CHAPTER 1: ROCKS AND MINERALS AND THEIR EXPLOITATION

The planet Earth was formed about 4.5

billion years ago.

● The force of gravity pulled the heavier

elements together first, forming the CORE.

● The lighter elements then formed the

Earth’s CRUST about 3-4 billion years ago.

● The MANTLE developed as a layer

between the dense core and the light crust.

1.1 The formation of rocks and minerals

 Rocks are sedimentary rocks form from the accumulation of organic material.
 All rock types are constantly eroded and formed in the ROCK CYCLE.

 Igneous rocks: Formed when molten rock (magma) from the crust and the upper mantle cools and solidifies to
form a hard crystalline rock. Magma is found in the outer mantle; it is hot, liquid rock that is under pressure
from the rocks above it. Liquid magma rises to the surface from volcanoes the cooling occurs quickly and forms
lava.

 Sedimentary rocks: The formation of sedimentary rocks involves three stages: deposition, compaction and
cementation. Sedimentary rocks are formed by weathering of existing rocks at the Earth’s surface, the
accumulation and fossilisation of living material, or the precipitation of dissolved materials out of solution in
water. They can be either mechanically or chemically formed.
 Mechanically: Minerals from rocks broken down by weathering and erosion are transported and
deposited as sediment in low energy environments.
 As more sediment accumulates above, the lower layers are buried and compacted under the
weight of the overlying deposits, water content is squeezed out and they harden.
 Eventually, the individual mineral particles become cemented together by a matrix mineral
precipitated from water passing through them.
 Chemically: Some rocks are formed by precipitation of a mineral from a saturated solution,
usually when tropical sea water is evaporated.
 Limestones are biochemical in origin, as they contain calcareous fossil around which the
cementing mineral, calcita, has been precipitated.

 Metamorphic rocks: They are formed from existing rocks, when the heat and pressure cause a change in the
rock. Or both, heat and pressure, causes changes in the rock crystals without melting the existing rock. The
existing rock therefore changes in structure, becoming a metamorphic rock. The changes in structure can be
CHEMICAL or PHYSICAL or BOTH. Metamorphism changes some of the minerals in the original rock to new
minerals. Great pressure caused slate to have cleavage, which allows it to be split into thin, parallel, flat sheets,
making it useful roofing material. Sedimentary and igneous rocks can become metamorphic rocks, and a
metamorphic rock can become another metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rocks are usually harder than
sedimentary rocks.

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1.2 Extraction of rocks and minerals from the Earth
 The decision whether or not to extract rocks and minerals for use depends on a number of factors.
 Economic factors used to be most important but in some countries environmental factors are now regarded as
equally important.
 THE DEMAND FOR MINERALS CONTINUES TO INCREASE, BOTH FROM DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES.
Searching for minerals

 Prospecting: The simplest way to find a mineral deposit is to look carefully at the surface of rocks/ nearly the
surface deposits of minerals worldwide.
 Remote sensing: a method to look minerals in areas of land that can be photographed from the air and the
images will be analysed for signs of minerals. Aerial photography can cover much more ground than a person
walking over the surface of rocks. Images and other data from satellites can also be used to analyse very large
areas. Other satellites operate by sending signals to the surface of the Earth and then collecting reflected
signals. Minerals ores can be located from the satellite images. The satellites positioning the exact location and
then the geologist visit the place to confirm the minerals have been identified correctly. = USING SATELLITES
MEANS LARGE AREAS CAN BE GEOLOGICALLY MAPPED QUICKLY AND AT LOW COST.
 Geochemical: field surveys on the ground are used to take samples. They are send to a laboratory for
geochemical analysis so that the chemicals in the samples can be identified (productos quimicos). That samples
they take it from sediments, soil or rocks. The points where the samples are taken are usually selected by
overlaying a grid on a map of the survey area. The location can be found using the Global Positioning System
(GPS).
 Geophysics: a series of vibration (seismic waves) are sent through the Earth´s surface. The vibration creates
shock waves that travel down into the rock layers and are reflected back to the sensors on the surface. The
shocks waves record different patters depending on what minerals are present in the rocks layers. Explosives
can be used instead of vibrations but this is more dangerous.
Mining rocks and minerals

Evaluation: Is to estimate the grade and tonnage of the mineral of interest present in a deposit. Drilling to
collect rock samples must be done to carry out a resource evaluation. For small deposits, only a few samples are
needed. For larger deposits, more drilling is required, following a grid pattern on the ground. The aim is to
identify the size of the deposit as well as the mixture of mineral ores present. The deposit may be classified as a
mineral ore reserve and they take into account the amount of material that is practical to extract. They evaluate
all the financial and technical risk of any proposed mining project.
Methods of extraction

 Surface mining (open-cast, open-pit, open-cut, strip-mining) = This is used where the mineral ore or rock to be
extracted is within about 100 metres of the surface.
Open pit mining is called open cast or open cut mining. This type of mining is used when a valuable deposit is
located near the surface often buried below a thick layer of worthless material. The material above the deposit
is called overburden. Open pit mines are carefully dug in sections called benches. The walls of the benches are
kept at an angle to reduce the risk of rock falls. Building materials such as sand, gravel and stone are removed
from open pit called quarries.
There are two main reasons why open-pit mines eventually stop being worked.
 A lot of valuable deposit have been removed
 The amount of overburden that needs to be removed increased to an extend that the mine is no
longer profitable.
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 Overburden: consist of the overlying rock and soil is removed.

 Sub- surface mining (deep mining or shaft mining) = Only large deposits of valuable minerals are mined in
this way.
Involves digging tunnels into the ground to reach mineral deposits that are too deep to be removed by surface
mining. Sometimes horizontal tunnels are dug directly into the coal seam in the side of a hill or mountain: this is
a drift mine entered by an adit.
 Vertical shaft: is more expensive and more challenging than either horizontal or slope tunneling, just
large deposits of valuable minerals are mined in this was.
 Most of the materials is removed from mines by machine. The miners job is to make sure that all the
machines are working and safely. Compared with open pit, shaft mining is more difficult because a
supply of fresh water drainage has to be provided. There are also the dangers of collapsing tunnels
and the risk of poisonous gas, explosion and underground fire.

Factors affecting the viability of extraction of minerals

 Once a mineral deposit has been located, a mining company has to decide whether it should mine the deposit or
not. Mining companies need to consider a range of issues when planning to open a mine, including:
 Costs of exploration and extraction
 Geology
 Climate
 Accessibility
 The environmental impact
Mining business

 A mineral source must be VIABLE to be extracted. This means that it has to be worthwhile for a company to
mine the resource, meaning that the mineral resource must be LARGE enough, and of sufficient value, for
mining to be economically viable
 Supply and demand= The relationship between how much of a commodity is available and how much is needed
or wanted by consumers of the product. IF THE DEMAND INCREASE= ITS WORLD MARKET PRICE INCREASES AS
WELL.
 Strike rate: the frequency with which attempts to find a desire minerals are successful.

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1.3 Impact of rock and mineral extraction
Environmental impacts= the pollution destroys the atmosphere, land and water

 Loss of habitats: excavation and waste heaps destroy habitats, causing wildlife to leave the area and the death
of slow moving or sedentary ones. The destruction of vegetation removes food supplies, cover from predators
and nesting sites.
 Land pollution: soil can be contaminated by toxic particles in wind-blown dust and by chemical spills. Open
mining produces large volumes of waste. The waste heaps on the surface pollute the land. Once the soil has
been removed, it is difficult for the plants to grow again.
 Water pollution: surface streams and ground water supplies can be contaminated and become unfit for human
consumption. The soil and sediment eroded from waste heaps can build up in streams and degrade the water
quality, alter aquatic habitats and reduce the water content.
 Air pollution: pollutants in the atmosphere can have serious effects on people’s health and on the environment.
The dust particles from excavators, blasting, transportation, wind erosion of waste heaps, dust from tailing,
waste dumps etc. pollute the air. Air pollution from trucks, cars, heavy equipment, gases emitted from
combustion of fuel during minerals processing.
 Noise pollution: Noise pollution from drilling, blasting, loading and unloading dumper vehicles and vehicle
engines frighten wildlife, disrupts breeding and disturbs nearby residents.
 Visual impact: another problem is the visual impact. The mine building, chimneys, waste heaps, derelict sites
and land covered with dust look ugly. Thus, trees are often planted as screens around mining sites to reduce the
visual pollution
Ecological Impacts

Mining activities involve the loss of habitats for animals and plants. This does not allow animals to feed because they
depend on the plants for food and shelter and plants to grow. In deep mining only a small piece of land is cleared,
because they have to work on it. After it works, they will be dug up more as the mining waste store aboveground
increases. The new vegetation that restored the land where it was mined, will have less biodiversity (animals or plants
will be lost) compared with the original. (a slow process).
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  Environmental impact assessment (EIA): is a process of evaluating the possible types of damage to the
environment, taking into account inter-related socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts.
 Licence to start working
 The company have to detailed plans to control the amount of damage to the environment,
Pollution

We have different pollution: noise, water, land, air and visuals.

 Noise pollution: The overburden is loosened by explosives. The noise of the use of explosives can cause the
behaviour of animals and health problems in people. Mining licences set limits of the levels of noise and
working hours.
 Water pollution: The water drains through mine waste and this change in the living organisms in rivers or
stems. This is caused by chemical reactions between water exposed rocks and mine waste. The water becomes
acidic and then releases toxic metal ions. This toxicity became higher (ph+) and the organisms absorbed these
ions and became higher in the water, called bioaccumulation (process of accumulation of chemicals in an
organism that takes place if the rate of intake exceeds the rate of excretion).
 Biomagnification= The concentration of a substance in living things becomes higher=This concentration can cause
the death of top consumers
 Land pollution: the land surrounding a mine will become polluted by mine waste. The area can be small but the
toxic nature of the waste means that only a few plants can grow.
 Air pollution: Dust reduces plant growth, because they need to absorb light to do photosynthesis. Dust also can
cause health problems, because the dust remains in the lungs. Because of this, mining companies should
provide safety clothing and breathing masks to protect the health of mine workers.
 Visual pollution: In mining activity the landscape is damaged. This damage is temporary because careful
restoration of the landscape is possible.
Economic impacts

 Extracting valuable minerals provides employment for people and provides taxes for the government.
 Importing the minerals to another country, this created jobs.
 Mineral extraction= benefits local and national economies:
 Jobs are created to extract minerals
 Jobs are created to supply transport and mining equipment.
 More jobs are created when the mineral is refined to make products.
 The mining companies should provide education, healthcare and transport for the mineworkers and their families.
 The taxes that the mining companies and mining workers paid= benefit of the country to invest in infrastructure
projects

1.4 Managing the impact of rock and minerals extraction

Mining operations should start with plans for safe disposal and end with plans to return the land.

 Safe disposal of mining waste: In the past, mining waste was put in piles near the point of extraction=water
courses polluted. Nowadays, safe storage and disposal of mine waste is important for a mining licence application.
The plan must include details of how the waste will be restored to detect any movement or water pollution.
 Land restoration and bioremediation: Land restoration and bioremediation: The waste can be covered by a
layer of soil with fertiliser. Trees can help other plants and animals to colonise the area. By the time, the soil will be
enriched by plant and animal waste.

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 Some mine waste does not allow the growth of trees, so they had to use other methods. Contaminated waste can
be treated where it was left (in-situ, that is treated in the place) by bioremediation. The waste can be removed
from a site to a treatment plant (ex-situ, that the piece of land is taken to another place to fix it).
Bioremediation is the process of removing pollutants from waste using living organisms. The microorganisms
are able to absorb pollutants and process them via metabolic pathways into less harmful substances.
Some plants bioaccumulate toxic metals, they can speeded up with the addition of fertilisers. The plants absorb
toxic metals and later the plants aboveground are removed so the waste in the ground becomes less toxic.
Despite the ground surface is less toxic, the land can´t be used for farming or building houses.
Mineral extraction often created large holes in the landscape. They used water to form reservoirs. The water could
be used for irrigating farmland or processed to provide clean, safe drinking water for humans. Ecological
Restoration International(SERI) a successful scheme will return the site to as close as possible to the native
ecosystem that existed before the mining activity.
 Landfill: the waste is covered with soil and planted with trees.
 Making lakes and nature reserves: Some holes are filled with water to create artificial lakes for sailing, fishing
and water sports. Areas with water-filled holes can become nature reserves. If the rocks in the area safe, holes can
be used for reservoirs for water supply. Abandoned quarries that have been cut into hillsides can be used for
recreation, such as rock climbing, or left for vegetation to regenerate for wildlife.

1.5 Sustainable use of rocks and minerals

Sustainable: use that meets the needs of the present without affecting the ability of future generations to meet their
needs. A sustainable resource will never run out. The aim is a planned and controlled use of any reserve to provide the
most benefit to people, maintain economic growth and stability and prevent widespread environmental damage. It may
be possible to find substitutes for the use of relatively scarce materials.
Efficiency of extraction

 Underground coal mines remove very little because of the technical difficulties of extracting the remaining coal in a
safe and cost effective manner. Open- pit mining is more efficient at extraction than underground mining but some
wastage still occurs.
 Mine waste is being processed for a second time. This allows valuable materials to be recovered and reduces the risk
of pollution. New methods of extractions:
 Include chemical treatment of the waste.
 Biological treatment with microorganisms can also be used to extract more product from the waste. Surface
mining has more potential for an increase in efficiency of extraction than underground mining=more difficult
to predict geological conditions underground.
Efficiency of use and recycling

 Recycling materials makes an important contribution to the sustainable use of rocks and minerals. Most metals
can be recovered and refined back to clean metals to be used by industries again. It is hoped this will encourage
them to make more durable products that use less minerals and last longer.
 The way in which the government is trying to encourage a more sustainable use of minerals and rocks is to pass
laws that require manufacturers to become responsible for recycling and reuse.
 Succession: Is the natural process in which an ecosystem returns to its original state

CHAPTER 2: ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

2.1 Fossil fuels

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The world population uses energy in a variety of ways: direct combustion (burning) to produce heat and light. There are
other sources that are far more energy dense, producing a greater amount of heat from a unit of fuel. Fossil fuel is
carbon based fuel, formed over many millions of years from the decay of living matter (natural gas, coal and oil)
How fossil fuels are made

Fossil fuels= it takes a lot of time to produce them. It produced from the decay of plants and animals (organic matter).
The organic matter became covered in layers of sediment subjected to great pressure and heat.

FOSSIL FUELS=LIMITED SUPPLY BECAUSE IT TAKES A LOT OF TIME TO PRODUCE THEM.

2.2 Energy resources

The demand for energy is increasing worldwide

 Increasing population size

 Increasing industrialization and urbanisation
 Improvements in standards of living and expectation

Existing sources need to be used more efficiently and methods that until now have been too difficult or too expensive to
use need to be explored further.
Types of energy sources

Different types of energy sources can be described by weather they are limited resources or available in unlimited
supplied

 Non-renewable: limit sourced of energy that cannot be replaced (oil, coal, natural gas, nuclear power)
 Renewable: sources of energy are those than can be replenished and therefore can be used over and over again
(geothermal, hydroelectric, tidal, wave, wind, solar, biofuels, bioethanol, biogas and wood)

Other source that can replaced fossil fuels are nuclear fuels, but the source material (uranium) is only available in
limited supply, so it cannot be replaced. In the other hand, biofuels include the burning of wood is classified as being
renewable.
How energy sources are used

Energy sources= is used to manufacture of electricity

Most electricity is generated by electromagnetic induction. The man transforms kinetic energy into electrical energy
using loops of a conduction material such as copper and a magnet. As the coils are rotated close the magnet, electricity
is generated. The process within this generator has been made more and more efficient. A power source is needed to
rotate the coils. This comes from a turbine connected to the generator.

 Electromagnetic induction: a process used for generating electricity that uses the movement of a metal coil and
magnet.
 Generator: a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical power.
 Turbine: a machine, often containing fins, that is made to revolve by the use of gas, steam or air.

Energy sourced such us fossil fuels, biofuels and nuclear and geothermal power are usually used to heat up water to
produce steam. Wind, wave, tidal, and hydroelectric power are used to turn a turbine direct without the need to
produce steam first.

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  Solar power: harnessing energy from sunlight. Most electricity produced by this method uses photovoltaic cells.
This small cells changed when they are exposed to light. Many of the metals used within them are relatively rare
and expensive to obtain.
 Tidal power: the use of tides (the natural change in sea levels) to generate electricity. The amount of power that
is generated is dependent on the change in the tidal level throughout the day.
 Wave power: the use of changes in the height of a body of water to generate electricity (caused by wind
action). Electricity generation may stop when calm weather conditions mean that there is little or no wave
production in an area.
 Nuclear power: Nuclear energy is a form of energy released from the nucleus, the core of atoms, made up of
protons and neutrons. This source of energy can be produced in two ways: fission – when nuclei of atoms split
into several parts – or fusion – when nuclei fuse together.
 Geothermal power: Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy taken from the Earth’s core. It comes
from heat generated during the original formation of the planet and the radioactive decay of materials. This
thermal energy is stored in rocks and fluids in the centre of the earth.
 Hydroelectric power: electricity produced from generators driven by turbines that convert the potential energy
of falling or fast-flowing water into mechanical energy.

Biofuels: the future of fuels or a misguided technology?

 Fuels that are extracted from crop plants are known as biofuels, bioethanol, biogas and wood.
 Bioethanol is a renewable energy that is mainly produce by fermentation of the sugar found in some crops.
These crops are often grown especially for biofuel production. Bioethanol can be used as a substitute for
petroleum(gasoline).
 Biogas is a mixture of gases formed by the decomposition of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas
can be produced from a range of organic wasted such as animal manure, food waste and household waste.

Advantages
Easy to resource: crops=renewable source
Reduce greenhouse gases: the burning of fossil fuels
increases the carbon dioxide. But the bioethanol, the
plants grown to provide the fuel use carbon dioxide to
produce sugar via the process of photosynthesis
Economic security: not all countries have supply of oil
but many can grow crops to produce bioethanol= the
country can produce their own fuel.
Disadvantages
Food shortages: bioethanol produce crops with high
quantities of sugar that also tend to be food crops. When
there are people short of food it does not seem right to
use potential food as fuel rather than feeding the hungry.
Water usage: the crops need a lot of water= shortage of
water to the people
Industrial pollution: bioethanol emit pollutants which can
affect the local population
Monoculture: The energy crops used to make bioethanol
are grown in the same large fields. The soil becomes short
of nutrients, adding fertilizers cause water pollution and
the crop will also need the application of pesticides, which
will affect the local ecosystem.

Using the different energy sources

Economic factors

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The supply of energy is expensive, where the demand is ever increasing and the supply from many sources is limited. If a
fuel is in high demand and in short supply, the price rises. If a country has its own fuel supply, then it can often use this
more cheaply than importing other sourced from other countries.

While plentiful supply and ease of access might be good economic arguments for using certain types of fuel, some
countries face an economic barrier that prevents them from using certain energy sources. Invest in technology=prevent
a country to develop a solar power.
Social factors

The impact of different fuel sources will depend on the local area and the industry that it supports: the mining of an area
for coal or drilling for oil might mean that the land is no longer available for agricultural use. The increase in industry
locally might also mean that other businesses are needed to supply the needs of the energy business and its workers.
Largescale project = provide improvements to the local infrastructure.

The energy business could also cause the displacement of a whole community. The development of new technologies
might be a great asset to a community if it brings new manufacturing opportunities to the area, but it would be a
disadvantage for those working in a sector that then stars to decline.

Development of new energy sources= change the political relationships and trading patterns.

Health effects on the population= dust from extraction, noxious fumes from combustion or the risk of radiation from
nuclear power.
Environmental factors

Renewable sources= do not produce carbon dioxide, which are linked to climate change

Biofuels=produce carbon dioxide

 Pollution: spillage of fuel into the environment such as oil spills in the ocean, can cause damage to wildlife.
Burning fuels can also produce toxic gases and waste products.
 Changes to the ecosystem: extraction of fuels from underground can destroy habitats or their food sources.
 Visual impact: the nature of the landscape can be changed; the turbines affect the area natural beauty.

2.3 The demand for energy

Humans use of energy will continue to increase, with the challenge of a limited supply of non-renewable resources. The
world price of no- renewable energy sources will continue to rise with the increase in demand and there is only a finite
amount of these resources.
Industrial demand

Iron and steel production has an extremely large energy demand, using fuel to melt iron ore and refine it. The advance
in manufacturing techniques has resulted in technological advances in the products and also made them more
affordable. This means that many items are no longer considered as luxuries but instead as necessities: more people
want to buy them, and the increase in demand leads to increasing energy needs for increased production.
Domestic demand

More necessity= more demand= more demand for energy supplies, most notably the need for a reliable electricity
source.

Domestic demand and changing purchasing patterns have resulted in consumers in some countries wanting and
expecting to be able to get fruit and vegetables that are not naturally in season locally= the energy cost is significant.

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Transport demand

Manufacturers decrease=production cost increase the cost of transportation.

Transport= require large amounts of fossil fuels to operate. The cost of transporting goods across oceans is
significant=the amount of energy used in this process is greater than if produced locally.
Economic factors

If economic conditions are good, there will be higher employment and more money to expend in luxury items. If
economic conditions are poor, families will have less available money and will need to make savings, which could include
reducing the use of fuel and electrical items.

If a country has less income because of a reduction in manufacturing, it will have less ability to import foreign goods.

 Less manufacturing (less energy used)

 Fewer goods to transport (less energy used)
 An inability to purchase foreign energy supplies
 Reduction in demand for steel
 A decrease in the amount of manufactured goods transported by ships
 A decrease in the price of oil.
Climate

The energy demand for heating colder climates is likely to be far higher. In the winter months, the population also
experiences fewer hours of daylight, with a corresponding increase in use of electric lighting.

Climate change has resulted in extremes of weather that have not been experienced in over a generation= Increased
energy consumption from those living in urban areas.

2.4 Conservation and management of energy resources

Increased need for energy because of an increasing population, a greater demand by industrialization and improved
living standards. However, there could be agreement on careful management of the resources that are used.
Strategies for effective energy use

Reduce consumption

 There is the prospect of n energy gap: a difference between the potential demand and the available supply.
 Fuel rationing= is in problem
 It may be possible to use more equipment and less energy if the equipment uses energy more efficiently= less
waste.

How can this heat loss be reduced?

1. Insulation
2. Using construction material with good insulation properties will prevent loss of heat to the air= LESS HEAT LOST=
LESS ENERGY IS USED
3. Insulation layer into the roof space
4. Insulation layer (because the walls lost a lot of heat)
5. A reduction in window size would reduce this energy loss: double glazing the window. This technique uses two
panes of glass with a gap in the middle to act as an insulation.
Other ways of reducing consumption

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 1. Electrical devices should be turned off when not in used.
2. More energy- efficient device should be bought.
3. Scrappage: the consumer is paid a sum of money to trade in their old machine, which is then recycled= the
purchase of a new version improves energy efficiency= Great impact on air.
Energy from waste

 Finite resources such as fossil fuels can be reduced by reusing existing materials to extract the energy.
 Anaerobic digestion is the breaking down of organic waste using bacteria= produce methane= used for heating
purposes.
 Household rubbish can be incinerated to produced heat= can produce poisonous gases during combustion, the
waste is small in volume and does not take up lots of space when disposed of.
 Collect oil and recycle them into biofuels suitable for running vehicles
Education

 Special energy conservation departments to help promote new way of thinking and the purchase or more
energy- efficient systems
 Investments in new equipment for the home or factory might be expensive
 Re in forced by governments insisting that energy efficiency ratings are provided for new products.
 Governments have passed laws to make changes happen more rapidly:
1. More energy efficient
2. Preventing the sale of inefficient types of light
 Insulating older houses that are energy inefficient
 Replacing older, inefficient heating boilers
 Scrapping older, inefficient cars, which also emit more pollutants into the air.
Exploiting existing energy sources

 Extraction is too high and it is perhaps cheaper to import fuel to provide the energy needed.
 Coal extraction a suitable option in the future.
 Renewable sources are not always consistently available, presenting problems for maintaining a consistent
supply.
 Biofuels could reduce the amount of fossil fuels that need to be burnt, but there are insufficient supplies of
renewable sources worldwide.
Transport policies

Governments have a large part to play in regulating the use of transports and encouraging more efficient use

Current government initiatives include:

 Regulations regarding the quality of exhaust gases from vehicles, and fuel efficiency
 Restrictions on where vehicles may go
 Taxation on fuels
 Surcharges for travelling to certain places
 Improving public transports
 Improving routes for cyclists and pedestrians
 Encouraging car- sharing
 Restricting when cars can be used
 Providing grants to buy more fuel- efficient vehicles
 Providing grants for vehicles using cleaner technologies such as electric- powered vehicles
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Develop of new resources

Fracking is the process of obtaining oil or gas from sale rock by the breaking open to rocks using water with chemicals
and sand.

Fracking involves blasting large amounts of water, sand and chemicals deep underground to extract oil and gas in which
a vertical hole/wellbore is drilled 2-3 km deep to reach the fuel rich rocks, Water, chemicals and sand are pumped down
into the shale rock layer under pressure. This causes the rocks to fracture, realizing the oil and natural gas, which are,
forced back to the surface and collected.

1. Water is used because is easy to handle

2. Chemicals to stop the blockage of pipes toxic)
3. Sand help to keep the cracks in the rock open.

Fracking is safe and should be encouraged because Fracking is unsafe and should be banned because
(economic reasons) (Environmental reasons)
It allows access to more gas and oil, which are in limited There is a risk of toxins from fracking entering the
supply water table

Using gas and oil produced less pollution than burning The mixture of chemicals used is toxic and may effect
coal, so it is better to extract extra supplies than rely on local residents
coal

It reduced the need to import oil or gas from other Fracking uses a lot of water, which may reduce
countries availability for other purposes

Shale rocks is a long way underground, far below the Noise pollution: fracking in an area will affect the local
water table, so poses little threat. community

Oil and gas have been drilled for many years and this just Natural areas will be destroying when new drills are
another deep method developed

Fracking will supply many jobs locally Fracturing lower lovers of rocks may cause additional
earth tremors

The longer term impact of the technology is not

known and any damage dome may be irreparable

2.5 Impact of oil pollution

Oil is toxic material and spillages can cause great damage; crude oil is flammable Oil is:

 Easy to store and transport

 Easy to extract from the ground than solid materials such as coal
 Made different products
 Produce less pollution compared with coal

Oil is not present in every location, so the supplies have to be transported great distances to reach the customers. Also,
those who have oil reserves have great economic power because the demand is so great.

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The spread of the oil and the difficulty in cleaning it up. Oil spills at sea generally have a far greater impact than those on
the land.

Causes for marine spills are:

1. Offshore oil extraction, with leakage from the rigs
2. Oil pipelines, with leaks in the pipework moving the oil to storage
3. Shipping and transporting the oil, with the risk of collision or damage to the oil tankers.
How does an oil spill impact a marine ecosystem?

The damage or removal of any marine organism will have an impact on the food web for the area, potentially resulting
in food shortages for animal that use the initially explosion of organisms in their predator has been removed.

Oil spill can cause the extinction of a species within a locality or the loss of an entire species.

The long-term impact of an oil spill is not fully known, some organisms are killed outright, but the long term effects on
the health of organism consuming quantities of oil during the first generation and future generations is uncertain.

Oil slicks will also have an impact on the local economy of affected coastal areas. There may be a reduction in fish
population, which will affect the livelihoods of fishers as well as effect the availability of food for local. Coastal areas rely
on the tourist industry, and oil on beaches can have an impact on tourism by reducing an area's attractiveness as a
holiday destination.

2.6 Management of oil pollution

Reducing oil spills in marine environments

MARPOL is the international convention for the pollution from ships and sets out a number of regulations covering
pollution by oil, sewage, rubbish and toxic liquids among other Prior to MARPOL it was common for ships to dispose of
waste, or clean their storage tanks, in the middle of an ocean, with unknown environmental effects.

Rules have been introduced to cover the process of transferring crude oil from one vessel to another while at sea,
common cause of smaller oil spills. All tankers must be certificated to show they have appropriate systems in place, and
records to show that they are being used. Failure to comply with these regulations can result in a heavy fine or the ship
not being given permission to leave port until suitable systems are in place and verified as working.
Tanker designs

Is an increase in the number of the compartments contained within the hull of the ship: if there is damage in one section
the contents of the whole hull are not lost. The second one, the introduction of double hulled tankers. A double-hulled
ship is one that has been built with two hulls, so that if there is damage to the outer layer the contents are still held
securely by the inner plate. The cost of building double-hulled tankers is significantly more than the cost of a single
hulled ship but the risk of oil spillage is far less Double hulled tankers have not prevented all spills, there is evidence of a
significant reduction.
Minimising the impact of oil spills

These techniques will depend very much on local weather conditions, the proximity to land and calmness of the sea.

 Floating booms: A boom is a floating barrier that can be used to surround the oil slick and prevent it spreading
to other areas. This process works when the spill is covers a relatively small area and the sea is calm. It can also
use as a barrier to protect environmentally sensitive areas, Booms do not work very well when the sea is rough
and stormy, conditions that sometimes were the cause of the damage of the ship.

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 Detergent sprays: detergent help break down the oil slick into smaller droplets and disperse it. The smaller
droplets of oil will float away and degrade over time, also this technique can cause more environmental damage
than the crude oil. Coral reefs appear to have a low tolerance to detergents.
 Skimmers: These clean the water without charging the chemicals or physical properties of the oil. Using a
material that of easily attaches to, the skimmer drags of off the seawater surface, which is then mechanically
scraped off into a container. This system is often used once an oil slick has been contained within a boom. It is a
very useful technique, but skimmers will not work effectively in rough or stormy sea conditions.

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