Russia Notes

Contents
Dual Powers (1917)...............................................................................................................................4
Provisional government.....................................................................................................................4
Petrograd Soviet................................................................................................................................4
Mensheviks........................................................................................................................................4
Socialist Revolutionaries....................................................................................................................4
Bolsheviks..........................................................................................................................................4
Timeline of Revolution (1917)...............................................................................................................5
Factors Leading to the October Revolution.......................................................................................5
Early Bolshevik Legislations (1917)........................................................................................................6
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)...............................................................................................................7
Russian Civil War (1917-1922)...............................................................................................................8
War Communism...............................................................................................................................8
Reasons for Bolshevik Victory............................................................................................................8
Impact of Civil War............................................................................................................................8
New Economic Policy (1921).................................................................................................................9
Impact................................................................................................................................................9
Bolshevik Consolidation of Power (1921)............................................................................................10
Terror and War................................................................................................................................10
Political and Bureaucratic Power.....................................................................................................10
Economic Control............................................................................................................................10
Social Control...................................................................................................................................10
Power Struggle (1924).........................................................................................................................11
Lenin’s Death...................................................................................................................................11
Wings of the Bolsheviks...................................................................................................................11
Stalin................................................................................................................................................11
Trotsky.............................................................................................................................................11
Zinoviev and Kamenev.....................................................................................................................11
Bukharin..........................................................................................................................................11
Attacking Left...................................................................................................................................11
Attacking Right.................................................................................................................................11
Reasons for the Emergence of Stalin (1924)........................................................................................12
Economic Transformation and Industrialisation (1927-1941).............................................................13
 Motives............................................................................................................................................13
Five Year Plans.................................................................................................................................13
Gosplan............................................................................................................................................13
Stakhanovite Movement.................................................................................................................13
Failures............................................................................................................................................13
Success............................................................................................................................................13
Collectivisation (1928-1935)................................................................................................................14
Reasons...........................................................................................................................................14
Implementation...............................................................................................................................14
Successes off Collectivisation...........................................................................................................14
Failures of Collectivisation...............................................................................................................14
Societal Change (1929-).......................................................................................................................15
Charismatic Leadership, Censorship, Propaganda...........................................................................15
Constitution (1936)..........................................................................................................................15
Education (1935).............................................................................................................................15
Family Policies.................................................................................................................................15
Socialist Realism..............................................................................................................................15
Urban Living Conditions...................................................................................................................15
Rural Living Conditions....................................................................................................................15
Party Privilege..................................................................................................................................15
Ethnic Minorities.............................................................................................................................15
Cultural Change...................................................................................................................................16
Religion (1929).................................................................................................................................16
Entertainment (1930s).....................................................................................................................16
Architecture (1930s)........................................................................................................................16
Political Transformation Under Stalin (1930s).....................................................................................17
Use of Terror (1931-).......................................................................................................................17
Timeline of Terror............................................................................................................................17
Impact of Terror..............................................................................................................................17
Totalitarianism and Stalinism..............................................................................................................18
Features of Totalitarianism..............................................................................................................18
Revisionism......................................................................................................................................18
Foreign Policy (1917-1941)..................................................................................................................19
Dual Powers (1917)

- Following the deposition of the Tsar, the provisional government was set up by the Duma
until elections could be held
- The Petrograd Soviet held much influence, and the two essentially governed Russia together

Provisional government
- Formed by the Duma in March 1917
- Led by Kerensky and Lvov
- Not elected, and were unpopular with populace
- Were supported by the upper class and bourgeoisie

Petrograd Soviet
- Formed February 1917
- Union of soldiers, workers peasants
- Members were elected from various soviets across Russia
- Large popular support
- Composed mainly of Mensheviks, Socialist Revolutionaries (moderates), and Bolsheviks
(radicals)

Mensheviks
- Led by Julius Martov
- Believed capitalism was too underdeveloped to successfully implement socialism
- Sought democracy
- Continued involvement in WW1
- Supported by urban workers and moderate socialists

Socialist Revolutionaries
- Similar to and supported Alexander Kerensky
- Sought nationalisation of land
- Separated into right and left wings
- Right sought participation in PG, and involvement in WW1
- Left sought direction and supported the Bolsheviks
- Supported by peasants and socialists

Bolsheviks
- Committed to ideals of Karl Marx, led by Vladimir Lenin
- Formed a minority in the Soviets
- Peace, Bread, and Land: abandonment of WW1, provision of food to address shortages, and
nationalisation of land
- Believed in the liberation of the working class from the political and economic control of the
upper class
- Supported by peasants and workers
Timeline of Revolution (1917)
June Offensive June 17 - PG persisted with WW1 campaign, attempting to push
back Austrian forces
- Substantial desertions, loyalty to PG diminished
July Days July 17 - Food shortages, unrest in Petrograd. Soldiers and
sailors demonstrated
- Trotsky, Kamenev, and other Bolsheviks detained,
while Lenin fled to Finland. PG remained in power with
support from PS, of which Bolsheviks were minority
Kornilov Affair August 17 - White General Kornilov attempts to take power to
reinstate the Tsar
- Red Guard were armed and defended Petrograd,
arresting Kornilov within a month
Rise in Popularity September - Bolsheviks formed majority in the PS due to popularity
of Bolsheviks 17 after Kornilov Affair
- Members of Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries
left the Soviets
Lenin’s Time in August to - Lenin returns to Russia in October, and encourages the
Exile October 17 Bolsheviks to perform a coup to take power by force
Kerensky Moves October 17 - Kerensky order the arrest of Bolshevik leaders and
Against Bolsheviks bans the distribution of their newspapers
Role of Trotsky October 17 - Trotsky organised Bolshevik military efforts,
coordinating the Red Guard and Kronstadt sailors
- Encircled and captured the Winter Palace, taking
Petrograd within three days with only six casualties
Bolsheviks Take October 17 - Bolsheviks announced the 14 new members of the
Supreme Authority government cabinet, all led by Lenin
Factors Leading to the October Revolution
Factor Impact
Weakness in - Unable to address food and fuel shortages, inflation. Urban wages stagnated, and
the PG and agricultural reforms were delayed indefinitely
Dual Power - PG lacked authority in provinces, who resorted to effective self-government and
autonomy
- PG’s relationship with the army deteriorated, forcing them to arm Soviets such as
the Red Guard to combat Tsarist White Russians
Involvement - PG sought to continue involvement in WW1 despite popular support for cessation,
in WW1 fearing an end to economic investment from British and French interest
- Grain, ammunition and arms supplies were insufficient for front lines, and morale
plummeted as military defeat continued
- Mass desertions and mutinies occurred, as soldiers and sailors demonstrated in
Petrograd against the war
Bolshevik - Bolsheviks were viewed as responsible for the defence of the revolution after having
Ideology defeated the Kornilov uprising
- Red Guard were armed following the Kornilov Affair, giving them increased power
- Promised ‘Peace, Bread, Land’
- End of war attracted support from military
- A promise of an end to food shortages appealed to town and cities afflicted by
famine
- Land redistribution attracted the support of peasants, who would otherwise be
uninterested in the policies of the Bolsheviks
- However, much support was not direct but rather stemming from hatred of the PG
Early Bolshevik Legislations (1917)
Description
SOVKARNOM - Ruling council for administration of the nation
- Created authority and legitimacy
Constituent Assembly - Democratically elected body that drafted a constitution
- Allowed by Bolsheviks, as they believed they would win
majority
- Majority controlled by SRP, Bolsheviks ¼ seats
- Bolsheviks dissolved the CA, preventing non-Bolsheviks
from entering
Peace Decree - Pledged to halt annexation, private diplomacy
- Aided consolidation of power, generating support from war-
fatigued populace
Land Decree - Peasants allowed to seize lands from private ownership
- Aligned with Bolshevik opposition to private ownership of
land
Bread Decree - Every citizen guaranteed ¼ pound of bread daily
- This was gradually cut down, and was insufficient to stop
the famine
Worker Decrees - 8hr work days, unemployment pay, pension, sickness
benefits
Church Decrees - Church lands confiscated, civil marriage introduced.
- Separation of church and state
Gender Equality - Legal equality between men and women
- Divorce, abortion legalised
Reorganisation of Armed - New army officers elected, unionisation of soldiers
Forces - Bolshevik-loyal officers placed in command
Minority self-determinism - Paper measure, as rural areas were largely under anarchy
already
Legal reform - Judges dismissed, Bolshevik-supporting judges placed in
courts
Press Decree - Closure of bourgeoisie newspapers, as well as some socialist
publications
Cheka - Secret police, combating counter-revolutionaries, political
opponents, etc
Economic Decree - Nationalisation of industry, strict regulation, forced quotas
and productivity
Formation of the - Bolsheviks reorganised into CP
Communist Party - CA dissolved
- Soviets and unions restructured to follow party lines
- Russia turned into RSFSR
- Politburo and Orgburo in charge of legislation creation
Politburo - Ran and regulated administration
- Created decrees
- Power of veto over Orgburo
- Highly autocratic
Orgburo - Internal administration
- Appointed local officials for districts and areas
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)
- Allowed Russia to withdraw from WW1,
- Terms involved: losing 60m people (30% of population), 1/3 agricultural land, 90% of coal
mines, iron, and rail resources.
- Independence of Georgia, Finland, Ukraine
- Bukharine, a high ranking Soviet politician, advocated against peace and sought continued
involvement in WW1
- Trotsky was neutral, focusing purely on the terms of the truce
- Lenin was pro-peace, closely adhering to Bolshevik ideology
- TBL viewed as a betrayal of the proletariat, who were left to be annexed into other countries
- Conflict created between SR and Bolsheviks, deteriorating relationships. SR lost rural
peasant support base.
- Led to the Russian Civil War between factions which sought to abandon and continue the
war
Russian Civil War (1917-1922)
War Communism
- With the onset of the Russian Civil War, ‘War Communism’ was imposed as a national policy
- White Russians, supported by France and Britain fought against Red Communist Russians
- Increasing centralisation
- Land was socialised, quotas imposed on agricultural production
- Cheka used increased brutality
- Starvation continued
- Corruption prolific among party officials

Reasons for Bolshevik Victory

Effective Trotsky
Leadership from - Trained inexperienced peasants to fight with captured White officers
Reds - Travelled to front to raise morale and distribute propaganda
- United people against foreign invader
Lenin
- Used Cheka to execute 100,000 opposition, no support for Whites
- War communism implemented to keep army supplied.
Weakness of - Lack of unity for reasons to fight
Whites - Ineffective foreign support/funding from Britain and France
Impact of - Bolsheviks controlled areas of industry and railways
Geography - Whites controlled rural areas
Impact of Civil War
Political - Red defeat White and Green, increased CP dominance over Russia
- Tsarist hierarchical structures replaced with similarly corrupt systems
in favour of the CP
- CP officials lived lavishly while famine continued throughout Russia
Economic - Nationalisation of industry: strikes forbidden; grain requisitioned
- War effort was adequately supplied with resourced, but led to
significant peasant and worker opposition
- Peasants burnt crops rather than surrender them
- 5M killed in famine
- Kronstadt rebellion
New Economic Policy (1921)
- CP control fragile, evidenced by Kronstadt rebellion, Tambov uprising due to War
Communism
- NEP sought to compromise between capitalism and communism, as economic growth
necessary for implementation of communism
- Based on highly centralized capitalism rather than communism
- Small factories and local industries released from government ownership
- Grain requisition halted, replaced by taxation, compulsory labour cancelled

Impact
Short - Relieved some tension derived from WC
Term - Industrial output increased by 200% and famine largely addressed
- CP members dissatisfied with association with capitalism
- Scissors crisis as prices of manufactured and agricultural goods diverged heavily,
resulting in the inability of peasants to purchase manufactured goods.
- CP intervened into market to cap prices, partially solving eco stagnation
Long - Unable to remedy Russia’s economic flaws
Term - Insufficient grain supply for urban workers
- Stalin implemented collectivisation to forcibly eliminate private ownership
Bolshevik Consolidation of Power (1921)
Terror and War
Civil War
- Bolsheviks defeat the whites, and are viewed as defenders of the Russian people
Cheka
- 50,000 sent to Gulags by the Cheka, eliminating opposition to the regime
Red Army
- Red Army put down rebellions from the Whites and from the Kronstadt
GPU
- Cheka becomes the GPU in 1922 to suppress political dissidence from other political factions
Political and Bureaucratic Power
Political
- Russia ruled by the CP, not the proletariat, and the SOVNARKOM acted as a puppet for the
politburo. Political parties banned by 1921
Bureaucratic
- CP officials placed in political positions to control Russia, running industry and agriculture.
Allowed for centralised power over the Soviet Union
USSR
- Ukraine and Georgia absorbed into the USSR, allowing the CP to exert power over them
Foreign policy
- USSR eased foreign policy, avoiding conflict with foreign powers. This resulted in conflict
between idealists and pragmatists
Economic Control
War Communism
- Grain requisitioning resulting in sustenance of Civil war, but resulted in peasant opposition
and famine with 5M deaths.
NEP
- Capitalist policies introduced, increasing industrial output, but ultimately failed
Social Control
Ideology
- 8hr working days implemented, democratic army, land seizure. Increased support for
Bolsheviks
Pragmatism
- Pragmatism largely superseded idealism, and Bolshevik ideology was not always obeyed in
favour of practicality
Cult of Personality
- Propaganda advocated for Lenin as the father of the nation, advancing public perception of
the Bolsheviks
Power Struggle (1924)
Lenin’s Death
- Died 21st Jan 1924 after assassination attempt
- Feared Stalin’s rise to power
- Wrote last will and testament, but it was hidden by wife
- A number of other Bolsheviks struggled to claim power

Wings of the Bolsheviks

- Left wing: Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev
- Right wing: Rykov, Tomsky, Bukharin

Stalin
- Socialism in one country: USSR would be self-sufficient state
- Position as General Secretary, unaffiliated with political sides

Trotsky
- Believed in spread of revolutions and rapid industrialisation
- Good leadership skills and camaraderie with Lenin
- Lack of supporters outside military

Zinoviev and Kamenev

- Zinoviev party boss in Petrograd, Kamenev in Moscow
- Early opposition to Lenin’s plans to seize power
- Power limited to Petrograd and Moscow

Bukharin
- Well published author, editor, theorist
- Against Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, pro-NEP

Attacking Left
- 1924 had a large enlistment of Stalin-admitted members
- Lenin deified, which was criticised by Trotsky
- Trotsky was criticised for not attending funeral, criticising Cult of Lenin, being a Menshevik
- 1925 Stalin supports right, denouncing and expelling Zinoviev, Kamenev
- 1927 Trotsky expelled

Attacking Right
- 1925 Stalin and Bukharin control Politburo
- 1927 Stalin argues in favour of industrialisation over agriculture, resulting in harsh
legislations over peasants. Bukharin denounces Stalin as a tyrant
- 1928 Bukharin resigns as editor of the Pravda, Rykov and Tomsky expelled
 Reasons for the Emergence of Stalin (1924)
Reason Description Evidence
Role as -Stalin controlled the agenda for party meetings -Stalin was able to place his allies into high positions within
General -access to Politburo, Orgburo, Secretariat, Central Committee the Communist party
Secretary -control over nomenklatura, influencing who held what -opponents were blocked from influential positions
position in the Communist Party
-control over membership files
Stalin’s -Stalin continually sought new alliances with politicians -Stalin aligned himself with whatever political faction was
Political Skill -Stalin portrayed self as Lenin’s humble disciple most suitable at the time, allowing him to defeat left and
right-wing opposition
-Stalin curtailed off Lenin’s cult of personality amongst the
Russian people, elevating influence
The Appeal -Stalin’s policies were popular amongst many party officials -Stalin pushed for the ideologies of Marx including industrial
of Stalin’s -familiarity with the works of Marx and Lenin allowed him to revolution rather than more difficult objectives of spreading
Idea appeal ideologically to the party communism worldwide
Failure of -Opponents never formed a wholly united front against him, -Stalin was not met with significant political opposition after
Opponents not recognising the threat he posed to them figureheads such as Trotsky were removed, allowing him to
-opponents also came from opposing ends of the Communist take complete power
party, viewing one another as threats -opponents had little support outside of limited
demographic groups, eg. Trotsky amongst the military
Economic Transformation and Industrialisation (1927-1941)
Motives
- Industrial stagnation under NEP (scissor crisis). Peasants unable to buy manufactured goods
due to rapid expansion of industry
- Ideological motives according to Marxism dictated that economy required industrialisation,
built on the backs of the proletariat working class.
- Stalin was politically motivated to oppose Bukharin’s support of the NEP, as well as
undermine Zinoview, Kamenev, and Trotsky’s efforts to industrialize
- War Scare (1927) motivated Stalin to expand industry to provide military equipment should
the need arise
- Gaining support from the workers
- Competition with the west also motivated the industrialisation, seeking to portray the USSR
as an industrial powerhouse and competitor to capitalism

Five Year Plans

- 1928-32: increasing industrial output of steel, engineering, chemicals. Completed in 4 years
- 1933-37: increased output of consumer products. Completed in four years
- 1938-41: increase in military production and education. Interrupted by operation Barbarossa

Gosplan
- Gosplan (State planning committee) organized the industrialization of the Russian economy
- 5000 new factories between 1928-37
- Pressure on managers to meet targets, placing emphasis on quantity over quality
- Unrealistic goals resulted in falsified reports, further heightening targets

Stakhanovite Movement
- Propaganda suggested that Aleksey Stakhanov met 14 times his coal quota
- Soviets encouraged workers to become Stakhanovites and overfulfil their targets, aiding the
Soviet economy
- Resulted in increased productivity, better workplaces, and more power for workers
- Resulted in lower wages for non-Stakhanovites, higher targets, and disruption to the jobs of
managers

Failures
- Production dependant on Gulag slave labour
- Dangerous factory conditions, and quality of life did not improve
- Quality compromised in favour of quantity
- Low productivity as a result of inefficient production techniques
- Factory owners lied about production quantities in order to avoid reprisal

Success
- USSR was fully industrialised, and urbanisation occurred.
- Supply of raw materials increased
- New towns/cities built (Magnitogorsk), as well as new factories
- No unemployment
- Military, industrial output significantly increased. Rearmament achieved
- Increased support from young workers
 Collectivisation (1928-1935)
Reasons Description Evidence
Communis Communism relies on the advancement of the Socialism promoted collective efforts to improve
t working class, and thus suggests the removal output. NEP encouraged private profit-incentivized
Ideologies of the peasant class farms.
Concerns NEP advantaged the Kulaks, who profited off Kulaks later suffered from forced grain acquisitions,
about NEP the sale of grain. This resembled capitalism, mass executions and exile.
which contradicted principles of communism
Falling Grain production was ailing and soon unable 1927 grain levels were unable to feed cities. This was
Grain to meet demand under the NEP due to a lack of innovation in technology.
Production
Stalling A lack of cheap grain resulted in the decline of By 1927-28, there was not enough grain to supply
Industrial Soviet industrial output urban populations.
Production
Implementation
- State owned land and output, providing equipment
- State designated each kolkhoz (farm) with what to farm
- Collective workers had set hours
- Kolkhozes were mechanized, provided with harvesters from the MTS (mechanized tractor
stations). These were monitored by secret police
- Collective farms were set quotas, including what amounts could be kept to feed workers

Successes off Collectivisation

- By 1935, 90% of farmland had been collectivized
- Collective farms were mechanized and tractors were used to improve output
- Agricultural schools taught modern farming techniques
- Fall in grain production halted in 1935, and rationing ended
- Urbanization fuelled the workforce for the USSR’s industrialisation

Overall, Collectivisation was an efficient way for the state to take as much as it needed from
agriculture in order to industrialise the USSR/Soviet Union’s state-controlled food supply.

Failures of Collectivisation
- Famine in 1932-33 killed 3.3M Ukrainians. Aid was denied from these farmers as they
opposed collectivisation fearing it was a new form of serfdom.
- Killing of the Kulaks removed many experienced farmers
- Too few tractors were provided, and these constantly required maintenance
- Urbanization resulted in the implementation of internal passports, restricting movement
- Collectivisation was overall inefficient: 30% of the output came from privately owned
kolkhoz farms, which took only 4% of farming area.

Overall, Collectivisation resulted in a decline of quality of life as compared to under the NEP.
Societal Change (1929-)
Charismatic Leadership, Censorship, Propaganda
- Propaganda portrayed Stalin and Lenin as close allies, setting Stalin as the rightful successor
- Trotsky and other opponents to Stalin were removed from official photographs
- Stalin endorsed propaganda texts, describing writers as ‘engineers of the human soul’
- Architecture, sculpture, film, music, literature all supported Stalin
- Censorship was enforced upon media promoting liberalism and free speech
- New educational curriculums praised Stalin and his achievements

Constitution (1936)
- Congress of Soviets replaced with Supreme Soviet of USSR
- Voting allowed, though there was only one party to vote for. Stalin continued dictatorship
- Workers rights: holidays, healthcare, education, etc. These could be ignored by Cheka
- All 15 republics in the USSR made equal with Russia, though they were closely monitored

Education (1935)
- Conservative approach to education, mandating discipline and focus on maths, physics, and
chemistry.
- Revolutionary history rewritten with increased reference to Stalin

Family Policies
- Abortion illegalised unless for the purpose of maintaining mother’s health. Sterilizations
difficult to obtain. Homosexuality and prostitution illegalised
- Divorce unobtainable, families encouraged to have more children
- Women were still largely viewed as inferior by members of the CP

Urban Living Conditions

- Workers lived in barracks and communal housing. Food rations continued until 1935
- Little concern about worker safety. Harsh treatment for lateness, unauthorized leave

Rural Living Conditions

- Little investment in collective farms and housing remained basic. Dependant on small garden
plots for food
- Little payment, and were the lowest social group. Thousands attempted to flee countryside,
but were blocked from doing so by GPU and internal passports

Party Privilege
- Party members received better housing, jobs, holidays, and access to clubs
- Party officials continued to live in fear of being reported

Ethnic Minorities
- Stalin became convinced that foreign nationalism and ‘bourgeois nationalism’ was the
enemy of Communism: eventually resulted in certain ethnicities being demonised by USSR
- Between 1937-1938, 250000 people executed because of their ethnicities
Cultural Change
Religion (1929)
- Churches forbidden from any activity other than worship. These were allowed to continue to
maintain illusion of ‘freedom of conscience’
- School compulsorily taught atheism, and many clergymen/practitioners were arrested

Entertainment (1930s)
- Jazz music popularised in the 1930s, and cities sponsored nightly dances
- Cinema served to emphasise adventure, romance, and state ideology

Architecture (1930s)
- Constant construction, and public spaces improved to promote idea that state cared for
people
- City planners intended to disrupt traditional city designs, promoting technology and
progress. Increased emphasis on apartments

Socialist Realism
- Culture and entertainment promoted ideals of conservatism, productivity and utilitarianism.
- Inequality remained prevalent. Increased wage differentials and material increntives became
standard
-
Political Transformation Under Stalin (1930s)
- CP became major political movement, no longer the small party dominated by CP elite
- 2M members by 1941. 70% were ethnic Russians
- Nomenklatura system placed loyal CP officials across Russia
- 3M CP in 1941 agitators and sympathisers distributed Stalinist propaganda
- Resulted in system of terror and the purges during the 1930s

Use of Terror (1931)

- Citizens encouraged to denunciated one another
- NKVD arrested, tortured, imprisoned, and executed individuals
- False confessions extracted from prisoners who would otherwise endure slave labour
- NKVD operated in groups of three, who would extrajudicially arrest or murder individuals

Timeline of Terror
- 1931 ex-Mensheviks shot
- 1933 18% of party members expelled as disloyal
- 1934 Kirov murdered over disagreement with five year plans
- 1936 first show trials feature 16 party members incl. Kamenev and Zinoviev
- 1937 17 more politicians show-trialled. NKVD mass arrests and purge military leadership.
81/103 admirals and generals executed.
- 1938 last show trial as Bukharin is shot. NKVD itself is purged
- 1941 over 8 million had been sent to labour camps

Impact of Terror
- Stalin placed as the sole dictator of the USSR, with opposition too fearful to speak out. Old
Leninists completely eradicated
- Loss of experienced managers, workers, and other administrators plunged the government
and economy into chaos
- Armed forces were crippled due to the mass arrests, leaving Russia vulnerable during the
German invasion in 1941
Totalitarianism and Stalinism
- Carl Friedrich and other American historians during the Cold War and 1950s likened Soviet
Russia to Nazi Germany, describing both as totalitarianist

Features of Totalitarianism Stalinist Russia

Elaborate ideology Socialism/Stalinism dominated all aspects of
Soviet society and culture
Government dominated by a single party and Joseph Stalin served a dictatorial role as the
by a single individual General Secretary, and the Communist Party
was the sole political party in Russia. CP was
inherently linked to the state.
Monopolistic control of mass media Cult of Stalin propagated by propaganda. This
was spread by popular media, education, and
the censorship/elimination of dissidence
Central control of the economy Centralisation of industrial control,
collectivisation, and industrialisation
Absolute control over armed forces, who are Leadership purges, Communist Party directly
staffed by supporters controlled the military and police forces.
System of terror Real and believed oppositional groups were
violently eliminated through the NKVD and
gulags. Dekulakisation, purges.
Revisionism
- Refers to the ideology that USSR was not totalitarian, as Stalin ruled through his popularity
- Popularised in the 1990s with the decline of USSR and the opening of the Soviet archives
- Society was not ‘totally’ controlled, and people exhibited a high degree of autonomy of
thought. Wilful collaboration
- Rule was not achieved solely through terror and propaganda
- Revisionists include Sheila Fitzpatrick and J. Arch Getty.
 Foreign Policy (1917-1941)
Time period Description
1917 - 1921 Time period - 1917 – March 1918
Aim: Survival of the Bolshevik regime in Russia
Policy/strategy:
 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
- Withdrawal from WWI to avoid war with Germany
Success/failure/Effectiveness of policy
 Partially successful:
- removed threat of invasion by Germany
- BUT Western powers e.g. Britain joined Whites in the Civil War against the Bolshevik regime
- Led to change in foreign policy aims
Time period - 1918 – 1921
Aim: spark worldwide revolution
Policy/strategy:
 Lenin believed Bolshevik Revolution would only survive with the help of the working class throughout the world
 Comintern established
- organisation to facilitate spread of communism
- sent funds worldwide
- failed to overthrow the anti-communist govt in Poland in 1920
Success/failure/Effectiveness of policy
 unsuccessful
 Lenin made pragmatic decision to consolidate rule in Russia due to the Russian Civil War rather than promote
worldwide revolution
 By 1921 Bolsheviks had defeated Whites including Western powers
1921 - 1929 Time period: 1921 - 1928
Aim: Survival of the Soviet Union from outside threats to build up shattered economy -> NEP
Policy/strategy:
 Revolutionary pragmatism1 in the form of peaceful coexistence2 with the Germany, US, Britain
- Economic cooperation with capitalist powers -> trade
- Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement of 1924
Success/failure/Effectiveness of policy
 Moderately successful
 BUT Comintern revolutionary activity worldwide increased tensions with West
 Aided working class strikes in Britain
1930 - 1939 Time period: 1930 - 1934
Aim: focus on domestic issues rather before spreading revolution worldwide
Policy/strategy:
 Lenin’s death and the victory of Stalin in the power struggle over Trotsky = maintenance of the policy of ‘Socialism
in One Country’
 Stalin’s interpretation of Marxism/Leninism -> maintain friendly relations with the West to focus on domestic
concerns BEFORE spreading the revolution worldwide -> collectivisation and 5 Year Plans to fix shattered economy
 trade agreements with the West e.g. sold grain to facilitate modernisation
Success/failure/Effectiveness of policy
 partially successful
 success hindered by Stalin’s revolutionary policies
- Comintern aided KPD, contributed to rise of Nazis
Time period: 1934 - 1939
Aim: survival of Soviet Union from growing threat of expansionist Germany
Policy/strategy:
 Collective security3
 Stalin tried to forge closer ties with Britain, France through alliances
 Joined League of Nations 1934
Success/failure/Effectiveness of policy
 Partially successful
 Ultimately, the West did very little to aid Soviet Union -> afraid of threat of communism

1
pragmatism – practical attitude
2
peaceful coexistence - lived together without strain
3
Collective security - safety as part of a group
  1938 Munich Conference
- Stalin not invited
- allowed Hitler to take territory in Czechoslovakia
 Increased Stalin’s fear that the West would not help if Germany invaded
 Dramatic change in foreign policy
1939 - 1941 Time period: 1939 - 1941
Aim: survival of Soviet Union from growing threat of expansionist Germany
Policy/strategy:
 policy of Breathing space4
 Stalin needed time or breathing space to rebuild the military -> Great Purge = 37 000 Red Army members, 81
generals
 Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact 1939
 Allowed Stalin to take half of Poland in 1939 without starting a war with Germany

Success/failure/Effectiveness of policy
 Successful
 by 1941, Army had grown by 150%, Air Force larger than western powers e.g. Germany, France
 War avoided till German invasion in 1941

4
Breathing space - an opportunity to pause, and decide what to do next