Reading lnstruction
comprehension instruction and rhe role of motivation. The chapter
CHAPTER 23
5ou rce:
Brrrns, Anne & Richards, Jacl< C. (2012). The C'amhritlge Guitle to
Peclagogl, ancl Practice in Seconcl Langtrcrge Tectching.
Carnbridge: Carnbridge University Press.
Reading Instruction
Neil J Anderson
l"t-"ructtoN
our understanding of how to effectively engage in second language (L2) reading instruction
has improved ovãr the years. Recent publications provide valuable input from research
ñndingi on ways that reading instrucrion can be improved (Anderson 2008; Bemha¡dt
20ll: Birch 20071 Grabe 2009; Han and Anderson 2009; Hedgcock and Ferris 2009;
Hudson 2007; Koda 2005). From rhese publications we leam, among other things, of the
fbundations and complexities of reading, the significant role of vocabulary for success in
reading, the role of strategies, and of the importance of appropriate assessments to measure
growth and development in readers. We also leam of the central role that reading plays in
academic success.
Reading, perhaps more than any other language skill, provides the foundation for
success in language learning and academic leaming. Janzen (2007) observes that reading
is "critical" to the academic achievement of second language learners (p. 707). Reading
involves the integration of various bottom-up and top-down skills in order to reach the
goal of comprehension. Good readers can combine information from a text and their own
background knowledge to build meaning, they read fluently and strategically in order to
accomplish their reading purpose.
Cood readers have higher success in writing when they have a solìd knowledge base
that has been developed through wide reading. Cood readers have the fundamental skills
to listen to someone talk about a topic they have read and they have a higher success of
understanding. Good readers have higher success in speaking tasks when they have gained
input through reading. lr is difficult to imagine an atademically successful individual in the
rwenty-first century who is not an avid and effective reader.
This chapter will focus on the pedagogy and practice of developing effective reading
instruction in order to strengthen language learners in the long and challenging task of
language acquisition and then using the language skills they have developed to increase
their content knowledge in other areas. This chapter will provide a theoretical foundation
for reading insrruction by identifying two key issues related to reading instruction: reading
1t8
wlll conclude with
to
a diicussion of future trends, the identification of challenges ahead' and suggestions
connect research and Practìce
Bncrcnou¡¡o
nreaning-
In ordef to provide effective reading instruction, teachers can ensure that there are
ful conneciions among the leamers, the rea¿ing, and the development of the other language
thc core
skills. To accomplish this instructional responsibility teachers can view reading as
language skill foi instrucrion and then to build the development ol'all language
skills around
etTective reading instruction. Figure 23.1 provides a visual reptesentation ot this concept'
Figure 23.1 Placing reading at the core of language learning instruction
Harmer (2004) indicates that one reason why students do not ìike writing in their
second language is because they think rhat they do not have anything meaningful to write
about. When reading is placed at Lhe core of language instruction, it serves as a springboartl
into writing by providing students with something meaningful to wr¡te about based on
what they have read. Hirvela (2004) indicates that there is a "fundamcntal belief that at
least in academic and school settings, readirtg is a preludc to writing tltut shapes n'riting"
(pp.llÞ1ll).
This idea is not new. carson (1993) was an early proponent ofengaging students in
meaningful reading tasks as a springboard for writing. She emphasized that "the phrase
readingfor writing canbe understood as referring most specifically to the literacy event in
which readers / writers use tex(s) that they read, or have read, as a basis lor tex(s) that
they wrire. . . . Reading for writing can also be understood as acknowledging that writing
is often the resulranr physicaì artifact of reading/writing encounters" (Carson 1993, 85).
Evans, Hanshorn, and Anderson (2010) provide an excellent example ol how reading
can be the core skill of instruction while at the same time building and strengthening
rhe orher language skills as well. Their chapter lbcuses on how to develop reading skills
in pre-university preparation programs to assist readers in developing academic reading
proficiency. Placing reading at the core of instruction for this audience of learners is
panicularly beneñcial.
Kev lssues
In each of the recent publications on reading instruction cited ea¡lier, researchers have
identified several key issues that merit the attention of L2 educators. For exatnple, Crabe
(2009) identifies reading and writing relationships, teacber training lbr leading instruction,

zzo Neil J Anderson
I
early Ll (first language) and L2 reading development and L2 adult literacy instruction as
the key issues that he believes deserve greater attention and research. Likewise, Bemha¡dt
(20f 1) raises "new questions on old topics" (p. 123) and indicates that questions related
to background knowledge, technology, strategies, testing, intrapersonal variables, transfer,
phonological processing and word recognition, instruction, and vocabulary are all worthy
of continued attention from reading researchers.
This chapter will limit the focus to two key issues: (l) comprehension instruction and
(2) reading and motivation.
READING COMPREHENSION ¡NSTRUCTION
One concem with most reading instruction materials is that ESL / EFL reading instructional
books consist of shon reading passages followed by vocabulary and comprehension tests.
The question could be asked: When do we actually teach leamers how to be better readers
and engage in appropriate comprehension strategies? Grabe (2009) and Bernhardt (2011)
indicate that comprehension instruction is an essential part of reading instruction. This is
also a concern identified by Schacter (2006) and Pressley (2006). We have learned much
over the past 30 years about how effective comprehension strategies can be taught to
improve reading comprehension. The challenge is that the ¡esearch that has been carried
out on the effectiveness of reading comprehension strategy instruction is not making its
way into the instructional materials that are used in classrooms.
This is primarily a concern for teacher trainers. Teacher t¡ainers need to educate
teacbers-in-training that regardless of whether the materials include solid ¡eading compre-
hension instruction, a well-prepared teacher can include the right kind of instruction in the
classroom.
Schacter (2006) provides an excellent resource to equip teachers with the tools they
need to provide effective reading comprehension instruction. His teacher-friendly book
outlines a step-by-step process that teachers can follow to implement the use of26 different
comprehension strategies that he categorizes into seven different groups: questioning, sum-
marizing, text structure, prior knowledge, comprehension monitoring, question answering,
and multistrategy instruction.
One example of a comprehension strategy from Schacter's (2006) repertoire is called
"developing thin and thick questions." This activity can be used with any reading material.
He suggests that there are two types of comprehensions questions: thin (factual) and thick
(inferential). Tlrin questions are those that can be answered directly from the text. Thick
questions are not directly stated in the text but can be found by making inferences and by
combining information from various parts of the text.
Schacter (2006) provides explicit instructions that teachers can follow to teach readers
how to use this knowledge to improve their reading comprehension. Teachers draw a T-chart
with columns labeled "thin" and "thick." The teacher and students read a portion of a text
together and then the teacher writes a sample thin question in the left column of the T-chan.
Together the teacher and the leamers answer the thin question and the teacher points out how
it can be answered directly from the text. Learners and the teacher then generate additional
thin questions. These thin questions are added to the T-chart. The teacher then tells the
readers that thick questions cannot be answered directly from the text and writes a sample
thick question in the right column of the T-chart. Thick questions are often generated by
using prompts like, how, why, could, or imagine.Many thin questions can be easily changed
into thick questions by simply changing the question word from w hat, when, or who to hou,
or why.The teacher demonstrates this by changing â thin question into a thick question.
Together the teacher and the leamers answer the thick question and the teacher points out
how it cannot be answered directly from the text but that the thick question requires the
Readíng Instruction
reader to make an inference by using information from multiple places in the text. Learners
and the teacher generate additional thick questions and find the answers to these questions,
always pointing out that the answers to the thick questions are not stated directly in the
text. Tocontinue practicing, learners can be asked to change two ofthe thin questions
wrinen in the left column of the T-chart into thick questions. Addìtìonal practice making
thin and thick questions should be done with a new reading passage. Teachers can expand
this activity by asking the learners to practice in pairs. Each pair produces thin and thick
questions irom a different passage. The teacher collects the qùestions and randomly asks
tiem aìways inviting the readers to identify first if the question is a thin or a thick one. Each
time the teacher asks the readers tojustify why a question is thin or thick'
Through careful instruction following this suggested fbrmat, readers attention can be
drawn to the importance of understanding what kind of question they are being asked
to respond to. Teachers should encourage learners to transfer this knowledge to testing
situations. When a high-stakes reading test is administered, students should be encouraged
to look at the comprehension questions and determine whether the question is a thin or a
thick question. Practicing this skill multiple times in class will help readers demonstrate
their comprehension better in testing situations.
Perhaps the most important thing that teachers should remember during reading com-
prehension instruction is that regardless ofthe reading materials that are used in the cìass-
room, explicit reading comprehension instruction should be provided for readers to be
better comprehenders and know how to demonstrate their comprehension'
READING AND MOT]VATION
The topic of motivation is not new to language teaching and learning. For the past 50
years, since Gardner and Lambert first published their initial studies in Canada (Gardner
and Lambert 1959), researchers have proposed various models of motivation and gathered
data about how a learner's motivation influences performance in language acquisition with
the greatest portion of that research occurring within the past 20 years (cheng and Dömyei
200i; Crookes and Schmidt 1991; Dömyei,2001a,2001b; Dörnyei and Csizér 1998;
Dörnyei and ushioda 2009; Guilloteaux and Dörnyei 2008; ushioda 2008; williams and
Burden 1997). Ushioda (this volume, chap. 8) provides additional ideas on the pedagogical
and practical things that teachers can do in the L2 classroom to motivate learners.
A question that we should consider is: whose responsibility is it to motivate ìeamefs?
Dörnyei (2001a) indicates that "the current situation is not very promising in this respect: by-
andlarge, promoting Iearner motivation is nobody's responsibility. Teachers are supPosed to
teach the curriculum rather than motivate learners, and the fact that the former cannot happen
withour the latter is often ignored . . . . My guess is that it is every teacher's [responsibility]
who thinks of the long-term development of his/her students" (p. 27).
Definitions of motivation abound in the research literature. Schramm (1956) provides
a simple and yet practical definition that can be applied to reading instruction'
Expectation of rewa¡d
MOTIVATION
Effort required
This mathematical equation provides an ideal formula for approaching reading instruction
and motivation. Three options are available to teachers: First, they can look for ways to
increase the numerator (increase the expectation ofreward); second, they can look for ways
to decrease the denominator (decrease the expectation ofeffofl required); or third, they can
looks for ways to do both. Therefore, within the reading's instructional context teachers
must identify morivational strategies that can be implemented in order to achieve the goals
of this motivational formula.
 Reading Instruction
2Ì2 NeiI J Anderson

Currently the most prolific L2 motivation resea¡cher is Zoltán Dömyei. He has pro-
Increasing Expected Reward
posed a framework consisting of four elements (Dörnyei 2001a): (1) creating the basic
motivational conditions, (2) generating initial motivation, (3) maintaining and protecting Creating the basic motivational
motivation, and (4) encouraging positive retrospective self-evaluation. conditions
The definition of motivation provided by Schramm (1956) can be combined with o Identify why reading is an imponant
Dörnyei's (2001a) framework of motivational teaching practice in the L2 classroom and skill to develop.
used to identify some specific motivational strategies that teachers can implement to increase o Discuss your personal passion for
the expected rewards of reading and to decrease the expected effort during reading. This reading and how You have benefited
combination will strengthen the pedagogy and practice of the "motivational foundation of personally from being an avid reader.
instructed L2 leaming" (Dörnyei 2001b, 107). Table 23.1 lists the key ideas that reading
teachers can consider.
What is striking about the 16 suggestions above is that a teacher can engage learners in a
"motivaúonal moment" without having to make major deviations from reading instruction.
G e n e rating initial motiv atio n
The motivational teacher is one who seamlesslv moves between effective readins instruction
o Invite former students who are
and motivational moments.
successful readers to visit your class and
share how their improvement of reading
skills has helped them reach their
CoNcLt sroN personal and academic goals.
o Create class reading goals for
This chapter began with an introduction to effective reading instruction by emphasizing
words-per-minute (wPm) and
how we can place reading as the core of language instruction in the classroom. The
comprehension. Post the goals in the
learning cultures of our educational institutions can be changed if learners engage in more
classroom.
meaningful reading. That change will happen gradually as teachers focus leamers' artention
on the value of reading and how reading can help them be better prepared to speak, listen, Maintaining and Protecting motivation
write, use appropriate vocabulary, and learn granìmar with well-written passages designed o Select a variety of reading passages at
for reading instruction. slightly different levels of difficulty so
Two key issues can help guide teachers in achieving these instructional goals: explicit that students can see the pro$ess they
reading comprehension instruction and use of motivational moments in the reading class- are making yet the challenges that are
room. still ahead to become better readers.
o Model for your students the strategies
that you use while reading in Your
FUTURE TRENDS second language.
Aìthough we have been teaching the skill of reading in a second language for hundreds Encouraging po sitive retro spe ctive
of years, we must consider how our efforts will be viewed by others 50 to 100 years in self-evaluøtion
the future. When the resea¡chers of the future review our work what will the data show? o Provide genuine praise for the
It shows that we have learned from the researchers of the past and that between 2010 improvements that students are making
and 2020 explicit instruction in reading comprehensìon strategies showed a remarkable in increasing their reading fluency.
increase in learners' performance. The future trends of second language reading instruction o Establish the criteria for successful
must be based not so much on new bends but rather on incorporating into our instructional completion of reading tasks prior to
repertoire all that we k¡ow should be part of every instructional setting. engaging in the reading.
Decreasing Expected Effort
Creating the basic motívational
conditions
o Use prereading activities like Shadow
Reading to prepare students for
meaningful engagement with a text'
r Directly relate the reading material to
the previous knowledge of the readers
to show them that what they are
reading ties to things they have read
and learned previouslY.
G e ne ratin g initial m otiv ation
o Engage the readers in specific reading
rate improvement exercises so that they
see that they can improve their reading
fluency.
¡ Use all of your knowledge about the
specific group of students You are
cunently teaching to maintain
achievable goals.
M aintaining and protecting motivation
o Allow readers to select some of their
own reading materials for extensive
reading outside of the classroom.
o Allow readers to work with their peers
during comprehension checks.
E ncouraging positiv e retro spe ctíve
self-evaluation
o Engage readers in comPrehension
checks that do not require them to take
a written test.
r Teach readers how to self-assess their
performance based on predetermined
criteria for successful completion of
reading tasks.

CHALLENGES
Two challenges exist for accomplishing the lofty goal of incorporating into our instrucrional
repertoire the ideas suggested in this chapter. First, we must improve teacher training. Both
preservice and in-service teacher training programs must get to the point that teachers
receive explicit training on exactly how to teach reading comprehension strategies. Teachers
must be given opportunities to practice rhe language of how to present the comprehension
strategies. They should then be given multiple opportunities to observe each other and
receive and provide meaningful feedback on rheir performance. In this way teachers will
Table 23.1 Motivational strategies to increase expected reward and decrease expected effOrt
have a stronger level of confidence that what they are doing in the classroom will result in
improved reading comprehension in students.
Second, r¡r'e must review the curricula¡ expectations in second language teaching.
Instead of covering reading material to meet curricular objectives, teachers need to refocus
their efforts by providing leamers with more opportunities to practice reading strategres.
 Nei[ J Anderson Reading Instruction

Those opportunities will most likely come with using fewer reading passages & R. W Schmidt. (1991). Motivation: Reopening the research agenda.
and doing crookes, G.,
more with the passages we do work with. 4l :469-512.
Lan gua ge Lear ni ng
Dörnyei, z. (2001a). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. cambridge: cam-
QUEST]ONS FOR RESEARCH AND PRACTICE bridge University Press.
Two groups of questions can be posed for teachers and resea¡chers to consider in (2001b). Teaching and researching motivation. Harlow: Longman'
order
to make significant improvements in reading instruction. These questions are direcily Dörnyei, 2., &.K. Csizér. (1998). Ten commandments for motivating language leamers:
related to the two key issues raised in this chapter. First, instead ofjust giving
readers a Results of an empirical study. Language Teaching Research 2:203-229'
passage to read and then testing them on their comprehension,
how can *. in better Dörnyei, 2., &. E. Ushioda. (2009). Motivation, Ianguage identit¡ and the L2 self' Bristol,
reading comprehension strategy instruction in the classroom? How can we"ngug"
meÃure if ou, UK: Multilingual Matters.
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instruction? Evans, N. W., K. J. Hartshorn, & N. J. Anderson' (2010). A research based approach to
Finally, what can be done to explicitly increase rhe motlvationar facrors within
reading classroom? lfmotivation to read were to increase, what other motivational
the materials development for reading. In N. Harwood (Ed.), Materials in ELT: Theory
increases and practice (pp. l3 l-156). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press'
in language leaming would we see? Motivation research continues to reveal
new wavs for
improving L2 leaming and teaching. It is now time to take this research one Gardner, R. C., & W. E. Lambert. (1959). Motivational variables in second language
step further by
applying it specifically to reading classrooms. acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology 13:26Ç212.
Guiìloteaux, M. J., & Z. Dörnyei. (2008). Motivating language learners: A classroom-
oriented investigation of the effects of motivational strategies on student motivation.
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Anderson, N. J. ( 1999). Erp roring second ranguage reading: Issues and
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Hirvela, A. (2004). Connecting reading & writing in second langLtage writing instrl¿ction
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