Radioactive Decay: Definition, Formula & Types

Contributors: Rashid Nuzha, Nissa Garcia

Learn the radioactive decay definition. Know the radioactive decay formula. Explore the differences between
alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma emission.

Table of Contents

 What is Radioactive Decay?

 Types of Radioactive Decay

 Radioactive Decay Formula

 Radioactive Decay Examples

Show more

What is Radioactive Decay?

To understand radioactive decay definition, recall that nuclide is a nucleus with a specific
neutron number N and atomic number or number of protons Z, therefore, a specific mass
number A=N+Z. Nuclides can be stable and unstable. So, to know what is radioactive decay, it is
the case when the unstable nuclides emit particles or electromagnetic radiations and turn to
other nuclides. In some nuclides, the continuous process of radioactive decaying takes less than
a microsecond, but in some other nuclides, it may continue to radioactive decay for billions of
years. Keep in mind that an unstable radioactive nuclide loses its mass while emitting particles.

Types of Radioactive Decay

The famous physicists Marie Curie and Ernest Rutherford, among many others, discovered that
radioactive decay results in positive and negative particles and neutral rays. Due to the different
penetration characteristics, the three results were given the names alpha decay, beta decay, and
gamma decay. So, when an unstable nuclide starts emitting radioactive materials, it is called the
parent nucleus, and the result new nuclide is called the daughter nucleus. Every nuclide can be
represented as A
Z
X where the symbol of any nuclide replaces X, A is the atomic mass, and Z is

the number of protons. Keep in mind that A=Z+N, where N is the number of neutrons.

Due to mass-energy conservation laws during decay, the unstable parent and the result
daughter nuclides are related by their atomic mass numbers A and atomic numbers Z. So, The
parent's atomic number must be equal to the daughter's atomic number plus the emitted
particle atomic number. Also, the parent's atomic mass number must equal the daughter's
atomic mass number plus the emitted particle atomic mass number.
 Radioactive decay of atomic nucleus

Alpha Decay
The helium nucleus 42 He is called an alpha particle which is made of two protons and two
neutrons. In alpha decay or alpha emission, the unstable parent nuclide emits an alpha particle.

An example of alpha emission is the radioactive Radium nuclide Ra-226 turning to Radon Rn-222
by emitting an alpha particle:
226 222 4
Ra → Rn + He
88 86 2

The atomic mass and numbers are balanced in this radioactive process. Notice that,
AP arent = ADaughter + AP article or 226 = 222 + 4. Also, ZP arent = ZDaughter + ZP article or

88 = 86 + 2

So, in alpha decay, the atomic mass number A is reduced by four, and the atomic number Z is
reduced by 2.
 Alpha Decay

Beta Decay
There are two types of beta decay or beta emission: beta-minus decay and beta-plus or positron
decay. Beta-minus β − particle is an electron 0−1 e. Beta-plus or positron β + is the opposite
particle to an electron in terms of the charge or the proton.

Example 1:

An example of beta-minus decay or emission is the radioactive Cobalt nuclide Co-40 turning to
Nickle Ni-40 by emitting an electron:
40 40 −1
Co → Ni + β
27 28

The atomic mass and numbers are balanced in this radioactive process. Notice that,
AP arent = ADaughter + AP article or 40 = 40 + 0 . Also, ZP arent = ZDaughter + ZP article or
27 = 28 + (−1)

So, in beta-minus decay, the atomic mass number A stays the same, and the atomic number Z
increases by 1. The daughter nucleus in beta-minus decay has a larger mass than the parent
nucleus.

Example 2:

An example of beta-plus decay or emission is the radioactive Carbon nuclide C-11 turning to
Boron B-11 by emitting a positron:
11 11 +1
C → B + β
6 5

The atomic mass and numbers are balanced in this radioactive process. Notice that,
AP arent = ADaughter + AP article or 11 = 11 + 0. Also, ZP arent = ZDaughter + ZP article or

6 = 5 + 1

So, in beta-plus or positron decay, the atomic mass number A stays the same, and the atomic
number Z is decreased by 1. The daughter nucleus in positron decay has a smaller mass than
the parent nucleus.
 Beta-minus Decay

Beta-plus Decay

Gamma Emission

Recall that a photon is a sack or bundle of energy with no mass and no charge, which makes up
electromagnetic waves. For example, light is believed to be dual-natured, one of which is looked
at as photon waves. Gamma rays are another name for photons. In gamma γ emission or decay
energy is released as gamma-ray photons or electromagnetic waves when an excited nuclide
moves to a more stable or less excited state. In general, other decays involve releasing energy
or emitting gamma rays.

Notice that the major difference between alpha, beta-minus, beta-plus forms of decay and gamma
decay is that in gamma decay, the element does not change.

Example:

An example of gamma decay or emission is the excited radioactive Protactinium nuclide Pa-234
turning to less excited Protactinium Pa-234 by emitting a gamma-ray photon:
234 ∗ 234
Pa → Pa + γ

Notice that star (*) refers to the excited state. Also, both parent and daughter nuclei are the
same element since gamma rays have no atomic mass or atomic number.

Gamma Decay

Radioactive Decay Formula

The radioactive decay formula is given by:
−λ∗t
N (t) = N (0) ∗ e

where N(t) is the number of remaining nuclei at time t measured in seconds (S), N(0) is the initial
number of nuclei at time t=0, and λ is the decay constant that differs for different nuclides and
is measured by 1/seconds or 1/S (S^{-1})

The radioactive decay equation shows that the number of nuclei is reduced exponentially by
N (t)
time so that the formula can be written as = e
−λ∗t

N (0)

To know how to calculate radioactive decay, use the known values of the initial amount to nuclei
at t=0 and the decay constant of the unstable element, then at any time t by substituting all
values in the formula, one can find out how many of the element's nuclei are left N(t).
 Radioactive Decay

Decay Constant Formula

In particle physics, lifetime is the life of an unstable particle or nucleus while it is still active. In
general, lifetime is referred to as Tmean which is equal to or the reciprocal of the decay
1

constant.

So, lifetime formula is: Tmean , or decay constant formula is: λ

1 1
= =
λ Tmean

Half Life Radioactive Decay Formula

dN (t)
A decaying radioactive material follows the formula: − dt
= λ ∗ N (t) where the minus sign
refers to the decaying or decrease in the number of nuclei N(t) over time. So, the radioactive
mass is reduced exponentially following the formula: N (t) = N (0) ∗ e−λ∗t .

Consider the case that the amount of radioactive material is reduced to half its initial amount.
For example, consider at time t where the current N(t)=25g, as half the initial N(0)=50g. The time
that has passed till half as much remains of the radioactive material is called half-life decay.
N (t)
Now substituting N (t) or in the exponential formula of N(t) gives:
1
= ( ) ∗ N (0) = 1/2
Now, substituting N (t) = (
2
) ∗ N (0) or = 1/2 in the exponential formula of N(t) gives:
N (0)

1/2 = e
−λ∗t
. Simplifying the formula to get the time t in terms of the decay constant λ gives:
.
ln2 0.693
T1/2 = =
λ λ

T1/2 is called the half-life decaying time it took the decaying radioactive material to lose half its
initial mass.

So, half-life radioactive decay formula is given by:

0.693
T1/2 =
λ

Recall that the mean lifetime is related to decay constant by the formula: Tmean , so in
1
=
λ

terms of the mean lifetime, the half life radioactive decay formula can be written as:
T1/2

T1/2 = ln2 ∗ Tmean = 0.693 ∗ Tmean or Tmean = .

0.693

Important note: Notice that half-life decaying time is independent of the number of atoms or the
nuclide atomic mass. For example, the half-life for the radioactive carbon-14 is known to be 5730 years.
A 1 kg or a 1 gram of carbon-14 would have the same half-life decaying time of 5730 years. Again, this is
because the half-life time is based on the idea of getting half as much of the initial amount regardless of
that amount, so the half-life only depends on the decaying constant.

Radioactive Decay Examples

Dating the archaeological and geological specimens are radioactive decay examples. To know
the age of a specimen, the unstable isotope Carbon fourteen 14 C is widely used.

Example 1:

Carbon-14's half-life is known to be 5730 years.

1- What is the carbon-14 decay constant?

2- if the carbon-14 activity was recorded at 0.255S −1 , how many atoms were there?

3- if the ratio N(t)/N(0)=0.379 when the activity of carbon-14 died, how old was the specimen?

Solution:

1- Use the half life radioactive decay formula: T1/2 , but do not forget to convert
0.693
=
λ

numbers to SI units.

Recall that 1 year=1*365 days*24 hours*60 minutes*60 seconds=3.156 ∗ 10 Second

7

T_{1/2}=5730 years=5730 ∗ 3.156 ∗ 107 =1.808 ∗ 1011

S (4 significant figures)

So, the decay constant for 14 C is equal to:

.
0.693 11 − −1
λ = = 0.693/1.808 ∗ 10 = 3.83 ∗ 10 12s
T1/2

dN (t) dN (t)
2- Use the formula: − dt
= λ ∗ N (t) where − dt
= 0.255s
−1
. Substitute the value of
decay constant for carbon-14 to find that:
decay constant for carbon 14 to find that:

0.255 = 3.83 ∗ 10
−
12 ∗ N (t) and N (t) = 0.255/3.83 ∗ 10
−
12 = 6.65 ∗ 10
10
atoms.

3- Use the radioactive decay formula: N (t) = N (0) ∗ e

−λ∗t
where N(t)/N(0)=0.379, so:

0.379 = e
−λ∗t
.

Taking the logarithm of both sides gives: ln(0.379) = −λ ∗ t and the specimen age t is equal
ln(0.379)
to: t s. Converting this number to years may give a
−0.97 11
= = −
= 2.53 ∗ 10
−λ −3.83∗10 12

better idea of how old is the specimen. So, divide to get:

1

years.
2.53∗10 1
t = = 8020
365days∗24hours∗60minutes∗60seconds

Example 2:

The half-life of Cobalt-60 is approximately 5.7 years. How much is left of 20 mg of cobalt-60 is
left after ten years?

Solution:

Use the radioactive decay formula: N (t) = N (0) ∗ e

−λ∗t
and substitute values.

N(0)=20 mg=20*10^{-3} g

t=10 years= 10*3.156*10^{7}=3.156*10^{8} Second

the decay constant is calculated by the formula: λ s

0.693 0.693 −9
= = = 3.9 ∗ 10
7
T1/2 5.7∗3.156∗10

So, the amount of atoms left after ten years is:

grams. Or there is 5.8
−9 8
−3 −(3.9∗10 )∗(3.156∗10 ) −1.23 −
N (t) = 20 ∗ 10 ∗ e = 0.02 ∗ e = 5.8 ∗ 10 3

mg left of the initial 20 mg cobalt-60 after ten years of continuous radioactivity.

Gamma Decay Equation

Recall that in gamma emission, energy is released when radioactive material is in an excited
state. So, an example of gamma decay equation is:
60 ∗ 60
Co → Co + γ

where the star refers to an excited state of the radioactive nuclide.

another example is:

113 ∗ 113
In → In + γ

In general, X∗ → X +
0
0
 \gamma

where 00  \gamma is the gamma rays that have no atomic mass and no atomic number but are
bundles of photons or energy. In general, gamma rays are written as γ.

Lesson Summary
Radioactive decay is defined as the particles or electromagnetic waves emitted once an
unstable nuclide move to a less excited or more stable state. There are three well-known
radioactive decays: alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma decay. In both alpha and beta decay,
the daughter nucleus is different from the parent nucleus. However, in gamma-ray decay, both
parent and daughter nuclei are the same element, but the parent is in a more excited state.
When a radioactive material starts decaying, its mass is reduced exponentially and can be
calculated by the formula of radioactive decay: N (t) = N (0) ∗ e
−λ∗t
where λ is the decay
constant. The mean lifetime is how long an unstable nuclide stays radioactive. Lifetime is
calculated by the formula: Tmean . Half-life is the time that an initial amount of radioactive
1
=
λ

material takes to reduce it half as much and is given by the formula: T1/2 .
0.693
=
λ

Carbon dating is a famous application of the radioactive decay formula where the use of
carbon-14 helps to know the age of an archaeological or geological specimen. In alpha decay,
radioactivity involves emitting an alpha particle with two protons and two neutrons. Beta-minus
decay involves emitting an electron that has a -1 charge. However, beta-plus or positron decay
involves emitting the positive particle of the proton. Gamma decay usually accompanies other
decays.

Video Transcript

Radioactive Decay and Half-Life

Radiation is part of our everyday lives. There are natural sources of radiation, such as radiation
from outer space, as well as man-made sources of radiation, like nuclear power plants and cell
phones. Radiation is given off from a process called radioactive decay. Radioactive decay
occurs when the original nucleus, or parent nucleus, of an unstable atom decomposes and
forms a different nucleus, or the daughter nucleus.

The rate at which radioactive decay occurs is measured using half-life, which is the time it takes
for half the amount of the parent nucleus to decay. Each time the half-life of a radioactive
material occurs, the amount of the radioactive material decreases to half of the original value.

In order to calculate the half-life of a radioactive material, we use the following equation:

N0 is the initial quantity of the substance

N(t) is the quantity that still remains and has not yet decayed after a time (t)

t1/2 is the half-life of the decaying quantity

e is Euler's number, which equals 2.71828

For example, we can use the formula above to solve this problem:

The radioisotope strontium-90 has a half-life of 38 1 years If a sample contains 100 mg of Sr-90
The radioisotope strontium 90 has a half life of 38.1 years. If a sample contains 100 mg of Sr 90,
how many milligrams will remain after 152.4 years?

Here are the steps in calculation:

1. -0.693 multiplied by 152.4 = -105.6132

2. -105.6132 divided by 38.1 = -2.772

3. e raised to the power of -2.772 = 0.0625

4. 100 multiplied by 0.0625 = 6.25

A Review of Chemical Symbols

When radioactive decay occurs, a particle or energy is emitted when the nucleus of the parent
atom decays to the daughter nucleus. Before we proceed to the different types of decay, let's
review that the atomic mass is the superscript or the small number at the upper left side of the
element symbol, indicating how many protons and neutrons are in the nucleus, and the atomic
number is the subscript, or small number, at the lower left side of the element symbol,
indicating how many protons are in the nucleus.

There are three main types of radioactive decay. These are: alpha decay, beta decay, and
gamma emission. Let's talk about alpha decay first.

Alpha Decay
Alpha decay, or alpha emission, is the release or emission of an alpha particle, which is a
helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons. This type of decay usually occurs in
larger and heavier atoms. In the figure, you'll see that a helium particle (alpha particle) is
emitted from the parent nucleus.

Due to the release of the alpha particle, the daughter nucleus has an atomic mass that is 4 less
than the original and an atomic number that is 2 less than the original. Since the atomic number
is different, then the chemical element is also different
Here is the equation for the radioactive decay of uranium (U) to thorium (Th):

If we add all the superscripts from the product's side (234 + 4), it will be equal to the atomic
mass of uranium, which is 238. If we add all the subscripts from the products side (90 + 2), it will
be equal to the atomic number of the parent nucleus, uranium.

Beta Decay
Beta decay, or beta emission, occurs when a neutron transforms into a proton or a proton
transforms into a neutron inside the nucleus. This conversion results in a beta particle--either
an electron or positron--to be emitted, accompanied by either an electron antineutrino (a
subatomic particle that is electrically neutral) or electron neutrino.

There are two types of beta decay, beta minus decay and beta plus decay. Beta minus decay
occurs when a neutron turns into a proton. This causes an electron, accompanied by an
electron antineutrino, to be emitted. As a result, the daughter nucleus' atomic number increases
by 1.

Below are the symbols typically used for a beta minus decay. An example is shown where the
iodine (I) undergoes radioactive decay, producing xenon (Xe). We can see that the atomic
number increases. We can also see that an antineutrino is emitted.

If we check the superscripts (atomic masses) and subscripts (atomic numbers), they are
balanced in the reactants and products: (131 = 131) and (53 = 54 - 1).

Beta plus decay, or positron emission, occurs when a proton turns into a neutron, causing an
electron neutrino and a positron (a particle that has the same mass but opposite charge as an
electron - also called a positive electron) to be emitted. As a result, the daughter nucleus' atomic
number decreases by 1.
 y

The illustration shows the two possible symbols of a positron, as well as a positron emission
reaction with carbon (C) decaying to boron (B):

The atomic masses (11 = 11) and atomic numbers (6 = 5 + 1) are balanced.

Gamma Emission
Gamma emission involves a release in energy in the form of gamma rays, very high-energy
electromagnetic radiation. This type of emission usually accompanies other decays, such as
alpha or beta decay. Gamma rays are emitted because when the nucleus undergoes alpha or
beta decay, the nucleus is all shaken up and needs to release energy. Gamma rays have no
atomic mass and no atomic number.

Here is the reaction of a gamma emission that occurs accompanying beta decay of cobalt (Co) to
nickel (Ni):

If we check all the superscripts (atomic masses), they are balanced in the reactants and products
(60 = 60). The subscripts (27 = 28 - 1) on both sides are also balanced.

Lesson Summary
When radioactive decay happens, radiation occurs due to the parent nucleus decomposing to
another nucleus, which is what we call the daughter nucleus. Radioactive decay of a radioactive
substance or material can be measured by the half-life, which is the time it takes for the
radioactive material to decay to half of its original amount.

Radioactive decay has three main types of decay: alpha decay (alpha emission), beta decay
(positron emission), and gamma emission. It's important to note that there are two types of
beta decay: beta minus decay and beta plus decay (positron emission).

The table shows the symbols of the particles emitted for each type of radioactive decay:

The particles that are emitted, depending on atomic numbers and atomic masses, change the
parent nucleus.

Frequently Asked Questions

What does radioactive decay mean?

Radioactive decay means that an unstable nuclide emits particles or rays and turns into
another nuclide. The unstable nuclide is called the parent nucleus, and the result of
radioactivity is called the daughter nucleus. Depending on the nuclide, radioactive decay
may last from less than a microsecond to billions of years.

What is the formula for calculating half-life?

Half-life is the time it takes an initial amount of radioactive material to be reduced to its
half. The half-life formula is given as:

T_{1/2}=\frac {0.693}{\lambda}

where \lambda is the decay constant

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