Ti
meslotsareor
gani
zedint
he
for
m offrames.Ifadev
icedoesnothavedat
aforapart
icul
art
imeslot
,thent
heemptysl
otwi
l
l
betransmitt
ed.

Themostpopul
arSy
nchr
onousTDM ar
eT-
1mul
ti
plexi
ng,
ISDNmul
ti
plexi
ng,
andSONET
mult
ipl
exi
ng.

I
fther
ear
endev
ices,
thent
her
ear
ensl
ots.

Mul
ti
plexi
ngTechni
ques

ConceptOfSy
nchr
onousTDM

Mul
ti
plexi
ngTechni
ques

I
ntheabov
ef i
gur
e,t
heSynchr
onousTDM techni
quei
simpl ement
ed.Eachdevi
ceisall
ocat
ed
wi
thsometimesl
ot.Thet
imeslot
saret
ransmitt
edir
respecti
veofwhethert
hesenderhasdat
a
t
osendornot.

Di
sadv
ant
agesOfSy
nchr
onousTDM:

Thecapaci t
yofthechanneli
snotfull
yut
ili
zedastheemptyslot
sarealsotransmitt
edwhichi
s
havingnodat a.I
ntheabovefi
gure,
thefi
rstfr
ameiscompletel
yfi
ll
ed,buti
nt helastt
wof r
ames,
somesl otsareempty.Ther
efor
e,wecansayt hatt
hecapaci
tyofthechannelisnotuti
li
zed
eff
icient
ly.

Thespeedofthetr
ansmi
ssi
onmedi
um shoul
dbegreat
ert
hanthet
otal
speedoft
heinputl
ines.
Analt
ernat
iveappr
oacht
otheSy
nchr
onousTDM i
sAsynchr
onousTi
meDivisi
onMul
tipl
exi
ng.

Asy
nchr
onousTDM

Anasy
nchr
onousTDM i
sal
soknownasSt
ati
sti
cal
TDM.

AnasynchronousTDM i satechni
quei nwhicht
imeslotsar
enotf ixedasinthecaseof
Synchr
onousTDM.Ti mesl otsareall
ocatedtoonl
ythosedeviceswhi chhav
et hedatatosend.
Theref
ore,wecansayt hatAsynchronousTimeDivi
sionmult
iplexortransmi
tsonlythedata
fr
om acti
vewor kst
ati
ons.
Anasy
nchr
onousTDM t
echni
quedy
nami
cal
l
yal
l
ocat
est
het
imesl
otst
othedev
ices.

InAsynchr
onousTDM,
tot
alspeedoft
hei
nputl
i
nescanbegr
eat
ert
hant
hecapaci
tyoft
he
channel
.

AsynchronousTi
meDi v
isi
onmult
ipl
exoracceptsthei
ncomi
ngdat
ast
reamsandcr
eat
esa
fr
amet hatcont
ainsonl
ydatawi
thnoempt yslot
s.

I
nAsy
nchr
onousTDM,
eachsl
otcont
ainsanaddr
esspar
tthati
dent
if
iest
hesour
ceoft
hedat
a.

Mul
ti
plexi
ngTechni
ques

Thedif
fer
encebetweenAsynchronousTDM andSy nchr
onousTDM isthatmanysl ot
sin
Synchr
onousTDM areunut
il
ized,buti
nAsy nchronousTDM, slot
sareful
lyut
il
ized.Thisl
eadst
o
thesmall
ert
ransmissi
onti
meandef f
ici
entuti
li
zati
onoft hecapaci
tyoft
hechannel .

I
nSy nchronousTDM,
iftherearensendingdev
ices,
thentherearent
imesl
ots.I
n
AsynchronousTDM,i
ftherearensendingdevi
ces,t
hentherearem t
imesl
otswher
em i
sless
thann(m<n) .

Thenumberofsl
otsi
naf
ramedependsont
hest
ati
sti
cal
anal
ysi
soft
henumberofi
nputl
i
nes.

ConceptOfAsy
nchr
onousTDM

Mul
ti
plexi
ngTechni
ques

I
ntheabovediagr
am,t
herear
e4devi
ces,
butonl
ytwodevicesar
esendingthedat
a,i
.e.
,Aand
C.Ther
efor
e,t
hedataofAandCar
eonlytr
ansmi
ttedt
hroughthetr
ansmissi
onli
ne.

Fr
ameofabov
edi
agr
am canber
epr
esent
edas:

Mul
ti
plexi
ngTechni
ques

Theabov
efi
gur
eshowst
hatt
hedat
apar
tcont
ainst
headdr
esst
odet
ermi
net
hesour
ceoft
he
dat
a.

Swi
tchi
ng
Whenauseraccessest heint
ernetoranot
hercomputernet
workoutsidethei
rimmediat
e
l
ocati
on, messagesaresentt
hroughthenetworkoft
ransmissi
onmedi a.Thi
stechni
queof
tr
ansferr
ingtheinf
ormati
onfrom onecomputernet
worktoanothernetworkisknownas
swit
ching.

Swi
tchi
ngi
nacomput
ernetwor
kisachi
evedbyusingswitches.Aswi
tchisasmall
hardwar
e
dev
icewhi
chi
susedt
ojoi
nmulti
plecomputer
stogetherwithonel
ocalar
eanetwor
k(LAN).

Net
wor
kswi
tchesoper
ateatl
ayer2(
Dat
ali
nkl
ayer
)int
heOSImodel
.

Swi
tchi
ngi
str
anspar
entt
otheuseranddoesnotr
equi
reanyconf
igur
ati
oni
nthehomenet
wor
k.

Swi
tchesar
eusedt
ofor
war
dthepacket
sbasedonMACaddr
esses.

ASwi t
chisusedtotr
ansf
erthedataonlytothedevi
cethathasbeenaddr
essed.I
tver
if
iest
he
dest
inati
onaddresst
orout
et hepacketappr
opri
atel
y.

I
tisoper
atedi
nful
ldupl
exmode.

Packetcol
l
isi
oni
smi
nimum asi
tdi
rect
lycommuni
cat
esbet
weensour
ceanddest
inat
ion.

I
tdoesnotbr
oadcastt
hemessageasi
twor
kswi
thl
i
mit
edbandwi
dth.

Whyi
sSwi
tchi
ngConceptr
equi
red?

Swi
tchi
ngconcepti
sdev
elopedbecauseoft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons:

Bandwidt
h:Iti
sdefinedasthemaxi
mum t
ransf
errateofacabl
e.I
tisaverycri
ti
caland
expensi
veresour
ce.Theref
ore,
swit
chi
ngt
echniquesareusedf
ortheef
fecti
veuti
li
zati
onoft
he
bandwidt
hofanet work.

Coll
isi
on:Coll
isi
oni stheef
fectthatoccur
swhenmor ethanonedevi
cetransmit
sthemessage
overthesamephy si
calmedia,andtheycol
li
dewitheachother
.Toover
comet hi
sprobl
em,
swit
chingtechnologyisimplementedsothatpacket
sdonotcolli
dewit
heachother.

Adv
ant
agesofSwi
tchi
ng:

Swi
tchi
ncr
easest
hebandwi
dthoft
henet
wor
k.

I
treducest
heworkloadoni
ndi
vi
dual
PCsasi
tsendst
hei
nfor
mat
iont
oonl
ythatdev
icewhi
ch
hasbeenaddr
essed.
I
tincr
easest
heov
eral
lper
for
manceoft
henet
wor
kbyr
educi
ngt
het
raf
fi
cont
henet
wor
k.

Ther
ewi
l
lbel
essf
ramecol
l
isi
onasswi
tchcr
eat
est
hecol
l
isi
ondomai
nforeachconnect
ion.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofSwi
tchi
ng:

ASwi
tchi
smor
eexpensi
vet
hannet
wor
kbr
idges.

ASwi
tchcannotdet
ermi
net
henet
wor
kconnect
ivi
tyi
ssueseasi
l
y.

Pr
operdesi
gni
ngandconf
igur
ati
onoft
heswi
tchar
erequi
redt
ohandl
emul
ti
castpacket
s.

Swi
tchi
ngModes

Thelayer2swit
chesareusedfort
ransmi
tt
ingthedat
aonthedat
ali
nkl
ayer
,andi
tal
so
per
formserrorchecki
ngontr
ansmitt
edandrecei
vedfr
ames.

Thel
ayer2swi
tchesf
orwar
dthepacket
swi
tht
hehel
pofMACaddr
ess.

Di
ff
erentmodesar
eusedf
orf
orwar
dingt
hepacket
sknownasSwi
tchi
ngmodes.

I
nswitchi
ngmode,
Dif
fer
entpart
sofafr
amearerecogni
zed.Thef
rameconsist
sofsever
al
par
tssuchaspr
eambl
e,dest
inat
ionMACaddr
ess,sour
ceMACaddr ess,
user
'sdat
a,FCS.

Swi
tchi
ngModes

Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofswi
tchi
ngmodes:

St
ore-
and-
for
war
d

Cut
-t
hrough

Fr
agment
-f
ree

Swi
tchi
ngModes

St
ore-
and-
for
war
d

Swi
tchi
ngModes

Store-
and-
forwar
disatechni
queinwhicht
heinter
medi
atenodesst
oret
her
ecei
vedf
rameand
thencheckforer
ror
sbeforef
orwardi
ngthepacket
stot
henextnode.

Thel
ayer2swi
tchwai
tsunt
ilt
heent
ir
efr
amehasr
ecei
ved.Onr
ecei
vi
ngt
heent
ir
efr
ame,
swit
chst
oret
hef
ramei
ntot
heswi
tchbuf
fermemor
y.Thi
spr
ocessi
sknownasst
ori
ngt
he
fr
ame.

Whenthef
ramei sstor
ed,thenthefr
ameischeckedfort
heerr
ors.I
fanyer
rorfound,the
messagei
sdiscardedotherwi
sethemessageisfor
wardedt
othenextnode.Thisprocessi
s
knownasfor
wardingtheframe.

CRC( Cy
cli
cRedundancyCheck)techni
quei
simpl
ement
edt
hatusesanumberofbi
tst
ocheck
fort
heerror
sontherecei
vedframe.

Thestor
e-and-
for
wardtechni
queensur
esahi
ghl
evel
ofsecur
it
yast
hedest
inat
ionnet
wor
kwi
l
l
notbeaff
ectedbythecorr
uptedf
rames.

St
ore-
and-
for
war
dswi
tchesar
ehi
ghl
yrel
i
abl
easi
tdoesnotf
orwar
dthecol
l
idedf
rames.

Cut
-t
hroughSwi
tchi
ng

Swi
tchi
ngModes

Cut-
throughswi
tchi
ngi
satechniqueinwhi
chtheswi
tchfor
war
dsthepacket
saft
erthe
dest
inati
onaddr
esshasbeenidenti
fi
edwit
houtwai
ti
ngfort
heent
ir
eframetoberecei
ved.

Oncethefr
amei sr
ecei
v ed,
itchecksthefir
stsi
xbyt
esofthef
ramefol
l
owi ngthepreambl
e,the
swit
chchecksthedest
inati
onintheswi t
chingt
abl
etodet
ermi
netheoutgoingint
erf
aceport
,
andforwar
dsthefr
amet othedestinat
ion.

Ithaslowlat
encyrateast
heswitchdoesnotwai
tfort
heent
ir
efr
amet
ober
ecei
vedbef
ore
sendingthepacket
stothedest
inat
ion.

I
thasnoerr
orchecki
ngt
echni
que.Ther
efor
e,t
heer
ror
scanbesentwi
thorwi
thouter
ror
sto
t
herecei
ver
.

ACut-
thr
oughswitchi
ngtechni
quehasl
owwai
tti
measi
tfor
war
dst
hepacket
sassoonasi
t
i
dent
if
iesthedest
inat
ionMACaddress.

I
nthi
stechni
que,
col
l
isi
oni
snotdet
ect
ed,
iff
rameshav
ecol
l
idedwi
l
lal
sobef
orwar
ded.

Fr
agment
-f
reeSwi
tchi
ng

Swi
tchi
ngModes

AFr
agment
-f
reeswi
tchi
ngi
sanadv
ancedt
echni
queoft
heCut
-t
hroughSwi
tchi
ng.

AFragment
-fr
eeswitchi
ngisatechni
quethatreadsat
least64byt
esofaf
ramebef
ore
f
orwardi
ngtothenextnodetoprovi
detheerr
or-fr
eetr
ansmissi
on.

I
tcombi
nest
hespeedofCut
-t
hroughSwi
tchi
ngwi
tht
heer
rorchecki
ngf
unct
ional
i
ty.
Thistechni
quecheckst
he64by
tesoft
heet
her
netf
ramewher
eaddr
essi
ngi
nfor
mat
ioni
s
avail
able.

Acol
li
sioni
sdetect
edwi
thi
n64by
tesoft
hef
rame,
thef
rameswhi
char
ecol
l
idedwi
l
lnotbe
f
orwar
dedfurt
her.

Di
ff
erencesb/
wSt
ore-
and-
for
war
dandCut
-t
hroughSwi
tchi
ng.

St
ore-
and-
for
war
dSwi
tchi
ngCut
-t
hroughSwi
tchi
ng

Store-and-
forwardSwit
chingisat
echni
quethatwait
sunt
ilt
heenti
reframeisrecei
ved. Cut
-
throughSwi t
chingi
sat echni
quet
hatchecksthef
ir
st6byt
esfol
lowingthepreambletoi
denti
fy
thedest i
nati
onaddress.

I
tperf
ormserrorchecki
ngfunct
ional
it
y.I
fanyerr
ori
sfoundi
ntheframe,thef
ramewi l
lbe
di
scar
dedotherwisefor
wardedtothenextnode. I
tdoesnotper
form anyer
rorchecki
ng.The
fr
amewithorwithouter
ror
swi l
lbefor
warded.

I
thashighlat
encyr at
easitwaitsfortheenti
reframetoberecei
vedbef
oref
orwar
dingtot
he
nextnode. I thaslowlatencyrateasitchecksonl
ysixby
t esoft
hefr
ametodeter
minethe
desti
nati
onaddress.

I
tishi
ghl
yrel
iabl
easitforwardsonl
yerr
or-
fr
eepacket
s. I ti
slessr
eli
abl
eascompar
edt
o
St
ore-
and-
for
wardtechniqueasitf
orwar
dserrorpr
onepacket
saswell.

I
thasahi ghwaitti
measi twai
tsf
ortheent
ir
efr
amet obereceivedbef
oret
aki
ngany
for
wardingdeci
sions.I
thaslowwaitt
imeascut
-t
hroughswitchesdonotst
oret
hewhol
efr
ame
orpackets.

Swi
tchi
ngt
echni
ques

I
nlargenet
works,t
herecanbemult
ipl
epat
hsf r
om sendert
orecei
ver
.Theswi
tchi
ngt
echni
que
wi
lldeci
dethebestrout
efordat
atr
ansmi
ssion.

Swi
tchi
ngt
echni
quei
susedt
oconnectt
hesy
stemsf
ormaki
ngone-
to-
onecommuni
cat
ion.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionOfSwi
tchi
ngTechni
ques
Swi
tchi
ngt
echni
ques

Ci
rcui
tSwi
tchi
ng

ADVERTI
SEMENT

ADVERTI
SEMENT

Circui
tswit
chi
ngi
saswi
tchi
ngt
echni
quet
hatest
abl
i
shesadedi
cat
edpat
hbet
weensenderand
receiv
er.

I
ntheCi
rcui
tSwi
tchi
ngTechnique,oncetheconnecti
oni
sest
abl
i
shedt
hent
hededi
cat
edpat
h
wi
llr
emaint
oexi
stunti
ltheconnecti
onister
minated.

Ci
rcui
tswi
tchi
ngi
nanet
wor
koper
atesi
nasi
mil
arwayast
het
elephonewor
ks.

Acompl
eteend-
to-
endpat
hmustexi
stbef
oret
hecommuni
cat
iont
akespl
ace.

Incaseofci r
cuitswit
chingtechni
que,whenanyuserwantstosendthedata,voi
ce,video,a
requestsignali
ssentt otherecei
vert
hentherecei
versendsbacktheacknowl
edgmentt o
ensuretheav ai
l
abili
tyofthededicat
edpath.Aft
errecei
vi
ngtheacknowledgment,dedicat
ed
pathtransfer
sthedat a.

Ci
rcui
tswi
tchi
ngi
susedi
npubl
i
ctel
ephonenet
wor
k.I
tisusedf
orv
oicet
ransmi
ssi
on.

Fi
xeddat
acanbet
ransf
err
edatat
imei
nci
rcui
tswi
tchi
ngt
echnol
ogy
.

Communi
cat
iont
hroughci
rcui
tswi
tchi
nghas3phases:

Ci
rcui
test
abl
i
shment

Dat
atr
ansf
er

Ci
rcui
tDi
sconnect

Swi
tchi
ngt
echni
ques

Ci
rcui
tSwi
tchi
ngcanuseei
theroft
het
wot
echnol
ogi
es:

SpaceDi
vi
sionSwi
tches:

SpaceDi
visi
onSwi
tchi
ngi
sacir
cui
tswi
tchi
ngtechnol
ogyinwhichasi ngl
etransmi
ssi
onpat
his
accompl
i
shedinaswit
chbyusi
ngaphy
sical
lysepar
atesetofcrosspoint
s.

SpaceDi
vi
sionSwi
tchi
ngcanbeachi
evedbyusi
ngcr
ossbarswi
tch.Acr
ossbarswi
tchi
sa
met
all
i
ccr
osspoi
ntorsemi
conduct
orgat
ethatcanbeenabl
edordi
sabl
edbyacont
rol
uni
t.

TheCr
ossbarswi
tchi
smadebyusi
ngt
hesemi
conduct
or.Forexampl
e,Xi
l
inxcr
ossbarswi
tch
usi
ngFPGAs.

SpaceDi
vi
sionSwi
tchi
nghashi
ghspeed,
highcapaci
ty,
andnonbl
ocki
ngswi
tches.

SpaceDi
vi
sionSwi
tchescanbecat
egor
izedi
ntwoway
s:

Cr
ossbarSwi
tch

Mul
ti
stageSwi
tch

Cr
ossbarSwi
tch

TheCrossbarswit
chisaswit
chthathasninputli
nesandnout
putl
i
nes.Thecr
ossbarswi
tch
hasn2inter
sect
ionpoint
sknownascrosspoint
s.

Di
sadv
ant
ageofCr
ossbarswi
tch:

Thenumberofcr
osspoi
ntsincr
easesasthenumberofst
ati
onsisi
ncreased.Theref
ore,
it
becomesver
yexpensi
veforalar
geswitch.Thesol
uti
ont
othisi
stouseamul ti
stageswitch.

Mul
ti
stageSwi
tch

Mult
ist
ageSwitchismadebyspl
i
tti
ngt
hecr
ossbarswi
tchi
ntot
hesmal
l
eruni
tsandt
hen
i
nter
connect
ingthem.

I
treducest
henumberofcr
osspoi
nts.

I
fonepat
hfai
l
s,t
hent
her
ewi
l
lbeanav
ail
abi
l
ityofanot
herpat
h.

Adv
ant
agesOfCi
rcui
tSwi
tchi
ng:

I
nthecaseofCi
rcui
tSwi
tchi
ngt
echni
que,
thecommuni
cat
ionchannel
isdedi
cat
ed.

I
thasf
ixedbandwi
dth.

Di
sadv
ant
agesOfCi
rcui
tSwi
tchi
ng:
Oncet
hededi
cat
edpat
hisest
abl
i
shed,
theonl
ydel
ayoccur
sint
hespeedofdat
atr
ansmi
ssi
on.

I
ttakesalongt
imet
oest
abl
i
shaconnect
ionappr
ox10secondsdur
ingwhi
chnodat
acanbe
t
ransmit
ted.

Iti
smoreexpensi
vet
hanot
herswi
tchi
ngt
echni
quesasadedi
cat
edpat
hisr
equi
redf
oreach
connect
ion.

Iti
sineff
ici
entt
ousebecauseoncet
hepat
hisest
abl
i
shedandnodat
aist
ransf
err
ed,
thent
he
capacit
yofthepat
hiswasted.

Inthi
scase,
theconnect
ioni
sdedi
cat
edt
her
efor
enoot
herdat
acanbet
ransf
err
edev
eni
fthe
channel
isfr
ee.

MessageSwi
tchi
ng

MessageSwit
chi
ngisaswit
chi
ngtechni
quei
nwhichamessagei
str
ansf
erredasacompl
ete
uni
tandrout
edthr
oughi
nter
mediat
enodesatwhi
chiti
sst
oredandf
orwarded.

InMessageSwit
chi
ngt
echni
que,
ther
eisnoest
abl
i
shmentofadedi
cat
edpat
hbet
weent
he
senderandr
ecei
ver
.

Thedesti
nati
onaddressi
sappendedtot
hemessage.MessageSwit
chi
ngpr
ovi
desady
namic
rout
ingasthemessageisrout
edthr
oughthei
nter
medi
atenodesbasedont
hei
nfor
mati
on
avai
labl
einthemessage.

Messageswi
tchesar
epr
ogr
ammedi
nsuchawaysot
hatt
heycanpr
ovi
det
hemostef
fi
cient
r
outes.

Eachandev
erynodest
orestheent
ir
emessageandthenf
orwar
ditt
othenextnode.Thi
sty
pe
ofnet
worki
sknownasstoreandforwar
dnet
work.

Messageswi
tchi
ngt
reat
seachmessageasani
ndependentent
it
y.

Swi
tchi
ngt
echni
ques

Adv
ant
agesOfMessageSwi
tchi
ng

Dat
achannel
sar
eshar
edamongt
hecommuni
cat
ingdev
icest
hati
mpr
ovet
heef
fi
ciencyof
usi
ngavai
l
abl
ebandwi
dth.

Tr
aff
iccongest
ioncanber
educedbecauset
hemessagei
stempor
ari
l
yst
oredi
nthenodes.

Messagepr
ior
it
ycanbeusedt
omanaget
henet
wor
k.
Thesi
zeofthemessagewhi
chi
ssentov
ert
henet
wor
kcanbev
ari
ed.Ther
efor
e,i
tsuppor
tst
he
dat
aofunl
imitedsi
ze.

Di
sadv
ant
agesOfMessageSwi
tchi
ng

Themessageswitchesmustbeequi
ppedwit
hsuf
fi
cientst
oraget
oenabl
ethem t
ost
oret
he
messagesunt
ilt
hemessageisforwar
ded.

TheLongdelaycanoccurduet
othest
ori
ngandf
orwar
dingf
aci
l
itypr
ovi
dedbyt
hemessage
swi
tchi
ngtechni
que.

PacketSwi
tchi
ng

Thepacketswi
tchi
ngi
saswi t
chi
ngtechni
queinwhichthemessagei
ssenti
nonego,
buti
tis
di
vi
dedintosmall
erpi
eces,
andtheyaresenti
ndi
vi
duall
y.

Themessagespl
it
sint
osmall
erpi
ecesknownaspacket
sandpacket
sar
egi
venauni
que
numbert
oident
if
ythei
ror
deratt
herecei
vi
ngend.

Ever
ypacketcont
ainssomei
nfor
mat
ioni
nit
sheader
ssuchassour
ceaddr
ess,
dest
inat
ion
addr
essandsequencenumber
.

Packet
swi
l
ltr
avel
acr
osst
henet
wor
k,t
aki
ngt
heshor
testpat
haspossi
ble.

Al
lthepacket
sar
ereassembl
edatt
her
ecei
vi
ngendi
ncor
rector
der
.

I
fanypacketi
smi
ssi
ngorcor
rupt
ed,
thent
hemessagewi
l
lbesentt
oresendt
hemessage.

I
fthecor
rector
deroft
hepacket
sisr
eached,
thent
heacknowl
edgmentmessagewi
l
lbesent
.

Swi
tchi
ngt
echni
ques

Appr
oachesOfPacketSwi
tchi
ng:

Ther
ear
etwoappr
oachest
oPacketSwi
tchi
ng:

Dat
agr
am Packetswi
tchi
ng:

I
tisapacketswit
chingt
echnologyinwhichpacketi
sknownasadat agr
am,isconsi
der
edasan
i
ndependentent
it
y.Eachpacketcontai
nstheinf
ormationaboutt
hedest
inat
ionandswi
tchuses
t
hisi
nformati
ontoforwar
dthepackett othecor
rectdesti
nat
ion.

Thepacket
sar
ereassembl
edatt
her
ecei
vi
ngendi
ncor
rector
der
.

I
nDat
agr
am PacketSwi
tchi
ngt
echni
que,
thepat
hisnotf
ixed.
I
nter
medi
atenodest
aket
her
out
ingdeci
sionst
ofor
war
dthepacket
s.

Dat
agr
am PacketSwi
tchi
ngi
sal
soknownasconnect
ionl
essswi
tchi
ng.

Vi
rt
ual
Cir
cui
tSwi
tchi
ng

Vi
rt
ual
Cir
cui
tSwi
tchi
ngi
sal
soknownasconnect
ion-
ori
ent
edswi
tchi
ng.

InthecaseofVi
rt
ual
cir
cui
tswi
tchi
ng,
apr
epl
annedr
out
eisest
abl
i
shedbef
oret
hemessages
aresent.

Callr
equestandcal
lacceptpacket
sar
eusedt
oest
abl
i
sht
heconnect
ionbet
weensenderand
recei
ver
.

I
nthi
scase,
thepat
hisf
ixedf
ort
hedur
ati
onofal
ogi
cal
connect
ion.

Let
'sunder
standt
heconceptofv
irt
ual
cir
cui
tswi
tchi
ngt
hroughadi
agr
am:

Swi
tchi
ngt
echni
ques

I
ntheabov
edi
agr
am,
AandBar
ethesenderandr
ecei
verr
espect
ivel
y.1and2ar
ethenodes.

Callr
equestandcal
lacceptpacket
sar
eusedt
oest
abl
i
shaconnect
ionbet
weent
hesenderand
recei
ver
.

Whenar
out
eisest
abl
i
shed,
dat
awi
l
lbet
ransf
err
ed.

Aft
ertr
ansmissi
onofdat
a,anacknowl
edgmentsi
gnal
issentbyt
her
ecei
vert
hatt
hemessage
hasbeenrecei
ved.

I
ftheuserwant
stot
ermi
nat
etheconnect
ion,
acl
earsi
gnal
issentf
ort
het
ermi
nat
ion.

Di
ff
erencesb/
wDat
agr
am appr
oachandVi
rt
ual
Cir
cui
tappr
oach

Dat
agr
am appr
oach Vi
rt
ual
Cir
cui
tappr
oach

Nodetakesr
out
ingdeci
sionst
ofor
war
dthepacket
s. Nodedoesnott
akeanyr
out
ing
deci
si
on.

Congest
ioncannotoccurasallt
hepacketst
raveli
ndiff
erentdi
rect
ions. Congest
ioncanoccur
whenthenodeisbusy,anditdoesnotal
lowotherpacketstopassthrough.

I
tismor
efl
exi
bleasal
lthepacket
sar
etr
eat
edasani
ndependentent
it
y.I
tisnotv
eryf
lexi
ble.

Adv
ant
agesOfPacketSwi
tchi
ng:
Cost-
effect
ive:
Inpacketswitchi
ngtechnique,
switchingdevicesdonotrequi
remassiv
e
secondarystor
agetostorethepackets,socosti
smi ni
mizedt osomeextent
.Ther
efore,
wecan
saythatthepacketswit
chingtechni
queisacost-effect
ivetechnique.

Rel
i
able:I
fanynodei
sbusy,
thenthepacket
scanbererout
ed.Thi
sensur
est
hatt
hePacket
Swi
tchi
ngtechni
quepr
ovi
desrel
iabl
ecommunicat
ion.

Ef
fici
ent:PacketSwitchingisanef
fi
cientt
echni
que.I
tdoesnotr
equireanyest
abli
shedpat
h
pr
iortothetransmission,andmanyuserscanusethesamecommuni cati
onchannel
si
multaneously,hencemakesuseofav ail
abl
ebandwidt
hveryef
fi
cient
ly.

Di
sadv
ant
agesOfPacketSwi
tchi
ng:

PacketSwit
chingtechni
quecannotbei
mpl
ement
edi
nthoseappl
i
cat
ionst
hatr
equi
rel
owdel
ay
andhigh-
quali
tyservi
ces.

Thepr
otocol
susedinapacketswi
tchi
ngt
echni
quear
ever
ycompl
exandr
equi
reshi
gh
i
mplementat
ioncost
.

Ifthenetwor
kisover
loadedorcorr
upt
ed,thenitr
equi
resr
etransmissi
onofl
ostpacket
s.I
tcan
alsoleadtot
helossofcri
ti
cali
nfor
mationifer
ror
sarenorrecover
ed.

OSIModel

OSIst
andsforOpenSystem I
nter
connect
ionisar
efer
encemodelt
hatdescr
ibeshow
i
nfor
mationfr
om asoft
wareapplicat
ioni
nonecomputermov
esthroughaphysical
medi
um t
o
t
hesoftwareappl
i
cat
ioninanothercomputer
.

OSIconsi
stsofsev
enl
ayer
s,andeachl
ayerper
for
msapar
ti
cul
arnet
wor
kfunct
ion.

OSImodelwasdev
elopedbytheInt
ernati
onal
Organi
zati
onforStandar
dizat
ion(
ISO)in1984,
andi
tisnowconsi
deredasanarchi
tectur
almodelf
ortheint
er-
computercommuni cat
ions.

OSImodeldi
vi
desthewholet
aski
ntosev
ensmal
l
erandmanageabl
etasks.Eachl
ayeri
s
assi
gnedapart
icul
art
ask.

Eachl
ayerissel
f-
cont
ained,
sot
hatt
askassi
gnedt
oeachl
ayercanbeper
for
med
i
ndependentl
y.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofOSIModel
:

OSIModel
TheOSImodel
isdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wol
ayer
s:upperl
ayer
sandl
owerl
ayer
s.

TheupperlayeroftheOSImodel mainl
ydealswit
ht heappli
cati
onrelat
edissues,andtheyar
e
i
mpl ementedonlyinthesoft
ware.Theapplicat
ionlayeri
sclosesttotheenduser.Boththeend
userandtheapplicat
ionlay
erinteractwi
ththesoft
war eappli
cati
ons.Anupperlayerref
ersto
thelayerj
ustaboveanotherlay
er.

Thel owerlay
eroftheOSImodel dealswit
hthedatatr
ansportissues.Thedatali
nkl
ayerand
thephy si
call
ayerareimpl
ementedinhardwareandsoftware.Thephy si
call
ayeri
sthelowest
l
ay eroftheOSImodel andi
sclosesttothephysi
calmedium.Thephy si
cal
layeri
smainly
responsibl
eforplaci
ngtheinf
ormationonthephysi
calmedium.

7Lay
ersofOSIModel

Ther
earethesev
enOSIl
ayer
s.Eachl
ayerhasdi
ff
erentf
unct
ions.Al
i
stofsev
enl
ayer
sar
e
gi
venbel
ow:

Phy
sical
Lay
er

Dat
a-Li
nkLay
er

Net
wor
kLay
er

Tr
anspor
tLay
er

Sessi
onLay
er

Pr
esent
ati
onLay
er

Appl
i
cat
ionLay
er

OSIModel

1)Phy
sical
lay
er

OSIModel

Themainfunct
ional
i
tyoft
hephy
sical
lay
eri
stot
ransmi
tthei
ndi
vi
dual
bit
sfr
om onenodet
o
anot
hernode.

I
tist
hel
owestl
ayeroft
heOSImodel
.

I
test
abl
i
shes,
mai
ntai
nsanddeact
ivat
est
hephy
sical
connect
ion.

I
tspeci
fi
est
hemechani
cal
,el
ect
ri
cal
andpr
ocedur
alnet
wor
kint
erf
acespeci
fi
cat
ions.

Funct
ionsofaPhy
sical
lay
er:
Li
neConf
igur
ati
on:
Itdef
inest
hewayhowt
woormor
edev
icescanbeconnect
edphy
sical
l
y.

DataTr
ansmi
ssi
on:
Itdef
inest
hetr
ansmissi
onmodewhet
heri
tissi
mpl
ex,
hal
f-
dupl
exorf
ull
-
dupl
exmodebet
weenthetwodev
icesonthenet
wor
k.

Topol
ogy
:Itdef
inest
hewayhownet
wor
kdev
icesar
ear
ranged.

Si
gnal
s:I
tdet
ermi
nest
het
ypeoft
hesi
gnal
usedf
ort
ransmi
tt
ingt
hei
nfor
mat
ion.

2)Dat
a-Li
nkLay
er

OSIModel

Thi
slay
eri
sresponsi
blef
ort
heer
ror
-f
reet
ransf
erofdat
afr
ames.

I
tdef
inest
hef
ormatoft
hedat
aont
henet
wor
k.

I
tpr
ovi
desar
eli
abl
eandef
fi
cientcommuni
cat
ionbet
weent
woormor
edev
ices.

I
tismainl
yresponsi
blef
ort
heuni
quei
dent
if
icat
ionofeachdev
icet
hatr
esi
desonal
ocal
net
work.

I
tcont
ainst
wosub-
lay
ers:

Logi
cal
LinkCont
rol
Lay
er

I
tisr
esponsi
blef
ort
ransf
err
ingt
hepacket
stot
heNet
wor
klay
eroft
her
ecei
vert
hati
srecei
vi
ng.

I
tident
if
iest
headdr
essoft
henet
wor
klay
erpr
otocol
from t
heheader
.

I
tal
sopr
ovi
desf
lowcont
rol
.

Medi
aAccessCont
rol
Lay
er

AMediaaccesscont
rol
lay
eri
sal
i
nkbet
weent
heLogi
cal
LinkCont
rol
lay
erandt
henet
wor
k's
phy
sical
lay
er.

I
tisusedf
ort
ransf
err
ingt
hepacket
sov
ert
henet
wor
k.

Funct
ionsoft
heDat
a-l
i
nkl
ayer

Framing:Thedat
alinkl
ayertransl
atest
hephysi
cal'
srawbitst
ream i
ntopacket
sknownas
Frames.TheDatali
nklayeraddstheheaderandtr
ail
ert
ot hef
rame.Theheaderwhichi
sadded
totheframecont
ainsthehardwaredesti
nati
onandsourceaddress.

OSIModel

PhysicalAddr
essi
ng:
TheDatal
inkl
ayeraddsaheadertothef
ramethatcontai
nsadesti
nat
ion
address.Thefr
ameistr
ansmi
tt
edtothedesti
nat
ionaddressment
ionedintheheader
.
FlowControl:
Flowcontrolisthemainfuncti
onalit
yoftheData-
li
nklay
er.I
tisthetechni
que
throughwhichtheconstantdataratei
smai ntai
nedonboththesidessothatnodataget
corrupt
ed.I
tensuresthatthet r
ansmit
ti
ngst ati
onsuchasaserverwit
hhigherprocessi
ng
speeddoesnotexceedt her ecei
vi
ngstat
ion, wi
thlowerpr
ocessi
ngspeed.

Err
orContr
ol:Er
rorcont
roli
sachievedbyaddi
ngacalcul
atedval
ueCRC( Cycl
icRedundancy
Check)t
hatispl
acedtotheDat al
inkl
ayer
'str
ail
erwhi
chisaddedtothemessagef r
amebefore
i
tissentt
othephy si
call
ayer.I
fanyerr
orseemstooccur
r,thent
herecei
versendsthe
acknowl
edgmentfortheretr
ansmissi
onofthecorr
upt
edframes.

AccessContr
ol:
Whentwoormor edevi
cesar
econnect
edt
othesamecommunicati
onchannel
,
thenthedat
ali
nklay
erpr
otocol
sareusedtodet
ermi
newhi
chdevi
cehascont
rolov
ertheli
nkat
agiventi
me.

3)Net
wor
kLay
er

OSIModel

I
tisal
ayer3t
hatmanagesdev
iceaddr
essi
ng,
trackst
hel
ocat
ionofdev
icesont
henet
wor
k.

Itdet
erminesthebestpat
htomov edat
af r
om sourcet
othedest
inat
ionbasedont
henet
wor
k
condit
ions,t
hepri
ori
tyofser
vice,
andotherfact
ors.

TheDat
ali
nkl
ayeri
sresponsi
blef
orr
out
ingandf
orwar
dingt
hepacket
s.

Routersar
et helay
er3dev i
ces,
theyar
especi
fi
edi
nthi
slay
erandusedt
opr
ovi
det
her
out
ing
ser
viceswithinanint
ernet
work.

Theprot
ocolsusedt
oroutet
henet
wor
ktr
aff
icar
eknownasNet
wor
klay
erpr
otocol
s.Exampl
es
ofpr
otocol
sareIPandIpv
6.

Funct
ionsofNet
wor
kLay
er:

I
nternetworki
ng:Ani
nter
net
worki
ngisthemainr
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
henet
wor
klay
er.I
tpr
ovi
desa
l
ogicalconnecti
onbet
weendif
fer
entdevi
ces.

Addr
essi
ng:ANetwor
klayeraddsthesour
ceanddesti
nati
onaddr
esst
otheheaderoft
he
fr
ame.Addr
essi
ngisusedtoident
if
ythedevi
ceontheint
ernet
.

Rout
ing:Rout
ingi
sthemaj
orcomponentofthenet
workl
ayer
,anditdet
ermi
nest
hebest
opt
imalpathoutoft
hemul
ti
plepat
hsfrom sour
cetot
hedesti
nat
ion.

Packet
izi
ng:
ANetworkLayerr
ecei
vesthepacketsfr
om theupperl
ayerandconvert
sthem i
nto
packet
s.Thi
spr
ocessisknownasPacketi
zi
ng.Itisachi
evedbyint
ernetpr
otocol(
IP).

4)Tr
anspor
tLay
er
OSIModel

TheTranspor
tlay
erisaLay
er4ensur
esthatmessagesar
etr
ansmi
tt
edi
ntheor
deri
nwhi
ch
theyar
esentandtherei
snodupl
i
cati
onofdata.

Themai
nresponsi
bil
i
tyoft
het
ranspor
tlay
eri
stot
ransf
ert
hedat
acompl
etel
y.

Itr
ecei
vesthedat
afr
om t
heupperl
ayerandconv
ert
sthem i
ntosmal
l
eruni
tsknownas
segments.

Thi
slay
ercanbetermedasanend-t
o-endl
ayerasi
tpr
ovi
desapoi
nt-
to-
poi
ntconnect
ion
bet
weensourceanddest
inat
iont
odeli
vert
hedatar
eli
abl
y.

Thet
wopr
otocol
susedi
nthi
slay
erar
e:

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onCont
rol
Prot
ocol

I
tisast
andar
dpr
otocol
thatal
l
owst
hesy
stemst
ocommuni
cat
eov
ert
hei
nter
net
.

I
test
abl
i
shesandmai
ntai
nsaconnect
ionbet
weenhost
s.

Whendataissentovert
heTCPconnect i
on,thentheTCPprotocol di
vi
desthedat aintosmaller
unit
sknownassegments.Eachsegmentt r
av el
soverthei
nternetusi
ngmul ti
pleroutes,and
theyar
ri
vei
ndiffer
entor
dersatthedesti
nati
on.Thetransmissioncontr
olprotocolreorderst
he
packet
sint
hecor r
ector
derattherecei
vi
ngend.

UserDat
agr
am Pr
otocol

UserDat
agr
am Pr
otocol
isat
ranspor
tlay
erpr
otocol
.

I
tisanunreli
abl
etransportprot
ocolasinthi
scaserecei
verdoesnotsendanyacknowledgment
whenthepacketisreceiv
ed,thesenderdoesnotwaitf
oranyacknowledgment
.Theref
ore,t
his
makesapr ot
ocolunrel
iable.

Funct
ionsofTr
anspor
tLay
er:

Servi
ce-pointaddr essing:
Comput ersr
unsev eralprogramssimult
aneouslyduet othisr
eason,
thetransmi ssionofdat afr
om sourcetot
hedest inati
onnotonlyfrom onecomput ertoanother
comput erbutal sofrom oneprocesstoanotherpr ocess.Thetr
ansportlayeraddstheheader
thatcontainst headdressknownasaser vice-pointaddressorportaddr
ess.Ther esponsi
bil
it
y
ofthenet wor klay
erist otr
ansmitthedat
af rom onecomput ertoanothercomput erandthe
responsibil
ityofthet r
ansportl
ayerist
otransmi tthemessaget othecorrectprocess.

Segmentat
ionandr
eassembl
y:Whenthetr
anspor
tlayerr
ecei
vesthemessagefrom t
heupper
l
ayer,
itdi
vi
desthemessagei
ntomult
ipl
esegments,andeachsegmenti
sassignedwitha
sequencenumberthatuniquelyident
if
ieseachsegment.Whenthemessagehasarri
vedatt
he
desti
nati
on,t
henthetransportlayerr
eassemblesthemessagebasedonthei
rsequence
numbers.

Connectioncontrol
:Transportlay
erpr ov i
destwoser vicesConnecti
on-or
ientedservi
ceand
connectionl
essservice.Aconnectionlessser vicetr
eatseachsegmentasani ndi
vidualpacket,
andtheyal l
trav
el i
ndiffer
entroutestor eacht hedestinat
ion.Aconnecti
on-ori
entedservice
makesaconnect i
onwi ththetr
anspor tlayeratt hedesti
nati
onmachinebef oredeli
veri
ngt he
packets.Inconnecti
on-ori
entedservice,allthepacketst r
aveli
nthesingl
er oute.

Flowcontr
ol:Thetr
ansportl
ayeral
sor
esponsi
blef
orf
lowcont
rol
buti
tisper
for
medend-
to-
end
rathert
hanacrossasi
ngleli
nk.

Errorcont
rol
:Thetranspor
tlayeri
salsoresponsi
blef
orEr
rorcontr
ol.Err
orcontr
oli
sperf
ormed
end-to-
endrat
herthanacrossthesingl
eli
nk.Thesendert
ranspor
tlayerensur
esthatmessage
reachatthedest
inati
onwithoutanyerr
or.

5)Sessi
onLay
er

OSIModel

I
tisal
ayer3i
ntheOSImodel
.

TheSessi
onlayeri
susedtoest
abl
i
sh,
mai
ntai
nandsy
nchr
oni
zest
hei
nter
act
ionbet
ween
communicat
ingdevi
ces.

Funct
ionsofSessi
onl
ayer
:

Di
alogcontr
ol:Sessi
onl
ayeractsasadial
ogcont
rol
lert
hatcr
eat
esadi
alogbet weent
wo
pr
ocessesorwecansayt hati
tall
owsthecommunicati
onbet
weent
wopr ocesseswhi
chcan
beeit
herhal
f-dupl
exorf
ull-
dupl
ex.

Synchronization:
Sessionl
ayeraddssomecheckpointswhentransmi
tt
ingthedat
aina
sequence.I fsomeerroroccur
sinthemiddleoft
het r
ansmissi
onofdata,t
henthetr
ansmissi
on
willt
akepl aceagainfr
om thecheckpoi
nt.Thi
sprocessi
sknownasSy nchroni
zat
ionand
recovery
.

6)Pr
esent
ati
onLay
er

OSIModel

APr esent
ati
onlayeri
smainl
yconcer
nedwi
tht
hesy
ntaxandsemant
icsoft
hei
nfor
mat
ion
exchangedbetweenthet
wosy st
ems.

I
tact
sasadat
atr
ansl
atorf
oranet
wor
k.

Thi
slay
eri
sapar
toft
heoper
ati
ngsy
stem t
hatconv
ert
sthedat
afr
om onepr
esent
ati
onf
ormat
t
oanot
herf
ormat
.

ThePr
esent
ati
onl
ayeri
sal
soknownast
hesy
ntaxl
ayer
.

Funct
ionsofPr
esent
ati
onl
ayer
:

Translati
on:Theprocessesintwosy stemsexchanget heinformationinthef
orm ofcharact
er
stri
ngs,numbersandsoon.Di f
ferentcomput er
susedifferentencodingmethods,the
presentati
onlayerhandlesthei
nteroperabil
it
ybetweent hedif
ferentencodi
ngmet hods.I
t
convertsthedatafrom sender-
dependentf ormati
ntoacommonf ormatandchangest he
commonf ormatintoreceiv
er-
dependentf ormatatt
her eceivi
ngend.

Encrypti
on:Encr
y pt
ionisneededtomaintai
npri
vacy.Encr
ypt
ioni
saprocessofconv
erti
ngthe
sender-
transmit
tedinfor
mat i
onint
oanotherfor
m andsendsther
esul
ti
ngmessageov ert
he
network.

Compr essi
on:Datacompressi
onisaprocessofcompressi
ngthedata,i
.e.
,i
treducest
he
numberofbi t
stobet r
ansmitt
ed.Dat
acompr essi
oni
sv er
yimport
antinmulti
mediasuchas
text
,audio,
video.

7)Appl
i
cat
ionLay
er

OSIModel

Anappli
cat
ionl
ayerser
vesasawi
ndowf
oruser
sandappl
i
cat
ionpr
ocessest
oaccessnet
wor
k
ser
vice.

I
thandl
esi
ssuessuchasnet
wor
ktr
anspar
ency
,resour
ceal
l
ocat
ion,
etc.

Anappl
i
cat
ionl
ayeri
snotanappl
i
cat
ion,
buti
tper
for
mst
heappl
i
cat
ionl
ayerf
unct
ions.

Thi
slay
erpr
ovi
dest
henet
wor
kser
vicest
otheend-
user
s.

Funct
ionsofAppl
i
cat
ionl
ayer
:

Fil
etr
ansfer,
access,
andmanagement(FTAM):Anappl
icat
ionlay
erall
owsausertoaccesst
he
fi
lesi
nar emotecomput
er,
toret
ri
evethefi
lesf
rom acomputerandtomanagethefi
lesi
na
remotecomputer.

Mai
lser
vices:
Anappl
i
cat
ionl
ayerpr
ovi
dest
hef
aci
l
ityf
oremai
lfor
war
dingandst
orage.

Di
rector
yservi
ces:
Anappli
cati
onprov
idesthedi
str
ibut
eddat
abasesour
cesandi
susedt
o
pr
ovidethatgl
obali
nfor
mati
onaboutvari
ousobj
ects.

TCP/
IPmodel
TheTCP/
IPmodel
wasdev
elopedpr
iort
otheOSImodel
.

TheTCP/
IPmodel
isnotexact
lysi
mil
art
otheOSImodel
.

TheTCP/
IPmodelconsi
stsoffi
vel
ayer
s:t
heappl
i
cat
ionl
ayer
,tr
anspor
tlay
er,
net
wor
klay
er,
dat
ali
nkl
ayerandphysi
call
ayer
.

Thefir
stfourlayer
sprovidephysi
cal
standar
ds,networkint
erf
ace,i
nter
networking,and
tr
ansportfuncti
onsthatcorr
espondtothefi
rstf
ourlayer
softheOSImodel andt hesefour
l
ayersarerepresent
edinTCP/ I
Pmodel byasingl
elayercal
ledtheappl
icat
ionlayer.

TCP/I
Pisahierarchi
calpr
otocol
madeupofi
nter
act
ivemodul
es,
andeachoft
hem pr
ovi
des
speci
fi
cfunct
ionali
ty.

Here,
hierar
chi
cal
meanst
hateachupper
-l
ayerpr
otocol
issuppor
tedbyt
woormor
elower
-l
evel
pr
otocols.

Funct
ionsofTCP/
IPl
ayer
s:

TCP/
IPmodel

Net
wor
kAccessLay
er

Anet
wor
klay
eri
sthel
owestl
ayeroft
heTCP/
IPmodel
.

Anetwor
klay
eri
sthecombi
nat
ionoft
hePhy
sical
lay
erandDat
aLi
nkl
ayerdef
inedi
ntheOSI
r
efer
encemodel
.

I
tdef
ineshowt
hedat
ashoul
dbesentphy
sical
l
ythr
ought
henet
wor
k.

Thi
slay
erismai
nlyr
esponsi
blef
ort
het
ransmi
ssi
onoft
hedat
abet
weent
wodev
icesont
he
samenetwor
k.

Thefuncti
onscar
ri
edoutbythi
slay
erar
eencapsul
ati
ngtheIPdatagram intofr
ames
tr
ansmitt
edbythenet
workandmappingofI
Paddressesi
ntophysicaladdresses.

Thepr
otocol
susedbyt
hisl
ayerar
eet
her
net
,tokenr
ing,
FDDI
,X.
25,
framer
elay
.

I
nter
netLay
er

Ani
nter
netl
ayeri
sthesecondl
ayeroft
heTCP/
IPmodel
.

Ani
nter
netl
ayeri
sal
soknownast
henet
wor
klay
er.

Themai nresponsi
bil
i
tyoftheint
ernetl
ayerist
osendthepacket
sfr
om anynet
wor
k,andt
hey
arr
iveatthedesti
nati
onir
respect
iveoftherout
etheyt
ake.

Fol
l
owi
ngar
ethepr
otocol
susedi
nthi
slay
erar
e:
I
PProtocol
:IPpr
otocol
isusedi
nthi
slay
er,
andi
tist
hemostsi
gni
fi
cantpar
toft
heent
ir
e
TCP/
IPsuit
e.

Fol
l
owi
ngar
ether
esponsi
bil
i
tiesoft
hispr
otocol
:

IPAddr
essi
ng: Thi
sprot
ocoli
mpl ement
sl ogi
calhostaddressesknownasIPaddresses.TheI
P
addr
essesareusedbytheint
ernetandhigherlay
erstoidenti
fythedev
iceandtoprovide
i
nter
networ
kr outi
ng.

Host
-t
o-hostcommuni
cat
ion:
Itdet
ermi
nest
hepat
hthr
oughwhi
cht
hedat
aist
obet
ransmi
tt
ed.

DataEncapsulat
ionandFormatt
ing:AnIPpr
otocol
accept
st hedat
afrom t
hetransportlayer
prot
ocol
.AnI Pprotocol
ensur
est hatt
hedat
aissentandrecei
vedsecur
ely
,itencapsulatest
he
datai
ntomessageknownasI Pdat agr
am.

Fragment ati
onandReassembl y:
Thel i
mitimposedont hesizeoft heIPdatagr am bydatali
nk
l
ay erprotocol i
sknownasMaxi mum Tr ansmissi
onuni t(MTU) .Ift
hesi zeofIPdat agram i
s
greaterthant heMTUuni t,
thentheIPprotocolspl
it
st hedat agram int
osmal lerunitssothat
theycant ravel overthel
ocalnetwork.Fragmentat
ioncanbedonebyt hesenderori nter
mediat
e
router.Atther eceiversi
de,al
lthefr
agment sarereassembl edt oform anoriginalmessage.

Routing:
WhenI Pdatagram issentoverthesamelocalnet
worksuchasLAN,MAN, WAN,iti
s
knownasdi rectdel
iv
ery.Whensour ceanddesti
nati
onareonthedist
antnet
work,thentheIP
datagram i
ssentindi
rectl
y.Thiscanbeaccomplishedbyrout
ingtheI
Pdatagram t
hrough
vari
ousdev i
cessuchasr outer
s.

ARPPr
otocol

ARPst
andsf
orAddr
essResol
uti
onPr
otocol
.

ARPi
sanet
wor
klay
erpr
otocol
whi
chi
susedt
ofi
ndt
hephy
sical
addr
essf
rom t
heI
Paddr
ess.

Thet
wot
ermsar
emai
nlyassoci
atedwi
tht
heARPPr
otocol
:

ARPrequest
:Whenasenderwantst
oknowt
hephy
sical
addr
essoft
hedev
ice,
itbr
oadcast
s
theARPrequestt
othenet
work.

ARPr epl
y:Everydev i
ceat t
achedtothenetworkwill
acceptt
heARPr equestandprocesst
he
request,
butonl yreci
pientrecogni
zetheIPaddressandsendsbackit
sphy si
caladdr
essinthe
form ofARPr eply
.Ther ecipi
entaddsthephysi
caladdr
essbothtoit
scachememor yandtothe
datagram header
I
CMPPr
otocol

I
CMPst
andsf
orI
nter
netCont
rol
MessagePr
otocol
.

I
tisamechanism usedbythehost
sorr
out
erst
osendnot
if
icat
ionsr
egar
dingdat
agr
am
pr
oblemsbacktothesender.

Adat agram t
rav
elsfrom r
outer-
to-
routerunti
li
treachesit
sdesti
nati
on.I
far outeri
sunableto
routethedatabecauseofsomeunusual condit
ionssuchasdi
sabledli
nks,adev i
ceisonfir
eor
networkcongestion,
thentheICMPpr otocoli
susedt oinf
ormthesenderthatthedatagr
am is
undeliv
erabl
e.

AnI
CMPpr
otocol
mai
nlyusest
wot
erms:

I
CMPTest
:ICMPTesti
susedt
otestwhet
hert
hedest
inat
ioni
sreachabl
eornot
.

I
CMPRepl
y:I
CMPRepl
yisusedt
ocheckwhet
hert
hedest
inat
iondev
icei
srespondi
ngornot
.

Thecor eresponsibi
l
ityoftheICMPpr
otocoli
storepor
tthepr
obl
ems,
notcor
rectt
hem.The
responsibi
li
tyofthecorrecti
onli
eswi
ththesender
.

I
CMPcansendthemessagesonl
ytothesource,
butnottotheint
ermedi
aterouter
sbecause
t
heIPdatagr
am car
ri
est
headdr
essesofthesourceanddesti
nati
onbutnotoftherout
erthati
t
i
spassedto.

Tr
anspor
tLay
er

Thetr
anspor
tlay
eri
sresponsi
blef
ort
her
eli
abi
l
ity
,fl
owcont
rol
,andcor
rect
ionofdat
awhi
chi
s
bei
ngsentovert
henet
work.

Thetwoprotocol
susedi
nthet
ranspor
tlay
erar
eUserDat
agr
am pr
otocol
andTr
ansmi
ssi
on
cont
rol
protocol.

UserDat
agr
am Pr
otocol
(UDP)

I
tpr
ovi
desconnect
ionl
essser
viceandend-
to-
enddel
i
ver
yoft
ransmi
ssi
on.

I
tisanunr
eli
abl
epr
otocol
asi
tdi
scov
erst
heer
ror
sbutnotspeci
fyt
heer
ror
.

UserDatagram Prot
ocoldi
scover
stheer
ror
,andI
CMPpr
otocol
repor
tst
heer
rort
othesender
thatuserdatagr
am hasbeendamaged.
UDPconsi
stsoft
hef
oll
owi
ngf
iel
ds:

Sour
cepor taddr
ess:Thesour
cepor
taddr
essi
stheaddr
essoft
heappl
i
cat
ionpr
ogr
am t
hat
hascreat
edt hemessage.

Dest
inat
ionportaddress:Thedest
inat
ionpor
taddr
essi
stheaddr
essoft
heappl
i
cat
ion
pr
ogram thatr
eceiv
est hemessage.

Tot
all
engt
h:I
tdef
inest
het
otal
numberofby
tesoft
heuserdat
agr
am i
nby
tes.

Checksum:
Thechecksum i
sa16-
bitf
iel
dusedi
ner
rordet
ect
ion.

UDPdoesnotspeci
fywhi
chpacketi
slost
.UDPcont
ainsonl
ychecksum;
itdoesnotcont
ainany
I
Dofadatasegment.

TCP/
IPmodel

TCP/
IPmodel

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onCont
rol
Prot
ocol
(TCP)

I
tpr
ovi
desaf
ull
transpor
tlay
erser
vicest
oappl
i
cat
ions.

I
tcreat
esav i
rt
ual
cir
cui
tbet
weent
hesenderandr
ecei
ver
,andi
tisact
ivef
ort
hedur
ati
onoft
he
t
ransmissi
on.

TCPisar el
i
ablepr
otocol
asitdet
ect
st heerr
orandret
ransmitst
hedamagedframes.Ther
efor
e,
i
tensuresallt
hesegmentsmustberecei
vedandacknowledgedbef
oret
hetransmissi
onis
consi
deredtobecomplet
edandav i
rtual
cir
cuiti
sdi
scarded.

Atthesendi
ngend, TCPdiv
idesthewhol
emessagei
ntosmall
eruni
tsknownassegment
,and
eachsegmentcontainsasequencenumberwhi
chi
srequi
redf
orreorder
ingt
hef
ramestofor
m
anori
ginalmessage.

Atther
eceiv
ingend,
TCPcol
l
ect
sal
lthesegment
sandr
eor
der
sthem basedonsequence
numbers.

Appl
i
cat
ionLay
er

Anappl
i
cat
ionl
ayeri
sthet
opmostl
ayeri
ntheTCP/
IPmodel
.

I
tisr
esponsi
blef
orhandl
i
nghi
gh-
lev
elpr
otocol
s,i
ssuesofr
epr
esent
ati
on.

Thi
slay
eral
l
owst
heusert
oint
eractwi
tht
heappl
i
cat
ion.

Whenoneappl
i
cat
ionl
ayerpr
otocolwant
stocommuni
cat
ewi
thanot
herappl
i
cat
ionl
ayer
,it
f
orwar
dsit
sdatat
othetr
ansportl
ayer
.
Thereisanambi gui
tyoccursintheappl
icati
onlayer.Everyappli
cati
oncannotbeplacedinsi
de
theappli
cati
onlayerexceptthosewhointeractwi
tht hecommuni cati
onsystem.Forexample:
textedi
torcannotbeconsideredinappl
i
cat i
onlayerwhilewebbr owserusingHTTPprotocolt
o
i
nt er
actwit
hthenetwor kwhereHTTPpr otocoli
sanappl icat
ionlayerpr
otocol
.

Fol
l
owi
ngar
ethemai
npr
otocol
susedi
ntheappl
i
cat
ionl
ayer
:

HTTP: HTTPstandsf orHy pert

exttransferprotocol.Thi
sprotocol
all
owsust oaccessthedat
a
overtheworldwideweb.I ttransfer
st hedataint heform ofpl
aint
ext,
audio,
v i
deo.I
tisknown
asaHy pert
exttransf
erprot ocolasithast heeffi
ciencytouseinahypert
extenvir
onmentwhere
ther
ear er
apidjumpsf rom onedocumentt oanother.

SNMP:SNMPstandsforSimpleNetworkManagementPr
otocol
.Itisafr
amewor
kusedf
or
managi
ngt
hedevicesontheinter
netbyusi
ngtheTCP/I
Pprotocolsui
te.

SMTP:SMTPst andsforSi
mpl
emailtr
ansferprotocol
.TheTCP/I
Pprot
ocolthatsuppor
tsthee-
mail
isknownasaSi mplemai
ltr
ansf
erprotocol.Thi
sprot
ocoli
susedtosendthedatato
anot
here-
mailaddress.

DNS:DNSst andsf orDomainNameSy st

em.AnIPaddressisusedt
oident
if
ytheconnecti
onof
ahosttotheinternetuni
quel
y.But
,peopl
epref
ertousethenamesinst
eadofaddresses.
Ther
efore,t
hesy stem t
hatmapsthenametotheaddressisknownasDomainNameSy st
em.

TELNET:Iti
sanabbr
eviati
onforTermi
nalNet
wor
k.I
test
abl
i
shestheconnecti
onbet
weenthe
l
ocalcomputerandr
emot ecomputeri
nsuchawayt
hatt
helocal
ter
minalappear
stobea
ter
minalatt
heremotesystem.

FTP:FTPstandsforFi
l
eTr ansf
erPr
otocol
.FTPi
sastandar
dint
ernetpr
otocol
usedf
or
tr
ansmit
ti
ngt hef
il
esfrom onecomputert
oanot
hercomput
er.

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on

Datacanberepr
esentedei
therinanal
ogordigi
talf
orm.Thecomput
ersusedthedi
git
al f
ormto
stor
ethei
nformati
on.Ther
efore,t
hedataneedstobeconver
tedi
ndigi
tal
for
m sothatitcanbe
usedbyacomputer.

DI
GITAL-
TO-
DIGI
TALCONVERSI
ON

Digit
al-
to-
digi
tal
encodingi
stherepr
esent
ati
onofdigi
tali
nfor
mationbyadi gi
talsi
gnal.When
binary1sand0sgeneratedbyt
hecomputeraret
ransl
atedint
oasequenceofv olt
agepulses
thatcanbepropagatedoverawi
re,t
hispr
ocessi
sknownasdi gi
tal
-t
o-di
git
alencoding.

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on
Di
git
al-
to-
digi
tal
encodi
ngi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreecat
egor
ies

Uni
pol
arEncodi
ng

Pol
arEncodi
ng

Bi
pol
arEncodi
ng

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on

Uni
pol
ar

Digi
tal
transmi
ssi
onsy
stem sendst
hev
olt
agepul
sesov
ert
hemedi
um l
i
nksuchaswi
reor
cabl
e.

I
nmostt
ypesofencodi
ng,
onev
olt
agel
evel
repr
esent
s0,
andanot
herv
olt
agel
evel
repr
esent
s
1.

Thepol
ari
tyofeachpul
sedet
ermi
neswhet
heri
tisposi
ti
veornegat
ive.

Thi
sty
peofencodi
ngi
sknownasUni
pol
arencodi
ngasi
tusesonl
yonepol
ari
ty.

I
nUni
pol
arencodi
ng,
thepol
ari
tyi
sassi
gnedt
othe1bi
nar
yst
ate.

I
nthi
s,1sar
erepr
esent
edasaposi
ti
vev
alueand0sar
erepr
esent
edasazer
oval
ue.

I
nUni
pol
arEncodi
ng,
'1'
isconsi
der
edasahi
ghv
olt
ageand'
0'i
sconsi
der
edasazer
ovol
tage.

Uni
pol
arencodi
ngi
ssi
mpl
erandi
nexpensi
vet
oimpl
ement
.

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on

Uni
pol
arencodi
nghast
wopr
obl
emst
hatmaket
hisschemel
essdesi
rabl
e:

DCComponent

Sy
nchr
oni
zat
ion

Pol
ar

Pol
arencodi
ngi
sanencodi
ngschemet
hatusest
wov
olt
agel
evel
s:onei
sposi
ti
ve,
andanot
her
i
snegati
ve.

Byusi
ngtwov ol
tagelevel
s,anaveragevol
tagel
evel
isr
educed,
andt
heDCcomponentpr
obl
em
ofuni
pol
arencodingschemei sal
levi
ated.

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on
NRZ

NRZst
andsf
orNon-
ret
urnzer
o.

I
nNRZencodi
ng,
thel
evel
oft
hesi
gnal
canber
epr
esent
edei
therposi
ti
veornegat
ive.

Thet
womostcommonmet
hodsusedi
nNRZar
e:

NRZ-L:InNRZ-Lencoding,thel
evel
ofthesignaldependsonthetypeofthebitt
hatitrepr
esent
s.
Ifabiti
s0or1, t
hent hei
rvolt
ageswil
lbepositi
veandnegati
verespect
ivel
y.Theref
ore,wecan
saythatthel
evelofthesignali
sdependentonthestateoft
hebit.

NRZ-I
:NRZ-Iisaninversi
onofthevolt
agelev
elthatrepresents1bi
t.I
ntheNRZ-Iencoding
scheme,at
r ansi
ti
onoccur sbet
weentheposit
iveandnegat iv
evolt
agethatr
epresents1bit
.In
thi
sscheme, 0bi
trepresentsnochangeand1bitrepresentsachangeinvol
tagelevel
.

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on

RZ

RZst
andsf
orRet
urnt
ozer
o.

Ther
emustbeasignal
changeforeachbitt
oachiev
esynchr
onizat
ion.Howev
er,
tochangewi
th
ever
ybi
t,weneedt
ohavethreeval
ues:posi
ti
ve,
negati
veandzero.

RZisanencodingschemet hatpr
ovidesthreevalues,
posi
ti
vev
olt
ager
epr
esent
s1,
thenegat
ive
vol
tager
epresent
s0, andzerovol
tagerepresentsnone.

I
ntheRZscheme,
hal
fwayt
hrougheachi
nter
val
,thesi
gnal
ret
urnst
ozer
o.

InRZscheme,
1bi
tisr
epr
esent
edbyposi
ti
ve-
to-
zer
oand0bi
tisr
epr
esent
edbynegat
ive-
to-
zer
o.

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on

Di
sadv
ant
ageofRZ:

I
tper
for
mst
wosi
gnal
changest
oencodeonebi
tthatacqui
resmor
ebandwi
dth.
Bi
phase

Biphasei
sanencodi
ngschemei
nwhi
chsi
gnal
changesatt
hemi
ddl
eoft
hebi
tint
erv
albut
doesnotret
urnt
ozero.

Bi
phaseencodi
ngi
simpl
ement
edi
ntwodi
ff
erentway
s:

Manchest
er

Itchangesthesi
gnal
att
hemi
ddl
eoft
hebi
tint
erv
albutdoesnotr
etur
ntozer
ofor
synchroni
zati
on.

I
nManchesterencodi
ng,anegat
ive-
to-
posi
ti
vet
ransi
ti
onr
epr
esent
sbi
nar
y1,
andposi
ti
ve-
to-
negat
ivet
ransi
ti
onrepr
esent
s0.

Manchesterhast
hesamel
evel
ofsy
nchr
oni
zat
ionasRZschemeexceptt
hati
thast
wol
evel
s
ofampli
tude.

Di
ff
erent
ial
Manchest
er

Itchangest
hesi
gnalatthemiddl
eoft hebiti
nter
valf
orsynchr
onizat
ion,
butthepr
esenceor
absenceofthet
ransi
ti
onatthebeginningoft
heinter
valdet
erminesthebi
t.Atr
ansi
ti
onmeans
binary0andnotr
ansi
tionmeansbinary1.

I
nManchest
erEncodi
ngscheme,
twosi
gnal
changesr
epr
esent0andonesi
gnal
change
r
epr
esent1.

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on

Bi
pol
ar

Bi
pol
arencodi
ngschemer
epr
esent
sthr
eev
olt
agel
evel
s:posi
ti
ve,
negat
ive,
andzer
o.

InBipol
arencodingscheme,zer
olevelr
epresent
sbi
nar
y0,
andbi
nar
y1i
srepr
esent
edby
alt
ernat
ingposit
iveandnegati
vevol
tages.

Ift
hefi
rst1biti
srepr
esentedbypositi
veampli
tude,
thenthesecond1bi
tisr
epresent
edby
negat
ivevol
tage,
thi
rd1bitisr
epresentedbyt
hepositi
veamplit
udeandsoon.Thisal
ter
nat
ion
canal
sooccurevenwhent he1bi
tsarenotconsecuti
ve.

Bi
pol
arcanbecl
assi
fi
edas:
Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on

AMI

AMIstandsforal
ter
natemarkinver
sionwheremarkwor
kcomesf
rom t
elegr
aphywhi
chmeans
1.So,
itcanberedefi
nedasalt
ernate1inv
ersi
on.

InBipol
arAMIencodi
ngscheme,0bi
tisrepr
esent
edbyzer
olev
eland1bi
tisr
epr
esent
edby
alt
ernat
ingposi
ti
veandnegat
ivev
olt
ages.

Adv
ant
age:

DCcomponenti
szer
o.

Sequenceof1sbi
tsar
esy
nchr
oni
zed.

Di
sadv
ant
age:

Thi
sencodi
ngschemedoesnotensur
ethesy
nchr
oni
zat
ionofal
ongst
ri
ngof0sbi
ts.

B8ZS

B8ZSst
andsf
orBi
pol
ar8-
Zer
oSubst
it
uti
on.

Thi
stechni
quei
sadopt
edi
nNor
thAmer
icat
opr
ovi
desy
nchr
oni
zat
ionofal
ongsequenceof0s
bi
ts.

I
nmostofthecases,
thefuncti
onali
tyofB8ZSissi
milart
othebipol
arAMI,butt
heonly
di
ff
erencei
sthati
tpr
ovi
dest hesynchroni
zat
ionwhenalongsequenceof0sbit
soccur.

B8ZSensur
essynchroni
zat
ionofalongstr
ingof0sbypr
ovi
dingf
orcear
ti
fi
cial
signal
changes
cal
ledv
iol
ati
ons,
within0st
ringpat
tern.

Wheneight0occur
s,t
henB8ZSi
mpl
ement
ssomechangesi
n0sst
ri
ngpat
ter
nbasedont
he
pol
ari
tyofthepr
evi
ous1bi
t.

I
fthepol
ari
tyoftheprevi
ous1bitisposit
ive,
theei
ght0swi
l
lbeencodedaszer
o,zer
o,zer
o,
posi
ti
ve,
negati
ve,zer
o,negat
ive,
posit
ive.

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on

I
fthepolari
tyofpr
evi
ous1biti
snegat
ive,
thent
heei
ght0swi
l
lbeencodedaszer
o,zer
o,zer
o,
negat
ive,posi
ti
ve,
zer
o,posi
ti
ve,
negat
ive.
HDB3

HDB3st
andsf
orHi
gh-
Densi
tyBi
pol
ar3.

HDB3t
echni
quewasf
ir
stadopt
edi
nEur
opeandJapan.

HDB3t
echni
quei
sdesi
gnedt
opr
ovi
det
hesy
nchr
oni
zat
ionofal
ongsequenceof0sbi
ts.

I
ntheHDB3t
echni
que,
thepat
ter
nofv
iol
ati
oni
sbasedont
hepol
ari
tyoft
hepr
evi
ousbi
t.

Whenf
our0soccur
,HDB3l
ooksatt
henumberof1sbi
tsoccur
redsi
ncet
hel
astsubst
it
uti
on.

I
fthenumberof1sbi t
sisodd,t
henthevi
olat
ionismadeonthefourt
hconsecuti
veof0.I
fthe
pol
ari
tyoft
hepr ev
iousbi
tisposi
ti
ve,t
hentheviol
ati
oni
sposit
ive.I
fthepol
ari
tyoft
heprevi
ous
bi
tisnegat
ive,
thenthevi
olat
ioni
snegati
ve.

I
fthenumberof1sbi
tssi
ncet
hel
astsubst
it
uti
oni
sodd.

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on

Ift
henumberof1sbi t
siseven,thenthev i
olat
ionismadeont heplaceofthefi
rstandfourt
h
consecuti
ve0s.I
fthepolar
it
yoft heprevi
ousbitisposit
ive,
thenvi
olati
onsarenegati
ve,andif
thepolar
it
yoftheprev
iousbiti
snegat i
ve,thenvi
olat
ionsareposi
ti
v e.

I
fthenumberof1sbi
tssi
ncet
hel
astsubst
it
uti
oni
sev
en.

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on

ANALOG-
TO-
DIGI
TALCONVERSI
ON

Whenananal
ogsi
gnal
isdi
git
ali
zed,
thi
siscal
l
edananal
og-
to-
digi
tal
conv
ersi
on.

Supposehumansendsav oicei
nt heform ofananalogsignal
,weneedtodi
gital
i
zetheanal
og
si
gnalwhichi
slesspronetonoi
se.Itrequi
resar educt
ioninthenumberofv
aluesinananal
og
messagesothattheycanberepresentedinthedigi
talst
ream.

Inanal
og-t
o-di
git
alconversi
on,
thei
nfor
mat
ioncont
ainedi
nacont
inuouswav
efor
mis
conver
tedindi
git
alpulses.

Techni
quesf
orAnal
og-
To-
Digi
tal
Conv
ersi
on

PAM
PAM st
andsf
orpul
seampl
i
tudemodul
ati
on.

PAM i
sat
echni
queusedi
nanal
og-
to-
digi
tal
conv
ersi
on.

PAM techniquetakesananal
ogsi
gnal,
sampl
esi
t,andgener
atesaseri
esofdigi
tal
pul
ses
basedont heresultofsampl
i
ngwheresampl
i
ngmeansmeasur i
ngtheampli
tudeofasi
gnal
at
equali
nterval
s.

PAM techni
queisnotusef
uli
ndat
acommuni cat
ionasitt
ranslat
estheor
igi
nalwav
eformint
o
pul
ses,butthesepul
sesar
enotdi
git
al.Tomakethem di
git
al,PAM t
echni
queismodif
iedt
o
PCM techni
que.

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on

PCM

PCM st
andsf
orPul
seCodeModul
ati
on.

PCM techniqueisusedtomodi fyt

hepulsescreat
edbyPAM tofor
m adi
git
alsignal
.Toachi
eve
thi
s,PCM quantizesPAM pulses.Quant
izat
ionisapr
ocessofassi
gni
ngi
ntegralval
uesi
na
speci
fi
cr angetosampledinstances.

PCM ismadeoffoursepar
atepr
ocesses:
PAM,
quant
izat
ion,
binar
yencodi
ng,
anddi
git
al-
to-
di
git
alencodi
ng.

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on

PCM

Di
git
alTr
ansmi
ssi
on