Module 4

FUELS

Introduction

Humans and our ancestors have used fire for a very long time. Maybe even for
over a million years, long before the advent of modern humans. Learning to set a piece
of wood on fire gave us several benefits: we could cook our food, scare away wild
animals, on a cold night we could get warm and comfortable.

Later, people found an alternative to firewood right under our feet! It was a hard
rocky substance, made up mostly of carbon – coal. And it seemed to be in unlimited
supply. Coal burns like wood, but we can get a lot more energy from coal compared to
wood. These two things – lots of energy and large supply – turned out to be important
when the coal-burning steam engine was introduced.

With the help of this invention, we could do even more things. Now, burning stuff
could replace muscle power to lift, press, cut, and move things.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. discuss about fuels and its classification

2. give various examples of fuels for each type
3. explain the distillation process of petroleum

I. What is FUEL?

Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as a main constituent, which on

proper burning gives large amount of heat, which can be used economically for
domestic and industrial purpose.
The concept was originally applied solely to those materials capable of releasing
chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as
nuclear energy (via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion).

During the process of combustion, carbon, hydrogen, etc., combine with oxygen
with a liberation of heat.
The combustion reaction can be explained as

The calorific value of a fuel depends mainly on the amount of Carbon and
Hydrogen.
II. Requirements of a Good Fuel
A good fuel should have the following characteristics
 High calorific value.
 Moderate ignition temperature.
 Low contents of non-combustible matters.
 Low moisture content.
 Free from objectionable and harmful gases like CO, SOx, H2S.
 Moderate velocity of combustion.
 Combustion should be controllable.
 Easy to transport and readily available at low cost.

III. What are Chemical Fuels?

Chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances
around them, most notably by the process of combustion. Most of the chemical energy
released in combustion was not stored in the chemical bonds of the fuel, but in the weak
double bond of molecular oxygen.

Chemical Fuels Based on Occurrence

A. Primary (natural fuel) – these are found in nature

Ex. wood, coal, petroleum, natural gas
B. Secondary (artificial fuel) – these are derived from primary fuels
Ex. coke, charcoal, diesel, LPG, kerosene, methane

Chemical Fuels Based on their Physical Properties

A. Solid fuel
B. Liquid fuel
C. Gaseous fuel

IV. Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are those, which have been derived from fossil remains of plant and
animal life. They are found in the earth’s crust.

All conventional fossil fuels whether solid, liquid or gaseous (coal, petroleum or
Natural gas) contain basically carbon and/or hydrogen. The fuels on combustion in
presence of oxygen in the air release heat energy.

This heat energy can be utilized for domestic and industrial purposes.

V. Solid Fuel

Solid fuel refers to various types of solid materials that are used as fuel to
produce energy and provide heating, usually released through combustion.
Uses of Solid Fuel

1. to create fire
2. fire furnaces
3. run steam engines
4. run steam locomotives
5. electricity generation

Types of Solid Fuel

1. wood 6. straw
2. coal 7. charcoal
3. oil shale 8. coke
4. tanbark 9. briquettes
5. bagasse

Advantages of Solid Fuels

1. Handling and transportation of solid fuels are easy.

2. Solid fuels are cheap and easily available.
3. They have a moderate ignition temperature.
4. This type of fuel can be stored conveniently without any risk.

Disadvantages of Solid Fuels

1. During burning, solid fuels produce a large amount of ash and disposal of ash is a
big problem.
2. The calorific value of solid fuel is comparatively low.
3. Since a lot of air is required for complete combustion, its thermal efficiency is
not so high.
4. A large space is required for storage.
5. Combustion is a slow process and it cannot be easily controlled.

VI. Liquid Fuels

Liquid fuels are combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be

harnessed to create mechanical energy, usually producing kinetic energy.

Most liquid fuels in widespread use are derived from the fossilized remains of
dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure inside the Earth’s crust.

Types of Liquid Fuel

1. Petroleum
2. Oils from distillation of petroleum (diesel, kerosene, gasoline)
3. Coal tar
4. Alcohols (methanol, ethanol)
Properties of Liquid Fuels

1. Density – the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a
reference temperature of 15 OC. The unit of measurement for density is
kg/m3 and is measured by a hydrometer.
2. Specific Gravity – is the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the
weight of the same volume of water at a given temperature. The density of
fuel, relative to water is called specific gravity.
3. Viscosity – is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity depends on
the temperature and decreases as the temperature increases. It is an
important characteristic for storage and use of fuel oil. It influences the
degree of pre-heating required for handling, storage and satisfactory
atomization. Highly viscous oils may become difficult to pump, hard to light the
burner and difficult to handle.
4. Pour Point – is the fuel’s lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when
cooled under prescribed conditions. It is a rough estimation of the lowest
temperature at which fuel oil is ready to be pumped.
5. Specific Heat – is the amount of calories needed to raise the temperature of
1 kg of oil by 1 OC. It varies from 0.22 to 0.28 depending on the oil’s specific
gravity.
6. Calorific Value – measures the heat or energy produced. Gross calorific value
(GCV) assumes all vapor produced during the combustion process is fully
condensed and Net calorific value (NCV) assumes the water leaves with the
combustion products without fully being condensed.
7. Sulfur Content – the amount of sulfur in the fuel oil depends on the source of
the crude oil and on the refining process. The sulfur content for the residual
fuel oil is in the order of 2-4%.
8. Ash Content – is related to the inorganic material or salts (compounds of
sodium, vanadium, calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, aluminum, nickel, etc.) in
the fuel oil. The ash has an erosive effect on the burner tips, causes damage
to the refractories at high temperatures and gives rise to high temperature
corrosion and fouling of equipment.
9. Carbon Residue – indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid
residue on a hot surface like burner and injection nozzle when its vaporizable
constituents evaporate. The residual oil contains carbon residue of 1% or
higher.
10. Water Content – water content is low when it is supplied because the product
at refinery site is handled hot. Water content can cause damage to the inside
surfaces of the furnace during combustion especially if it contains dissolved
salts for it can cause spluttering of the flame at the burner tip, possibly
extinguishing the flame, reducing the flame temperature.

Advantages of Liquid Fuels:

1. Liquid fuels do not yield any ash after burning.

 2. They require comparatively less storage space.
3. Calorific value of liquid fuel is higher than that of solid fuels.
4. Their combustion is uniform and easily controllable.

Disadvantages of Liquid Fuels:

1. Liquid fuels are comparatively costlier than the solid fuels.

2. They give unpleasant odor during incomplete combustion.
3. Some amount of liquid fuels will escape due to evaporation during storage.
4. Special type of burners are for effective combustion.

VII. Gaseous Fuel

Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that are gaseous under ordinary
conditions. Many fuel gases are composed of hydrocarbons (such as methane or
propane), hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or mixtures thereof. Such gases are sources of
potential heat energy or light energy that can be readily transmitted and distributed
through pipes from the point of origin directly to the place of consumption.

Types of Gaseous Fuel

1. Gases derived from coal

2. Blast furnace gas
3. Gases made from petroleum
4. Gases from oil gasification
5. Gases from some fermentation process

Advantages of Gaseous Fuels

1. Gaseous fuels can be easily transported through the pipes.

2. They do not produce any ash or smoke during burning.
3. They have high calorific value than the solid fuels.
4. They have high thermal efficiency.

Disadvantages of Gaseous Fuels

1. They are highly flammable and hence the chances for fire hazards are high.
2. Since gases occupy a large volume, they require large storage tanks.

VIII. Petroleum

Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring brown to black colored viscous oil
formed under the crust of earth, on shore or off shore. Chemically it is a mixture of
various hydrocarbons with small amounts of N, O, S compounds.
 The approximate composition of petroleum is
C = 80 – 84%
H = 10 – 14%
S = 0.1 – 0.5%
N + O = Negligible

Classification of Petroleum

Petroleum is classified on the basis of various types of hydrocarbons.

i) Paraffin Based Oil – Contains mainly n – alkanes

ii) Asphalt Based Oil – Contains aromatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons
iii) Mixed Based Oil – Contains higher proportion of aromatics and naphthenes
(cyclo alkanes)

Refining of Petroleum or Crude Oil

The process of removing impurities and separating out the oil into various
fractions having different boiling points is known as refining of petroleum

i) Removal of Impurities

The impurities present in the oil are the fine water droplets, NaCl, MgCl2, Sulfur,
etc. The crude oil is an extremely stable emulsion of oil and salt water. Water is
separated from the oil by Cottrell’s process using ring electrodes. In this method, the
crude oil is allowed to flow between two highly charged electrodes. The colloidal water
droplets combine to form large drops, which are then separated from oil.

Modern techniques like electrical desalting are used to remove NaCl and MgCl2
from oil.

Sulfur is removed by treating the oil with copper oxide and separated by
filtration.

ii) Fractional Distillation

The purified crude oil is heated in a furnace called oil heater where the
temperature will be around 400 OC. here the oil gets vaporized. The hot vapors are then
sent to the fractionating column.

It is a tall cylindrical tower consisting of a number of horizontal stainless tray at

short distances. Each tray is provided with a small chimney, which is covered with a
loose cap. The tower will be hot at the lower end and comparatively cooler at the upper
end.

When the oil vapors go up in the tower, they become cool and condense. The
heavier compounds having higher boiling points get cooled first and condensed in the
trays whereas the fractions having lower boiling points condense near the top of the
tower.
 Lower fractions are used after purification while the high boiling point fractions
are subjected to cracking operation to get more useful lower fractions.

The gasoline obtained by this fractional distillation is called straight-run gasoline.

Various fractions obtained at different trays are given in the table below.

Various Fractions, Compositions and Uses

Some Important Fractions of Petroleum

1. Petrol or Gasoline

It is used as a fuel in Internal Combustion engines and also used in dry

cleaning and as a solvent.

2. Naphtha

Naphtha is also called as white spirit, which is generally used in dry cleaning
and as thinner for varnish, floor and furniture polishes, etc. the lightest portion
of the distillate is used as solvent for fats and rubbers, whereas the heaviest
portion of the same is used as a fuel.

3. Kerosene

It is mainly used as a domestic fuel in stoves and lamps. It is also used as

jet engine fuel and for making oil gas.

It is used as a very good diesel engine fuel.

4. Heavy Oil or Residual Fuel Oil

It is used as fuel for ships and also used in metallurgical furnaces. Gasoline
is also obtained from oil by cracking process.

5. Asphalt

It is used for road making and making water-proofing roofs. It is also used
for the manufacture of water proofing concrete and water proofing paints.