Team 04 - Full Report PDF

PLANT DESIGN PROJECT
2021/2022
PRODUCTION OF ACRYLONITRILE FROM
AMMONIA
SV: IR DR TAN LIAN SEE
SMJC 4824
CHEMICAL PROCESS DESIGN
NAME MATRIC NUMBER

ANIS KHADIJAH BINTI MD ARIFFIN A18MJ0173
NAZIRA SYAHIRA BINTI ZULKIFLI A18MJ0099
NUR ALIA FARHANA BINTI ROS MADI A18MJ0109
SITI AISYAH BINTI MOHD SHUKRI A18MJ0144
UMMI SYIFAA’ BINTI MOHAMAD RODZI A18MJ0159
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Acrylonitrile is a colourless, volatile liquid with a pungent, onion-like odour.

Acrylonitrile is commonly used in industry to make glove, rubber, resins, plastics,
elastomers, and synthetic fibres, as well as carbon fibres for aircraft, weapons, and
aerospace applications. This plant will run for 365 days per year. At least 7000kg per
hour of acrylonitrile were produced at our plant with 140000 kg per hour of ethyl
acrylate and 6000kg per hour of ammonia used. Our production plant will be
constructed in Kerteh, Terengganu. Our raw material supplier comes from Kompleks
Pentadbiran Petrokimia PETRONAS, Kerteh, Terengganu, because it is the closest
supplier to our plant. There are three processes that can be used to produce
acrylonitrile, which are the ammoxidation of propane, the ammoxidation of propylene,
and the nitrilation of ethyl acrylate. Our production plant decided to choose process
nitrilation from ethyl acrylate to produce acrylonitrile as it has a lot of benefits after
discussing several aspects. Ammonia and ethyl acrylate will be fed into the fluidized
bed reactor. After that, the product acrylonitrile will be generated with a few side
products, which are ethanol and water. Then, all of the substances will undergo several
separation processes to generate 95% acrylonitrile. The catalyst from the fluidized bed
reactor will be treated or reused again in another process. Some of the effluents will
also be generated throughout the process. We have considered several technologies to
treat all of the substances that mostly contain chemical wastes. For liquid wastes, we
decided to recycle and sell some of the substances after undergoing another separation
due to the high flowrate generated. We decided to sell it as a cleaning agent to
individuals, businesses, and institutions. While for the gas stream, some of the
substances will also be sold to other companies such as petroleum refining,
pharmaceutical manufacturing, water disinfection, and as a refrigerant, and some of
them will be treated before releasing them to the environment. After calculation of
Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) in Energy Integration part, it is identify that with the
ΔTmin of 10℃, the QC min obtained is 3441.82kW and Qh min obtained is
168.32kW. The cold utility stream able to save about 58.9% of energy while hot utility
succeed in saving about 96.7% of energy used. After deciding the heat exchanger grid
ii
line, the P&ID of the plant was able to be designed that include the process control
system. The Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) analysis, Chemical Health Risk
Assestment CHRA, plant layout, and plant start-up and shut down procedure also has
been prepared.For the economic analysis of the production plant, with the total capital
investment, CTCI of RM 62,185,593.28, the return of investment (ROI) of the
acrylonitrile production plant is at 875.24% with the payback period of acrylonitrile
production plant is estimated to be 5 years after 3 years of start-up period.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xvi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Company Background 1
1.2 Chemical Background Study 2
1.2.1 Acrylonitrile 2
1.2.2 Ammonia 5
1.3 Market Survey for Acrylonitrile 7
1.3.1 Introduction 7
1.3.2 The Production of Ammonia 7
1.3.3 The Availability of Ammonia in Asia 8
1.3.4 World Production of Acrylonitrile 9
1.3.5 World Consumption of Acrylonitrile 10
1.4 Site Selection 12
1.4.1 Factors Affecting the Site Selection 12
CHAPTER 2 PROCESS SYNTHESIS 19

2.1 Process Route Selection 19
2.1.1 Gross Profit Margin 19
2.1.2 Technology Comparison 21
2.1.3 Ammoxidation of Propane 24
2.1.4 Ammoxidation of Propylene 25
2.1.5 Nitrilation from Ethyl Acrylate 25
iv
2.2 Block Flow Diagram for Selected Process Route 27
2.3 Sustainability Justification 27
2.3.1 Safety Factor 27
2.3.2 Economic of Acrylonitrile Production 28
2.3.3 Environment Factor 28
2.3.4 Circular Economy Definition 30
2.3.5 Circular Economy Concept in Production of
Acrylonitrile 31
2.3.6 Net Zero Carbon 32
2.4 Production of Acrylonitrile from Ammonia 33
2.4.1 Process Flow Diagram 34
2.4.2 Process Description 35
2.4.3 Chemical Reaction 36
2.5 Equipment Basis 36
2.5.1 Fluidized bed Reactor 36
2.5.2 Flash column 45
2.5.3 Distillation Column 52
2.5.4 Absorption Column 61
2.5.5 Auxiliary 66
2.5.5.1 Cooler 66
2.5.5.2 Heater 67
2.5.5.3 Pump 68
2.6 Manual Calculation 69
2.6.1 Mass Balance 69
2.6.1.1 Pump (P-101) 70
2.6.1.2 Pump (P-102) 71
2.6.1.3 Heater (E-101) 72
2.6.1.4 Heater (E-102) 73
2.6.1.5 Fluidized bed Reactor (R-101) 74
2.6.1.6 Cooler (E-103) 74
v
2.6.1.7 Flash Column (F-101) 75
2.6.1.8 Cooler (E-104) 76
2.6.1.9 Distillation Column (C-101) 77
2.6.1.10 Absorption Column (C-102) 78
2.6.1.11 Cooler (E-105) 79
2.6.1.12 Flash column (F-102) 80
2.6.2 Energy Balance 81
2.6.2.1 Pump (P-101) 86
2.6.2.2 Pump (P-102) 87
2.6.2.3 Heater (E-101) 88
2.6.2.4 Heater (E-102) 89
2.6.2.5 Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101) 90
2.6.2.6 Cooler (E-103) 91
2.6.2.7 Flash Column (F-101) 92
2.6.2.8 Cooler (E-104) 93
2.6.2.9 Distillation Column (C-101) 94
2.6.2.10 Absorption Column (C-102) 95
2.6.2.11 Cooler (E-105) 96
2.6.2.12 Flash column (F-102) 97
2.7 PRO/II Simulation 99
2.8 Comparison of Manual and Simulation Calculation 103
2.8.1 Mass Balance Comparison 103
2.8.2 Energy Balance Comparison 105
CHAPTER 3 WASTE MANAGEMENT 107

3.1 Introduction 107
3.1.1 Waste Management Practices 107
3.1.2 Environmental Quality Act,1974 109
3.1.3 Sustainable Development Goals 109
vi
3.1.4 Standards and Regulations for Wastewater
Management in Malaysia 112
3.2 Sources of Waste 112
3.3 Solid Waste 113
3.3.1 Source of Solid Waste 113
3.3.2 Management of Solid Waste 114
3.3.3 Comparison and Selected Solution 115
3.4 Liquid Waste 115
3.4.1 Source of Liquid Waste 116
3.4.2 Management of Liquid Waste 116
3.4.2.1 Wastewater Treatment of Ethyl
Acrylate and Water from S-13 117
3.4.2.2 Comparison and Selected Solution 119
3.4.2.3 Waste Treatment of Ethanol and
Dimethyl Sulfoxide from S15 120
3.5 Gas Waste 123
3.5.1 Source of Gas Waste 123
3.5.2 Management of Gas Waste 124
3.5.2.1 Waste Treatment of Ammonia,
Acrylonitrile and Ethanol in S9 125
3.5.2.3 Waste Treatment of Ammonia and
Acrylonitrile Gas from S18 128
CHAPTER 4 ENERGY INTERGRATION 132

4.2 Stream Identification 134
4.3 Composition Curve 135
4.4 Problem Table Algorithm 139
4.5 Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) for Maximum Energy
Recovery (MER) 142
vii
4.6 Above Pinch and Below Pinch Design 143
4.7 Comparison between Utilities Consumption Before
and After MER 147
4.7.1 Total Utilities Consumption Before Heat
Integration 147
4.7.2 Total Utilities Consumption After Heat
Integration 147
CHAPTER 5 PROCESS CONTROL 149

5.1 Introduction to Piping and Instrumentation 149
5.2 Control System 150
5.2.1 Controlled Variables 150
5.2.2 Type of Control System 151
5.3 Control System Designs for Individual Operational
Equipment 153
5.4 Control System Unit for Equipment 157
5.4.1 Fluidized Bed Reactor 158
5.4.2 Flash Separator 160
5.4.3 Distillation Column 164
5.4.4 Absorption Column 169
5.4.5 Heat Exchanger 172
5.4.6 Heater 175
5.4.7 Cooler 177
5.4.8 Pump 180
5.5 Overall P&ID Control System 183
CHAPTER 6 PROCESS SAFETY 186

6.2 Plant Safety 187
6.2.1 Plant Location 188
6.2.2 Chemical Storage and Process Vessel 188
6.2.3 Transportation 189
6.3 Worker Safety 189
viii
6.3.1 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 190
6.4 Fire Hazard 191
6.4.1 Fire Detection and Alarm System 192
6.5 Plant Emergency Response 193
6.6 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) 194
6.6.1 Introduction 194
6.6.2 The Purposes of HAZOP 194
6.6.3 Steps to Complete HAZOP Analysis 195
6.6.4 HAZOP studies in selected equipment 197
6.6.5 HAZOP Study on Heat Exchangers, Heaters
and Coolers 202
6.6.6 HAZOP Study on Pumps 202
6.6.7 HAZOP Study on Reactor 205
6.6.8 HAZOP Study on Flash Column 208
6.6.9 HAZOP Study on Distillation Column 211
6.6.10 HAZOP Study on Absorption Column 214
6.6.11 HAZOP Study on Flash Column 217
6.7 Chemical Health Risk Assessment (CHRA) 220
6.8 Plant Start-Up and Shut Down Procedure 233
6.8.1 Plant Start-Up Procedure 233
6.8.2 Plant Shut-Down Procedure 235
6.9 Plant Layout 238
CHAPTER 7 PROCESS ECONOMY 241

7.2 Equipment Costing 243
7.2.1 Reactor (R-101) 244
7.2.2 Flash Column (F-101 and F-102) 251
7.2.3 Distillation Column (C-101) 258
7.2.4 Absorption Column (C-102) 263
7.2.5 Heater (E-103 and E-104) 268
ix
7.2.6 Cooler (E-106, E-107 and E-108) 273
7.2.7 Heat Exchanger (E-101, E-102 and E-105) 279
7.2.8 Pump (P-101 and P-102) 286
7.3 Waste Treatment Cost 290
7.4 Utilities Cost 291
7.5 Total Labor Cost 293
7.6 Profit Margin 294
7.7 Total Capital Investment 296
7.8 Total Depreciable Capital 298
7.9 Total Annual Production Cost 299
7.10 Cash Flow Analysis 301
7.11 Conclusion 311
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION 312

8.1 Conclusion 312
REFERENCES 313
APPENDIX II 321
APPENDIX III 364
x
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
Table 1.1 Chemical and physical properties for Acrylonitrile from

Chemical Book (2017) 2
Table 1.2 The Safety Information of Acrylonitrile (Acrylonitrile
MSDS-800834 – Merck, n.d.) 4
Table 1.3 Physical and Chemical propertires for Ammonia from
Chemical Book (2017) 5
Table 1.4 The Safety Information of Ammonia (Ammonia Safety
Data Sheet,2019) 6
Table 1.5 Comparison for Site Selection 16
Table 2.1 Comparison of the three-process routes 21
Table 2.2 The operating condition of the reaction (R-101) 39
Table 2.3 Boiling points of the components at standard temperature. 46
Table 2.4 Operation condition of flash column (F-101) 51
Table 2.5 Operation condition of flash column (F-102) 52
Table 2.6 Condition of distillation column 53
Table 2.7 Boiling points of the components 62
Table 2.8 Operating condition of cooler at E-103, E-104, E-105 67
Table 2.9 The operating condition of heater. (E-101, E-102) 68
Table 2.10 The operating condition of the pump. 69
Table 2.11 Mass balance on pump (P-101) 70
Table 2.12 Mass balance on pump (P-102) 71
Table 2.13 Mass balance on heater (E-101) 72
Table 2.14 Mass balance on heater (E-102) 73
Table 2.15 Mass balance on Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101) 74
Table 2.16 Mass balance on Cooler (E-103) 75
xi
Table 2.17 Mass balance on Flash column (F-101) 76
Table 2.18 Mass balance on Cooler (E-104) 77
Table 2.19 Mass balance on Distillation Column (C-101) 78
Table 2.20 Mass balance on absorption column (C-102) 79
Table 2.21 Mass balance on cooler (E-105) 80
Table 2.22 Mass balance on flash column (F-102) 81
Table 2.23 Energy balance on pump (P-101) 86
Table 2.24 Energy balance on pump (P-102) 87
Table 2.25 Energy balance on heater (E-101) 88
Table 2.26 Energy balance on heater (E-102) 89
Table 2.27 Energy balance on Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101) 90
Table 2.28 Energy balance on Cooler (E-103) 91
Table 2.29 Energy balance on Flash column (F-101) 92
Table 2.30 Energy balance on Cooler (E-104) 93
Table 2.31 Energy balance on Distillation Column (C-101) 94
Table 2.32 Energy balance on absorption column (C-102) 95
Table 2.33 Energy balance on cooler (E-105) 97
Table 2.34 Energy balance on flash column (F-102) 98
Table 2.35 List of components used in PRO/II Simulation. 99
Table 2.36 List of unit operation used in PRO/II Simulation. 99
Table 2.37 Comparison of the manual mass balance calculation with
the simulation 103
Table 2.38 Comparison of Simulation done by PRO/II and manual
calculation in enthalpy flow rate (kJ/hr). 105
Table 3.1 The waste classifications generated by the production plant
and their sources of generation. 112
Table 3.2 The Option of Technology to Treat Solid Waste 115
Table 3.3 Technologies that can be used to treat liquid wastes 116
Table 3.4 Comparison of Technology to Treat S13 119
xii
Table 3.5 Comparison of Technology to Treat S15. 122
Table 3.6 The component exists in gas effluent from S9 124
Table 3.7 Technologies that can be used to treat gaseous wastes 124
Table 3.8 Comparison of the technology to treat S9. 127
Table 3.9 The Component Exists in Gas Effluent from S18 128
Table 3.10 Comparison of The Technology to Treat S18. 130
Table 4.1 Summary of the hot and cold stream available for heat
integration 134
Table 4.2 Hot composite data 136
Table 4.3 Cold composite data 136
Table 4.4 Actual temperature and shifted temperature 140
Table 4.5 Problem Table algorithm 141
Table 4.6 Utilities consumption before heat integration 147
Table 4.7 Utilities consumption after heat integration 147
Table 5.1 List of legends in P&ID layout. 153
Table 5.2 List of symbols used in P&ID. 156
Table 5.3 Control system analysis of reactor (R-101) 159
Table 5.4 Control system analysis for flash drum (F-101) 161
Table 5.5 Control system analysis of flash column (F-102) 163
Table 5.6 Control system analysis of distillation column 1 (C-101) 166
Table 5.7 Control system analysis of absorption column (C-102) 170
Table 5.8 Process control analysis of heat exchanger (E-101) 172
Table 5.11 Process control analysis of heater (E-103) 176
Table 5.12 Process control analysis of heater (E-104) 176
Table 5.13 Control system analysis of cooler (E-106) 178
xiii
Table 5.16 Process control analysis of pump (P-101) 181
Table 5.17 Process control analysis of pump (P-102) 182
Table 6.1 General PPE at workplace 190
Table 6.2 Guide Words for HAZOP Analysis 196
Table 6.3 Deviations generated from guide words and parameters 197
Table 6.4 HAZOP on Heat Exchanger and Pump 203
Table 6.5 HAZOP on Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101) 206
Table 6.6 HAZOP on Flash Column (F-101) 209
Table 6.7 HAZOP on Distillation Column (C-101) 212
Table 6.8 HAZOP on Absorption Column (C-102) 215
Table 6.9 HAZOP on Flash Column (F-102) 218
Table 6.10 Chemical used in work unit 221
Table 6.11 Chemicals released by the processes or work activities 224
Table 6.12 Inhalation exposure assessment 229
Table 6.13 Dermal Assessment 230
Table 6.14 Control Measures and Recommendations 231
Table 7.1 Design Summary for Fluidized Bed Reactor 249
Table 7.2 Equipment Specification Sheet of Flash Column (F-101) 256
Table 7.3 Equipment Specification Sheet of Flash Column (F-102) 257
Table 7.4 Equipment Specification Sheet of Distillation Column (C-101) 260
Table 7.5 Material of Construction Factor, FM (Coulson & Richardson.,
2018) 265
Table 7.6 Bare-Module Factors, FBM (Coulson & Richardson., 2018) 265
Table 7.7 Equipment Specification Sheet of Absorption Column (C-102) 266
Table 7.8 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (E-103) 270
Table 7.9 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (E-104) 272
Table 7.10 Equipment Specification Sheet of Cooler (E-106) 276
xiv
Table 7.13 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (E-101) 282
Table 7.16 Equipment Specification Sheet of Pump (P-101) 289
Table 7.17 Equipment Specification Sheet of Pump (P-102) 289
Table 7.18 Wastewater streams discharged 290
Table 7.19 Allocated cost for utility of the plant 291
Table 7.20 Operating labor estimation cost 293
Table 7.21 Raw material cost 294
Table 7.22 Product revenue cost 295
Table 7.23 Summarization of total costs 298
Table 7.24 Summarization of total depreciable cost, CTDC 299
Table 7.25 Summary of total annual production cost 300
Table 7.26 Cash flow analysis for acrylonitrile production plant 303
Table 7.27 Discounted Factor Cash Flow Analysis for Interest Rate of 5%,
10% and 15% 307
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
Figure 1.1 Organization chart of company 1

Figure 1.2 The Safety Information of Acrylonitrile (Acrylonitrile
MSDS-800834 – Merck, n.d.) 4
Figure 1.3 The Safety Information of Ammonia (Ammonia Safety
Data Sheet,2019) 6
Figure 1.4 World consumption of acrylonitrile in 2021 (IHS Markit’s
Chemical Economics Handbook) 10
Figure 1.5 Acrylonitrile market demand by application expected in US
from 2016 to 2027 (Market Analysis Report) 11
Figure 1.6 Acrylonitrile Market Volume (%) by application globally
in 2020 (Mordor Intelligence) 11
Figure 2.1 Propane ammoxidation process (Cespi et al., 2014) 24
Figure 2.2 Block flow diagram of the selected process route. 27
Figure 2.3 Comparison between linear economy and circular economy
(Sources: Towards Zero Waste). 30
Figure 2.4 The process flow diagram of Acrylonitrile production plant
34
Figure 2.5 Fluidized bed reactor modes (Sinnott & Towler, 2019) 37
Figure 2.6 Circulating fluidized bed reactor (CFBs) (Chemical
Engineering World, n.d.) 38
Figure 2.7 Flash column 46
Figure 2.8 Distillation Column 53
Figure 2.9 Absorption Column 61
Figure 2.10 Theoretical stage of absorption column 65
Figure 2.11 The cooler (E-103, E-104, E-105) 67
Figure 2.12 The heater (E-101, E-102) 68
Figure 2.13 The pump (P-101, P-102) 69
xvi
Figure 2.14 Symbol of pump (P-101) 70
Figure 2.16 Symbol of heater (E-101) 72
Figure 2.18 Symbol of Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101) 74
Figure 2.19 Symbol of Cooler (E-103) 75
Figure 2.20 Symbol of Flash column (F-101) 76
Figure 2.21 Symbol of cooler (E-104) 77
Figure 2.22 Symbol of Distillation Column (C-101) 78
Figure 2.23 Symbol of absorption column (C-102) 79
Figure 2.25 Symbol of flash column (F-102) 81
Figure 2.30 Symbol of Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101) 90
Figure 2.32 Symbol of Flash column (F-101) 92
Figure 2.34 Symbol of Distillation Column (C-101) 94
Figure 2.35 Symbol of absorption column (C-102) 95
Figure 2.37 Symbol of flash column (F-102) 98
Figure 2.38 Flowsheet of the process flow diagram in PRO/II
Simulation 102
Figure 3.1 The Waste Management Hierarchy 108
Figure 3.2 Sustainable Development Goals (United Nations, 2020) 110
xvii
Figure 3.3 Ultraviolet decomposition system of DMSO wastewater
(Koito et al. (1998)) 121
Figure 3.4 Wet Scrubber 126
Figure 3.5 The mechanism of dry scrubber equipment. 130
Figure 4.1 Pinch analysis diagram (Klemeš & Kravanja, 2013) 134
Figure 4.2 Hot Composite Curve 137
Figure 4.3 Cold Composite Curve 137
Figure 4.4 Hot & Cold Composite Curve 138
Figure 4.5 Shifted composite curve for ∆Tmin = 10℃ 138
Figure 4.6 Heat exchanger network (HEN) for below and above pinch
for maximum energy recovery 146
Figure 4.7 Process flow diagram after heat integration 148
Figure 5.1 Feedback controller diagram 152
Figure 5.2 Feedforward controller diagram. 152
Figure 5.3 Cascade controller diagram. 153
Figure 5.4 Control system design of reactor (R-101) 160
Figure 5.5 Control system design of flash column (F-101) 162
Figure 5.6 Control system design of flash column (F-102) 164
Figure 5.7 Control system design for distillation column 1 (C-101) 169
Figure 5.8 Control system design of absorption column (C-102) 171
Figure 5.9 Control System of Heat Exchanger E-101. 173
Figure 5.10 Control System of Heat Exchanger E-102 174
Figure 5.11 Control System of Heat Exchanger E-105. 175
Figure 5.12 Process control design of heater (E-103) 176
Figure 5.13 Process control design of heater (E-104) 177
Figure 5.14 Control system design of cooler (E-106) 178
Figure 5.17 Process control design of pump (P-101) 181
xviii
Figure 5.18 Process control design of pump (P-102) 182
Figure 6.1 Figure 1 P&ID part 1 of 3 199
Figure 6.2 P&ID part 2 of 3 200
Figure 6.3 P&ID part 3 of 3 201
Figure 7.1 Cumulative cash flow diagram with 0% interest rate 304
Figure 7.2 Discounted Factor Cash Flow Analysis for Interest Rate of 5%,
10% and 15% 309
xix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Company Background
CRYLON SDN. BHD. was established in 2020 by a group of chemical

engineers, and will be proposed as a chemical processing plant design from ammonia
as the feedstock with 6 tonnes/hour. The organisational chart of the company is shown
in Figure 1.1 below.
Figure 1.1 Organization chart of company
1
1.2 Chemical Background Study
1.2.1 Acrylonitrile
Acrylonitrile (ACN), or vinyl cyanide, is a chemical compound with the

formula C3 H3 N. ACN is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid that frequently appears
yellow due to impurities. ACN is an unsaturated nitrile primarily distributed to the
environmental compartments into which it is discharged (i.e., air or water), with little
movement into soil, sediment, or biota; the key removal processes are reaction and
advection (Long et al., 2002). It is an extensively utilized monomer in the chemical
industry, and its production on a global scale exceeds that of any other organic
substance. It is used to make various products such as plastics, synthetic rubber, and
acrylic fibres. Additionally, it is a high-volume commodity chemical, with global
annual production exceeding 10 billion pounds (• Global Plastic Production 1950-
2020 | Statista, n.d.). It is widely employed in the chemical industry, and its output on
a worldwide scale exceeds that of any other organic substance.
ACN can be synthesized in three unique ways: by the ammoxidation of

propane, through the ammoxidation of propylene, or the creation of ACN from ethyl
acrylate. The production ACN from nitrilation of ethyl acrylate of because esters are
less corrosive, more volatile, and more stable than acids, using them as substrates in
this process should result in a more realistic route to ACN (Karp et al., 2017). The
following table summarizes the chemical and physical properties of ACN.
Table 1.1 Chemical and physical properties for Acrylonitrile from Chemical
Book (2017)
Molecular formula C3H3N
Molecular Weight 53.1g/mol
Melting Point -82oC
Boiling Point 77.3oC
2
Specific Density 0.81g/cm3 at 25oC
Specific Heat 110.9 J/mol.K.
Storage Temperature 2-8oC
Appearance Colourless liquid
Odour Pungent odour
Soluble in isopropanol, ethanol, ether, acetone, and

Water Solubility
benzene
ACN, according to the Material Safety Data Sheet (2021) is a very flammable
substance, and the vapor will travel a considerable distance before burning. Containers
can expand or degrade as a result of heating, raising the danger of a severe rupture.
Ignition can occur when the environment is polluted with oxidizing compounds such
as nitrates, oxidizing acids, chlorine bleaching, and pool chlorine. Flammable
substances could be housed in a secure cabinet or room apart from the rest. Collect and
store all rubbish in a sealed container until the garbage disposal is inspected. Maintain
a safe distance between yourself and both light and ignition sources. All materials used
in products should be kept cool, well-ventilated, and grounded.
For inhalation risk, evaporating the ACN rapidly results in severe air pollution.
Along with the risk of chemical pneumonitis, eating the fluid may result in aspiration
into the lungs, posing severe complications (Acrylonitrile MSDS - 800834 - Merck,
n.d.). ACN is absorbed through unbroken skin, posing a threat to the central nervous
system. Contact with the liquid for an extended period may result in the production of
vesicles and burns resembling a second-degree thermal burn (Levels, 2008). Limit the
risk of any leak to mitigate, to the extent practicable, the chance to human health and
the environment. Wear complete and suitable personal protection equipment.
3
Figure 1.2 The Safety Information of Acrylonitrile (Acrylonitrile MSDS-800834
– Merck, n.d.)
Table 1.2 The Safety Information of Acrylonitrile (Acrylonitrile MSDS-800834

– Merck, n.d.)
Hazard Rating Description
Toxic when swallowed, in
contact with or inhaled
Health 4
and may harm to organs
Highly flammable liquid

Flammability 3 and vapour.
Prone to strong reactions

Reactivity
2 but do not breakdown
explosively
Acrylic and modacrylic fibres are generally manufactured from the primary
ingredient ACN. In addition to acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) and (SAN)
plastics, ACN rubbers, nitrile barrier resins, adiponitrile, and acrylamide are used in
several other applications (Acrylonitrile Market | 2021 - 26 | Industry Share, Size,
Growth - Mordor Intelligence, n.d.). Nitrile gloves have several advantages over
different types of gloves because they are more resistant to punctures and chemicals
than latex or even vinyl. According to the Environment Health Organization, non-
powdered gloves are advised for persons working in healthcare settings since they
prevent reactivity with alcohol-based hand rub. Hence, they're worth considering in
today's world when we must constantly sanitize our hands against infections.
4
1.2.2 Ammonia
Ammonia (NH3 ) will be used as the raw material in this process to create ACN.
According to statistics, ammonia produced 235 million tonnes worldwide in 2019,
ranking it the second most-produced chemical commodity behind sulfuric acid
(H2 SO4 ) (Venkat & Jim, 2016). Ammonia is a colourless and odourless gas formed of
nitrogen and hydrogen atoms. It occurs naturally in the human body and nature, in
water, soil, air, and microscopic bacteria molecules. Both ammonia and ammonium
ions are critical components of several metabolic processes in the human body.
Ammonia is produced by the human body when protein-containing foods are broken
down into ammonia and amino acids. The ammonia is then converted to urea.
Additionally, it is critical in manufacturing a variety of products that we use daily.
Table 1.3 summarizes the physical and chemical properties of ammonia.
Table 1.3 Physical and Chemical propertires for Ammonia from Chemical Book
(2017)
Molecular formula NH3
Molecular Weight 17.031g/mol
Melting Point -77.73oC
Boiling Point -33.5oC
Specific Density 0.7710 g/cm3 at 25oC
Specific Heat 37.0 J/mol.K. (g)
80.8 kJ/mol. K (liq)
Storage Temperature 13oC
Appearance Colourless gas
Odour Strong and pungent odour
Water Solubility Soluble in water
5
According to the Ammonia Safety Data Sheet for inhalation risk, harmful air
pollution can occur very quickly if a large amount of ammonia is released. The extent
to which health effects occur depends on the route of exposure, the dose, and the length
of time under consideration. When exposed to the high concentration of ammonia in
the air, the eyes become quickly burned, nose, throat, and respiratory tract causing
blindness, lung damage, and death (Levels, 2008). Inhalation of lower concentrations
may result in coughing and nasal and throat discomfort. The following table
summarizes the safety data for ammonia taken from the Material Safety Data Sheet:
Ammonia (2019).
Figure 1.3 The Safety Information of Ammonia (Ammonia Safety Data

Sheet,2019)
Table 1.4 The Safety Information of Ammonia (Ammonia Safety Data

Sheet,2019)
Hazard Rating Description
Health Can result in severe or

3
lifelong harm.
Flammability Prior to ignition, the

1 powerplant must be
warmed.
Reactivity
0 Typically, stable.
6
Usually, dependable around the majority of ammonia produced by industry is
used as fertiliser in agriculture, accounting for 80 per cent of total production (Ghavam
et al., 2021). Additionally, ammonia is utilized as a refrigerant gas, a water purifier,
and a raw material in manufacturing plastics, explosives, textiles, pesticides, and
colours. It is an ingredient in a variety of household and industrial cleaning products.
Ammonia-based household cleaning solutions combine ammonia gas with water and
typically contain 5% and 10% ammonia. Industrial ammonia solutions can contain up
to 25% ammonia and are corrosive (Ammonia Uses and Benefits | Chemical Safety
Facts, n.d.).
1.3 Market Survey for Acrylonitrile
1.3.1 Introduction
A summary of the market survey for production and use of ACN will be
discussed in this chapter. The market demand of ACN and availability of ammonia
also will be addressed in this chapter.
1.3.2 The Production of Ammonia
Ammonia can be produced in both sources either renewable or non-renewable

sources. Green ammonia term referring to ammonia production that is 100 percent
renewable and carbon-free. Green ammonia can be created by combining hydrogen
from water electrolysis and nitrogen extracted from the air. Then, it being fed to the
Haber process.
The Haber-Bosch process is used to manufacture ammonia in large plants from

1,000 to 1,500 tonnes per day (Soloveichik, 2017). The temperature of Haber-Bosch
process was operated in the range of 400°C to 500°C with a pressure from 150 bad to
7
300bar in the presence of iron (Fe) based catalyst (Garagounis et al., 2014). Globally,
more than 90% of ammonia is produced from fossil fuels through this method.
The properties of ammonia derived from renewable sources are it is carbon-

free, has no direct impact on greenhouse gas emissions, and it became easier to
converts to liquid with compression to 0.8 M Pa at atmospheric temperature (Valera-
Medina et al., 2018).
1.3.3 The Availability of Ammonia in Asia
According to Chem Analysts, ammonia supply in ending of September 2020

in the Asia Pacific region eased as several Southeast Asian producers resumed normal
operations with fewer COVID-led lockdown restrictions. Prices began to regain lost
momentum as demand fundamentals improved in the second half of the year.
Throughout the quarter of ending March 2021, demand for ammonia in the
domestic Asian market remained stable to firm. Though supply remained tight, trading
activities were hampered by congestion on prime trading routes, as well as increased
cargo and shipping costs. Meanwhile, the Chinese lunar year reduced the inventories
of Chinese manufacturers, putting an additional burden on prices. The price of aqueous
ammonia in the Indian market increased by 7.07 percent during the quarter, reaching
USD 313.28 per MT in March.
Overall market sentiments for ammonia in Asia remained positive throughout

the quarter, owing to strong demand fundamentals from downstream fertilizers and
pharmaceuticals. Manufacturers revealed that the price increase was unexpected
because there was no seasonal demand, so they urged the government to intervene in
the off-season price hike, where the price reached USD 648/MT in June.
8
Ammonia prices levelled off in the September 2021, as previous market
sentiments remained stable in the domestic market. During the last week of August,
the Asian market saw a significant drop in Ammonia offered quotations. Ammonia
prices recovered in the first two weeks of September and then stabilized in the third
week. Ammonia prices in India increased from USD 664/MT to USD 798/MT.
1.3.4 World Production of Acrylonitrile
ACN can be produced from many sources such as 3-hydroxypropionic acid,

propylene, propane, lactic acid and ammonia. There are many chemical products that
use ACN in their production like Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) /Styrene
acrylonitrile (SAN) resins, acrylic fibres, acrylamide, adiponitrile, carbon fibres and
nitrile rubber. The demand of ACN is actually depending on the state of the economy.
During COVID-19 pandemic, the demand for ACN was quite high as it was
used in the production of nitrile gloves. The combination of ACN, butadiene and latex
rubber will make the nitrile rubber to produce gloves (Cartsos, n.d.). The rapid
manufacturing of nitrile gloves, which are largely employed in the resilient and
growing healthcare area, has had a positive impact on the nitrile rubber market. The
following chart below shows the world consumption of ACN in 2021 according to IHS
Markit’s Chemical Economics Handbook. From the chart, it shows that Mainland
China was the major use of ACN followed by other Asia countries.
9
Figure 1.4 World consumption of acrylonitrile in 2021 (IHS Markit’s Chemical
Economics Handbook)
1.3.5 World Consumption of Acrylonitrile
According to Ajay More, the ACN sale is expected to grow at a Compound

Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 3% during the forecast period from 2019 to 2024.
The increasing demand for ACN is due to the growth in ABS used in the automotive
and construction industries. Asia Pacific with a CAGR of 5% is expected to lead in the
global market for ACN consumption during the forecast period. The total production
of ACN is estimated to be 6.9 million tonnes and half of the global production came
from Asia Pacific. China and the US have the highest installed capacities.
10
Figure 1.5 Acrylonitrile market demand by application expected in US from
2016 to 2027 (Market Analysis Report)
The figure shows the ACN market demand by application that is expected from
2016 to 2027 in the United States. In 2019, the global market size for ACN was valued
at USD 11.8 million with an expectation to achieve a CAGR of 4.3% from 2020 to
2027. One of the major factors of the increasing demand of ACN is the demand for
acrylic fibres that were manufactured from ACN. ACN is also used as a main raw
material in the manufacture of plastics and composites, which is expected to boost
global demand.
Figure 1.6 Acrylonitrile Market Volume (%) by application globally in 2020

(Mordor Intelligence)
11
According to Mordor Intelligence, the consumption of ASB resins is increasing
by about 40% from another consumer which is the largest end-user segment. The
second-largest end-user comes from the consumption of acrylic fibres by the electrical
and electronics industry which is about 25% of overall consumption. About 12% of
global ABS resin used is consumed by the automobile industry. The world production
of automobiles has begun to decline. According to the Organization for International
Cooperation on Automobiles (OICA), automotive production fell by roughly 23% in
the first nine months of 2020 compared to the same period in 2019. In the following
years, this is projected to have an impact on ABS resin consumption. All of the
aforementioned factors are projected to have an impact on ACN demand during the
forecast period.
1.4 Site Selection
Industrial site selection is an important phase of establishing, extending, or

changing the location of any type of industrial system. Finding the best reasonable
location with the necessary characteristics stated by the screening process is one of the
main focuses in industrial plant selection (Rikalovic et al., 2014). Site selection
depends on the choice of region to set up a chemical plant or factory. The objective of
site selection is to choose a strategic location where a plant can operate at its best and
produce higher-quality products. ACN plants will be built at one of the three locations
that have been selected in Malaysia. One of the major determinants is that global
demand for ACN is increasing, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic.
1.4.1 Factors Affecting the Site Selection
The location of a plant can has a major impact on the economics and
development possibilities of a project. Many factors must be considered while
12
choosing a good location, including raw material supply, transportation infrastructure,
labour availability, utility availability, and land availability.
(a) Raw Material Supply
The availability and pricing of necessary raw materials typically decide the
site's location. Chemical plants should be positioned near the primary raw material, as
long as the cost of shipping the product does not exceed the cost of delivering feed
(Towler & Sinnott, 2013). A location close to the raw material source is highly
preferred because it can save raw material transportation costs. For our plant, the main
raw material is ammonia. Therefore, we need to choose the closest location to the
company that supply ammonia.
(b) Transport Facilities
The transportation of supplies and products to and from the facility can be the
most important factor to consider when choosing a location. The transportation cost
will be lower if the plant chosen was closest to the major transport. The most
convenient ways to import/export a product is through road, railway, seaport, or
airport. Road transportation is becoming more popular, and it is well suited to local
distribution from a central warehouse. Rail delivery of bulk chemicals over long
distances is usually less expensive while the seaport is the best way to import/export
the product if the client is from another countries. Among of the three locations,
Kerteh, Terengganu is the strategic place because it near to seaport (31.8 km)
compared to Gurun, Kedah (58.9 km) and Sipitang, Sabah (140 km).
13
(c) Availability of Labour
Construction and operation of the plant will involve labour. Despite the fact
that trained construction workers are usually brought in from outside the site, there
should be enough unskilled personnel available for training to operate the plant locally.
Employees with highly skilled such as electricians, welders, and pipe fitters will be
needed for plant maintenance. Local employment laws, trade union rules, and
protectionist measures must all be considered when evaluating the availability and
suitability of local workforce for recruiting and training (Sinnott & Towler, 2020).
(d) Availability of Utilities
Utilities become one of the most important criteria in deciding the right
location for plant production. The main utilities that compulsory to have been water
supply and power supply utilities. In past research, it is stated that manufacturing
industry in US has consumed about 650 billion kWh per year, 30% from the total
consumption (Kahane & Squitieri, 1987). It shows how important the utilities to
manufacturing plant especially during heating and cooling process. From the study, it
is found out that all the three proposed location had provided the utilities needed. For
Sipitang, Sabah, the electricity supply is obtained from Sabah Electricity Sdn. Bhd.,
and the located near to SOGIP Water Treatment Plant, Sipitang. For Kerteh,
Terengganu area, the power supply can be obtained from Stesen Janakuasa TNB
Sultan Ismail, Paka or YTL Power Station while the water resources are from Syarikat
Air Terengganu. At Gurun, Kedah, it is located nearer to TNB HVDC Station and
Syarikat Air Darul Aman
14
(e) Availability of Suitable Land
In deciding the most suitable land to build the production plant, the current
price of the land is the most important factors that need to be considered. Low rate of
land price will be the most preferable since it will lower the initial cost before
constructing the production plant. It is also necessary to find a wider land since the
manufacturer need to consider for possible expansion in the future. Steve Wright stated
that in deciding the right location of the plant, choose a location that provide space of
possible upgrading (Wright et al., 2019). In this project, the price for a square foot of
the land at Kerteh, Terengganu is RM 18 which is the lowest price among all the three
location proposed. The land price in Gurun, Kedah marked at RM 22.96 per sqft while
Sipitang, Sabah reached highest land price with RM 48 per sqft.
(f) Overall Comparison and Selection
Malaysia has been selected as the base location for the manufacturing area. The
higher demand of ACN production had opened the opportunities to Malaysia to
become one of the strategic countries to produce it. From that, it has been narrowed to
three strategic locations. The first location is Sipitang, Sabah. The second location is
at Kerteh, Terengganu and followed by Gurun, Kedah for the third location.
Score: 1- Less Preferable
2-Average
3-More Preferable
15
Table 1.5 Comparison for Site Selection
Weightage Sipitang, Sabah Kerteh, Gurun, Kedah

Terengganu
Kompleks
Pentadbiran
PETRONAS
Petrokimia PETRONAS
Chemicals
PETRONAS, Chemicals
Fertilizer Sabah
Fertilizer
Sdn Bhd, KM 105, Jalan Kedah Sdn Bhd
Kuantan-Kuala
Jalan SOGIP 4,
Terengganu KM 3, Jalan
Raw Material Sipitang Oil & Jeniang
30% 24300, Kertih,
Supply Gas Industrial
Kemaman 08300, Gurun
Park,
Terengganu Kedah Darul
89850,
Darul Iman Aman
Sipitang, Sabah
3 x 30% = 0.9 3 x 30% = 0.9 3 x 30% = 0.9
Kota Kinabalu
Kemaman Port Penang Port,
Port
Transport 31.8km 58.9km
20% 140km
Facilities
1 x 20% = 0.2 3 x 20% = 0.6 2 x 20%= 0.4
Availability of
Labour 10% 3 x 10% = 0.3 3 x 10% = 0.3 3 x 10% = 0.3
Stesen
Sabah
Availability of Janakuasa TNB TNB HVDC
20% Electricity
Utilities Sultan Ismail, Station
Sdn.Bhd.
Paka
16
SOGIP Water YTL Power
Treatment Station
Syarikat Air
Plant, Sipitang Darul Aman
Syarikat Air
Terengganu
2 x 20% = 0.4 3 x 20% = 0.6 2 x 20% = 0.4
Availability of RM 48 per RM 18 per RM 22.96 per

Suitable Land square feet square feet square feet
20%
1 x 20% = 0.2 3 x 20% = 0.6 2 x 20% = 0.4
TOTAL 2 3 2.4
All the three location was chosen because it is located near to the ammonia
supply. From Table 1.1, the weightage of raw material supply factor is 30%f from the
total factor since this factor is the main concern before choosing a right location. For
Sipitang, Sabah area, the ammonia supply can be obtained from PETRONAS
Chemicals Fertiliser Sabah Sdn Bhd. For Kerteh and Gurun area, it can be obtained
from Kompleks Pentadbiran Petrokimia PETRONAS and PETRONAS Chemicals
Fertiliser Kedah Sdn Bhd respectively.
All the location proposed also near to the seaport. However, Kerteh,
Terengganu area obtained the highest score which is 3 since the area is close to
Kemaman Port, with distance of 31.8 km rather than Gurun, Kedah which is 58.9 km
from Penang Port and Sipitang, Sabah which is 140 km from Kota Kinabalu Port. For
labour availability factor, all the three states were obtained highest mark since it is
believed that all the employer will not having difficulty in recruiting manpower. From
the website of Graduates Statistic 2020, it is stated that the number of graduates in
Malaysia was 5.36 million persons, with increment of 4.4% from 2019 (Department
17
of Statistics Malaysia Official Portal, n.d.). This indicate that many qualified
manpower can be hired for the manufacturing plant.
For the utilities part, Kerteh, Terengganu was again leading with higher mark
since it has multiple sources of power and water supply when compared to Sipitang,
Sabah and Gurun, Kedah. For land availability perspective, Kerteh, Terengganu
offering the cheapest land price per sqft with only RM 18 than Gurun, Kedah with RM
22.96 per sqft and Sipitang, Sabah, with land price of RM 48 per sqft. After comparing
each aspect and calculating the marks obtained for each location, Kerteh, Terengganu
was leading with total mark of 3 followed by Gurun, Kedah and Sipitang, Sabah with
score of 2.4 and 2 respectively. Therefore, it can be decided that the finalized location
chose for the production plant is at Kerteh, Terengganu.
18
CHAPTER 2
PROCESS SYNTHESIS
2.1 Process Route Selection
In the process route selection, three different types of process route will be
proposed for the production of ACN. It is ammoxidation of propane, ammoxidation of
propylene and nitrilation from ethyl acrylate.
2.1.1 Gross Profit Margin
This section includes gross profit margin calculations for each of the three
types of the processes which are ammoxidation of propylene, ammoxidation of
propane and nitrilation of ethyl acrylate (EA).
I. Ammoxidation of Propylene
Reaction path C3H6 + NH3 + 3/2 O2 → CH2 = CH-CN + 3 H20
kg/mol 1 1 3/2 1 3
Molecular 42.08 17.03 16.00 53.06 18.02

weight (kg/mol)
kg 42.08 17.03 24.00 53.06 54.06
kg/kg ACN 0.79 0.32 0.45 1 1.02
MYR/kg 4.07 3.30 0 10.44 0
19
Gross Profit = 10.44(1) + 0 – 4.07(0.79) – 3.30(0.32) – 0 = 6.17 MYR/kg
II. Ammoxidation of Propane
Reaction path C3H8 + NH3 + 2 O2 → CH2= CH-CN + 4

H20
kg/mol 1 1 2 1 4
Molecular 44.10 17.03 16.00 53.06 18.02

weight (kg/mol)
kg 44.10 17.03 32.00 53.06 72.08
kg/kg ACN 0.83 0.32 0.60 1 1.36
MYR/kg 2.89 3.30 0 10.44 0
Gross Profit = 10.44(1) + 0 – 2.89(0.83) – 3.30(0.32) – 0 = 6.99 MYR/kg
III. Nitrilation from Ethyl Acrylate
Reaction path C5H8O2 + NH3 → C3H3N + C2H5OH + H20
kg/mol 1 1 1 1 1
Molecular weight 100.117 17.03 53.06 46.07 18.02

(kg/mol)
kg 100.117 17.03 53.06 46.07 18.02
kg/kg ACN 1.87 0.32 1 0.87 0.34
MYR/kg 3.31 3.30 10.44 4.75 0
Gross Profit = 10.44(1) + 4.75(0.87) + 0 – 3.31(1.87) – 3.30(0.32) = 7.18

MYR
20
2.1.2 Technology Comparison
In the process route selection, three different reaction routes had been proposed as a route for ACN production. There are ammoxidation of
propane, ammoxidation of propylene and nitrilation of ethyl acrylate. The three-process route has been compared in Table 2.1 in term of process
description, process condition, environmental aspect, economy aspect, safety and selectivity of the production.
Table 2.1 Comparison of the three-process routes
Aspect Ammoxidation of Propane Ammoxidation of Propylene Nitrilation of Ethyl Acrylate
Process This ammoxidation process is a The reaction can be achieved by The reaction can be achieved via the
Description catalytic conversion of propane and combining propylene, ammonia and nitrilation of ethyl acrylate with
ammonia in the presence of oxygen oxygen together in the presence of a ammonia over an inexpensive titanium
to produce ACN. (Propane Process fixed catalytic bed. Bismuth molybdate dioxide solid acid catalyst (Karp et al.,
Boost to Acrylonitrile Production | catalyst is an effective catalyst for this 2017).
ICIS, n.d.). reaction (Licht et al., 2016a).
𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻𝐶𝐻3 + 𝑁𝐻3 + 32 𝑂 →

2 𝐶3𝐻6 𝑂3 + 𝑁𝐻3 → 𝐶3 𝐻3𝑁 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
𝐶𝐻3𝐶𝐻2𝐶𝐻3 + 𝑁𝐻3 + 2𝑂2 → 𝐶3𝐻3 𝑁 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
𝐶𝐻2𝐶𝐻𝐶𝑁 + 4𝐻2 𝑂 (AH = +203 kJ/mol)
(AH= +515kJ/mol)
(AH = - 631kJ/mol)
21
Process Propene ammoxidation required Propylene ammoxidation required Ammoxidation of Ethyl Acrylate
Condition a temperature around 500-550 ℃ to 400 ℃ - 500 ℃ to be carried out in this required a temperature of 315 ℃ to be
obtain high conversion (Centi et al., reaction (Sinnott & Towler, 2019). carried out (Karp et al., 2017).
1992).
For the oxidation and The catalyst used for both of the
Sb-V based catalyst are one of ammoxidation of propylene, catalysts reactions is titanium dioxide (TiO )
2
catalysts used for the production based on bismuth molybdates are the (Bagheri et al., 2014).
(Guerrero-Pérez et al., 2006). most efficient and it is an expensive
catalyst (Licht et al., 2016)
Environmental Propane processes apply the This process produces a lot of by- This process only produces water
Aspect gas-phase additives such as products. One of them is hydrogen (H2O), ammonia (NH3), and ethanol as
bromomethane as radical generators cyanide which is chemical hazardous to the by-products, where ammonia and
which are not good for the environment. alcohol can be recycled back into the
environmental concern since it will reactor while water can be released as
affect to the thinning of ozone layer The production of ACN by wastewater and treated. There are no
(Guerrero-Pérez et al., 2006). propylene ammoxidation also produces toxic chemicals released from this
carbon dioxide which can lead to process, therefore, less environmental
carbon dioxide emissions and issues will occur.
greenhouse gas emissions (Isabel
Segarra Trevino, 2019).
Economic The gross profit margin is According to the IHS Market Highest gross profit margin value
Aspect calculated to be around RM 6.99/kg Chemical Economics Handbook which is around RM 7.18/kg. This is
22
since the cost of raw material, (2019), Propylene is the second largest due to the cheaper price of glycerol-
propane per kg is about RM 1 chemical produced worldwide. based component that is used as the raw
cheaper than propylene. Relatively low gross profit margin material in this process which is ethyl
value which is around RM 6.17. acrylate.
Safety It is discovered that there may Propylene will be used as a raw As the raw material which is the
be a slightly higher production of material in this method, corrosion will ethyl acrylate is from glycerol, it poses
hydrogen cyanide in the propane occur, resulting in hydrogen cyanide. less environmental issues. Ethyl
process (Propane Process Boost to The use of oxygen by the body is acrylate is a naturally occurring
Acrylonitrile Production | ICIS, hampered by hydrogen cyanide, which chemical and non-toxic (Jers et al.,
n.d.). Hydrogen cyanide is an can affect the brain, heart, blood 2019), so the effluents generated also
extremely poisonous substance that vessels, and lungs. Exposure has the do contain less harmful materials.
can lead to fatality if prolonged potential to be fatal (Isabel Segarra Hence, it is safe for the environment.
exposure. Trevino, 2019)
Conversion Yield of propane to ACN is The yield of the product is 82 % The yield of the product will be
Yield of Product about 40% (Centi et al., 1992). (Dimian & Bildea, 2008). 98% (Karp et al., 2017).
23
2.1.3 Ammoxidation of Propane
For this reaction route, it is a direct one-stage propane conversion to ACN. This
propane ammoxidation reaction is an exothermic reaction with the approximated heat
released up to 631 kJ/mol. The process is quite similar with the ammoxidation of
propylene process route. It is conducted in the fluidized-bed reactor with the
temperature range of 500 to 550 ℃, slightly higher temperature than the standard
SOHIO process (Cespi et al., 2014). It is discovered that there may be a slightly higher
production of hydrogen cyanide in the propane process (Propane Process Boost to
Acrylonitrile Production | ICIS, n.d.).
Figure 2.1 Propane ammoxidation process (Cespi et al., 2014)
The ammoxidation process using propane will require more ammonia

consumption. This is because the process required higher contact time and
temperature, thus resulting to higher cost of the production. However, it is stated that
the cost of their feedstock, propane is about 5-6 times lower than propylene, which can
cover the higher production cost (Centi et al., 1992).
24
2.1.4 Ammoxidation of Propylene
Propylene, ammonia, and oxygen can be combined in a stationary catalytic bed

to produce the product ACN from propylene. When it comes to this reaction, a catalyst
made of bismuth molybdate works well (Licht et al., 2016). The reaction is
endothermic, with a heat capacity of 515 kJ/mol.
Propylene ammoxidation was carried out at temperatures ranging from 400 °C

to 500 °C in this reaction (Sinnott & Towler, 2019). Catalysts based on bismuth
molybdates are the most efficient for the oxidation and ammoxidation of propylene;
yet they are also the most expensive catalysts available (Licht et al., 2016). This
procedure produces numerous by-products. For example, hydrogen cyanide is a
chemical that is dangerous to the environment. The manufacture of ACN through
propylene ammoxidation also results in the generation of carbon dioxide, which might
result in the release of carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases (Isabel Segarra Trevino,
2019). According to the IHS Market Chemical Economics Handbook, propylene is the
second most widely produced chemical in the world. The raw material propylene will
be employed in this process, and corrosion will occur, resulting in the production of
hydrogen cyanide. The body's ability to utilise oxygen is impeded by hydrogen
cyanide, which can negatively affect the brain, heart, blood vessels, and lungs, among
other organs. Exposure has the potential to be lethal in some circumstances (Isabel
Segarra Trevino, 2019). The process has a conversion yield of 82 per cent, which is
excellent (Dimian & Bildea, 2008)
2.1.5 Nitrilation from Ethyl Acrylate
The production of ACN from ethyl acrylate can be achieved via nitrilation
process of ethyl acrylate with ammonia. This reaction is being done in the presence of
an inexpensive catalyst which is titanium dioxide (TiO2). This endothermic approach
eliminates runaway reaction hazards and achieves higher yields than the standard
25
propylene ammoxidation process. Avoidance of hydrogen cyanide as a by-product also
improves safety and mitigates product handling requirements. This process has high
conversion yield which is 98% (Karp et al., 2017). The chemical equation of this
process is stated below.
Nitrilation Reaction:
C5H8O2 + NH3 → C3H3N + C2H5OH + H2O
In the nitrilation process the ethyl acrylate will undergo nitrilation

process to produce ACN and water. In this process, nitrilation has a variety of green
chemistry advantages over propylene ammoxidation in the production of ACN. Firstly,
this reaction gives near-quantitative ACN yields, whereas state-of-the-art nitrilation
catalysts yield 80-83% ACN yield (Grasselli, 2011). Because the reaction is
endothermic and does not require oxygen, it is simple to manage. nitrilation, on the
other hand, is a highly exothermic process that requires the use of specialized reactors
to avoid a runaway reaction (Busca, 2009). Other than that, nitrilation from ethyl
acrylate is unlike ammoxidation of propylene, it does not produce hydrogen cyanide,
reducing toxicity and simplifying handling. The cost of TiO2 also is about a third of
the cost of nitrilation catalysts (Grasselli, 2011). Lastly, the process provides a cost-
competitive, environmentally friendly route to ACN, with the added benefit of possible
greenhouse gas emission reductions from a renewable feedstock.
26
2.2 Block Flow Diagram for Selected Process Route
Figure 2.2 Block flow diagram of the selected process route.
2.3 Sustainability Justification
2.3.1 Safety Factor
Safety has been highlighted as a core factor for maintaining public support
starting from a specific location to global. Global issues embrace for renewable energy
and climate change mitigation while specific location issues for air and water
pollution, soil quality, and soil erosion (Ghosh et al., 2019). The use of 3-HP in the
production of ACN has released ethanol as their by-products instead of hydrogen
cyanide from the production of ACN using propylene. By avoiding hydrogen cyanide
(HCN) as a by-product, the process is safer and product handling needs are reduced.
The mixture of propylene, ammonia and oxygen in a reactor has produced ACN as
their main products and acetonitrile and HCN as their by-products. Cyanides enter the
environment as a result of pollution, and they can harm living creatures in a variety of
ways (Jaszczak et al., 2017).
27
2.3.2 Economic of Acrylonitrile Production
Rezaie, Pirouzfar, and Alihosseini (2020) state that ACN is the most important
industrial product, with increasing demand, indicating that there is a gap between
supply and demand in the country for the future according to daily statistics with no
chance of expanding if there are several production units. According to Langvart
(2011), one of the raw materials used to make ACN which is ammonia is extremely
hazardous materials that must be handled, stored, and transported in a safe manner.
According to NREL Transforming Energy (2017), ACN prices have

historically been volatile because of its ties to propylene prices. This alternative
manufacturing process, which uses renewable feedstocks, has the potential to help
stabilise ACN prices and lead to broader market adoption of carbon fibre-based
materials. This is a significant step forward for light weighting transportation
applications, which will result in significant cost savings for transportation while also
reducing our environmental impact. Carbon fibre demand is expected to rise 11% to
18% per year, driven in part by interest in using carbon fibre to lightweight vehicles
and aircraft, saving money on fuel costs.
Hence, using 3-HP instead of propylene in production of ACN really helps in

stabilizing the economics of ACN production from time to time as the selling price of
biomass-derived ACN from cellulosic biomass or starch-based sugars is less than $1
per pound.
2.3.3 Environment Factor
I. Ammonia
Alongside with nitrogen dioxides, ammonia is a major source of nitrogen
pollution. The influence of nitrogen accumulation on plant species diversity and
composition within impacted ecosystems is a key effect of ammonia pollution on
28
biodiversity. Ammonia pollution affects species composition through acidifying soils,
causing direct toxic damage to leave, and modifying plant vulnerability to frost,
drought, and pathogens. In the worst-case scenario, sensitive and iconic habitats may
be lost (Giannakis et al., 2019). However, ammonia also has many benefits that can
preserve the environment. For example, ammonia can be used as a basic building block
for ammonium nitrate fertilizer, which releases nitrogen, as essential nutrient for
growing plants, including farm crops and lawns (Ammonia Uses and Benefits |
Chemical Safety Facts, n.d.).
II. Acrylonitrile
ACN was declared toxic by the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999
(CEPA 1999) in 2000 because of its potential to harm human health. ACN is
considered toxic to human health because of its potential to cause cancer. ACN was
shown to have no negative effects on the environment or biological diversity
(Environment and Climate Change Canada - Canada.Ca, n.d.). People are mostly
exposed to ACN through the air, and the levels in outdoor air are usually so low that
they are below the detection limit. Meanwhile, near industrial point sources,
environmental exposure to ACN in the air is likely to be the highest. In order to help
ensuring the emission of acrylonitrile is reduced, Environment Canada require
synthetic rubber manufactures that use and release ACN to the environment to prepare
and implement Pollution Prevention Plans in accordance with Part 4 of the Canadian
Environmental Act, 1999 (Long et al., 2002).
III. Ethanol
Ethanol is a flammable liquid with explosive vapour concentrations in the

range if 3.3-19.0% (v/v) in air. However, in the industrial environment, flammability
is not a big issue if there is adequate ventilation, which also prevents ethanol from
29
becoming a serious industrial toxin (Log & Moi, 2018). According to U.S. Energy
Information Administration (2018), pure ethanol is non-toxic and biodegradable, and
it quickly breaks down into harmless substances if spilled. So, as overall, ethanol is
considered to be better for the environment compared to other chemicals as it does not
cause a huge problem to the environment.
2.3.4 Circular Economy Definition
The circular economy (CE) aims to transform the current predominantly linear
economic model (take, make, waste) into a system that minimises disposal. Raw
materials are extracted (or grown), processed, combined, sold, distributed, sold again,
used, and finally disposed of in the linear economy. A CE must find alternative uses
for all potential material losses, as well as embodied energy and workforce (Klein et
al., 2020)
Figure 2.3 Comparison between linear economy and circular economy (Sources:
Towards Zero Waste).
One example of environmental impact that contributes to climate change,

waste, and resource scarcity is human-made materials. The materials now weigh the
30
same with all the living things on Earth. Hence, a CE could help this concern
(Jusakulvijit et al., 2021)
2.3.5 Circular Economy Concept in Production of Acrylonitrile
The Ethyl Acrylate has been used to produce ACN in this project. The Ethyl
Acrylate can be produced from various renewable resources. This shows that it was
implemented with the concept of CE as the Ethyl Acrylate was recycled from a
glycerol and recycling is a necessary component of a CE itself. According to Wright
(2019), the CE concept for human production and consumption 'renew, remake, and
share’ has been widely quoted as an alternative to the traditional linear concept 'take,
make, and dispose' to reduce resource input, waste, emissions, and energy leakage
through the principles of reduce, remanufacture, repair, renew, reuse, and recycle.
ACN is an important commodity chemical and has been used in many

industries. ABS is one of the products that use ACN in their production. According to
Peter Ford and Jill Fisher, a study has been conducted to evaluate the feasibility of the
100% recycled ABS (rABS) in the manufacture of small electronic products between
the colour, surface finish, and strength using test plaques and strips. The result from
the study stated that the rABS has similarity in their properties with original ABS. The
continuous development of new technologies does provide a number of opportunities
to switch to a more circular economy. To shift away from the current take-make-use-
dispose model, products must be designed with recycling and reuse in mind, and plant
designers must work with recycled and reclaimed materials.
In the reaction, the ethanol and ammonia are being released again after the
reaction because both ethanol and ammonia are the excess reactants in the reaction.
So, rather than releasing the ethanol and ammonia into the wastewater, selling them to
other company that use lower composition of the substances is one way to obey the
concept of circular economy
31
2.3.6 Net Zero Carbon
Carbon dioxide removal (CDR), in addition to emission reduction (ER), is a

critical component of paths to net-zero emissions and the Paris Agreement’s goals and
is required if future generations would like to reach net-negative emissions. Many
governments, cities, and corporations are now aiming for net zero emissions. However,
the inclusion of CDR in strategies is thought to pose a risk to successful mitigation,
and separation ER and CDR target has been recommended as a strategy to mitigate
these risks. This has rapidly gained traction, being endorsed in an increasing number
of policy-facing briefings and emerging as an issue for the EU’s updated 2030 climate
package (Smith, 2021). Net zero carbon means that a project’s life-cycle greenhouse
gas emissions from all sources should be total zero, or less (How to Design Net Zero
Carbon Buildings - One Click LCA, n.d.). In other words, the term net zero carbon
means achieving a balance between the carbon emitted into the atmosphere, and the
carbon removed from it (What Is Net Zero and How Can We Get There? - Energy
Saving Trust, 2021).
In this process synthesis, the nitrilation process of ethyl acrylate and ammonia
produces ACN which is the main product, ethanol, water, and excess ammonia. These
products are then separated, and ammonia can be recycled back into the reactor or be
retreated and sell off. At the end of this reaction, only ethanol and water are released,
and they can be treated as wastewater. There are no greenhouse gases especially carbon
dioxide that can cause global warming or climate change released from this reaction.
However, we are aware that carbon emission can still occur throughout the process
because of the electricity that we used, but this carbon emission can be lessen as we
are using raw material that is produced from a renewable resource which is biomass
(Reducing Chemical Manufacturing Carbon Emissions | Nibusinessinfo.Co.Uk, n.d.).
32
2.4 Production of Acrylonitrile from Ammonia
This chapter will discuss regarding the process flow of the production of
acrylonitrile from ammonia. In this process, there are five major unit operation
involved which is Fluidized bed reactor, two flash columns, one distillation column
and one absorption column.
33
2.4.1 Process Flow Diagram
Equipment Tag P-101 P-101 E-101 E-102 R-101 E-103 V-101 E-104 C-101 C-102 E-105 V-102
Flash
Equipment Name Ammonia Pump Ethyl Acrylate Pump Ammonia Heater Ethyl Acrylate Heater Fixed Bed Reactor Acrylonitrile Cooler Flash Separator Acrylonitrile Cooler Distillation Column Absorption Column Acrylonitrile Cooler
Separator
Stream ID S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 S17 S18 S19
Temperature (℃ -40 -40 310 70 70 310 310 45 45 45 25 90.82 123.96 70 70 70 25 25 25
Pressure (bar) 1 4 4 1 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
Phase Liquid Liquid Vapour Liquid Liquid Vapour Vapour Mixed Vapour Liquid Liquid Vapour Liquid Liquid Liquid Vapour Mixed Vapour Liquid
Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
Ammonia 6000 6000 6000 0 0 0 3720 3720 3719.6 0.4 0.4 0.4 0 0 0 0.4 0.4 0.4009 0 CRYLON SDN BHD
Ethyl Acrylate 0 0 0 14000 14000 14000 596.98 596.98 2.03 594.95 594.95 5.95 589 0 0 5.95 5.95 0.0224 5.9271
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM PRODUCTION
Acrylonitrile 0 0 0 0 0 0 7103.33 7103.33 71.03 7032.3 7032.3 7005.75 26.54 0 0 7005.75 7005.75 70.0575 6935.6984 OF ACRYLONITRILE FROM AMMONIA
Water 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2411.77 2411.77 4.45 2407.32 2407.32 12.42 2394.90 0.00 0.00 12.42 12.42 0.03 12.39
SIZE DRAWING NO. SHEE1T
Ethanol 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6167.55 6167.55 29.22 6138.33 6138.33 6102.30 36.03 0.00 5797.18 305.11 305.11 1.77 303.35
Dimethyl Sulfoxide 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 10000.00 10000.00 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 A4 AN 2022 1 OF 1
Total 6000 6000 6000 14000 14000 14000 20000 20000 3826.33 16173.3 16173.3 13126.819 3046.47 10000 15797.18 7329.63 7329.63 72.2782 7257.3615
Figure 2.4 The process flow diagram of Acrylonitrile production plant
34
2.4.2 Process Description
Figure 2.4 shows the process flow diagram for the selected process route,
which is nitrilation of ethyl acrylate. In this process, the ammonia and ethyl acrylate,
as the raw material will entered via stream 1 and stream 4 respectively. Since both of
the raw material are in liquid form initially, both of the inlet stream is equipped with
pump, P-101 and P-102 to increase the pressure into 4 bar. Then, the stream is
equipped with heater, E-101 and E-102 to increase the temperature up to 310℃. The
reactant entered the Fluidized bed reactor, R-101 in form of gas phase to undergo the
nitrilation process to be converted into ACN, ethanol and water. The reaction will
occur in the presence of Titanium Dioxide (TiO2 ) as the catalyst. This reaction needs
to be done in the condition of high temperature and pressure, with the temperature up
to 310℃ and pressure of 4 bar. Since the process cannot achieve the 100% conversion,
the excess ammonia and ethyl acrylate are expected to be exist in the output S7.
From S7, the output mixture in vapour form will be cooled by the cooler, E-
103 to obtain the mixed phase component. Then it will go to the flash column, F-101
to separate the component mixture from the excess ammonia gas. Then, the component
consist of ethanol, ACN, water and ethyl acrylate will be cooled by E-104 before
entering the distillation column, C-101 to separate the water and ethyl acrylate from
the mixture. The mixture left then will enter the absorption column, C-102 in vapour
phase to separate the ethanol from the mixture ACN and some excess ammonia that
still exist in the stream. The gas mixture left with ACN and ammonia will be cooled
by cooler, E-105 to convert the gas phase into mixed phase. Lastly, the mixture that
consist of mixed phase will entered the flash column, F-102 to separate the excess
ammonia from ACN. This final step of separation is important to obtain high purity of
ACN. Lastly, the final product ACN is obtained.
35
2.4.3 Chemical Reaction
This process is carried by reacting the raw material, ethyl acrylate with
ammonia through the nitrilation process. This reaction required to be carried in high
pressure and temperature. This reaction also required the presence of Titanium Dioxide
(TiO2) to improve the effectiveness of the reaction. Nitrilation of ethyl acrylate
reaction was carried out in the Fluidized bed reactor with the chemical equation;
2.5 Equipment Basis
2.5.1 Fluidized bed Reactor
A suitable reactor should be selected based on the guidelines or fundamental

principles mentioned for the variables that need to be managed to carry out a successful
and efficient process. The solid particles in a fluidized-bed reactor are fluidized by the
gas flow. There are several various types of fluidized bed reactors that correlate to
different fluidization regimes. Fluidized bed reactors are commonly used for solid
reagent conversion, such as coal combustion, coal gasification, and biomass pyrolysis;
for processes that form a solid at high temperatures, such as fluidized coking or
polymerization; and for catalytic processes where the rate of catalyst deactivation is
high and frequent regeneration is required, such as catalytic cracking of heavy oils in
oil refining (Sinnott & Towler, 2019).
Fluidized beds can be used for particulate fluidization, bubbling

(slugging) fluidization, turbulent fluidization, dense suspension upflow, rapid
(circulating) fluidization, and pneumatic transport, according to the standard
fluidization regime classification (Grace, 2000; Lim et al., 1995). However, due to
favored fluidizing features and favorable operating circumstances, most major
36
commercial applications use turbulent fluidized beds (TFBs) and circulation fluidized
beds (CFBs) (Grace, 2000). Despite their benefits, TFBs and CFBs have several
disadvantages.
Figure 2.5 Fluidized bed reactor modes (Sinnott & Towler, 2019)
TFBs have a dynamic gas/solids flow with extensive interactions

between the dense and dilute phases (Bi et al., 2000). In TFBs, the dilute phase is
dominated by voids with irregular motion, widespread splitting, and coalescence.
TFBs provide a variety of hydrodynamic advantages over bubbling and CFBs,
including a high gas-solids contact efficiency, favorable gas mass transfer between the
voids and the dense phase, minimal gas bypassing, and a relatively high overall solids
holdup (Liu & Zhu, 2016). However, when compared to CFBs, TFBs' low fluidizing
gas velocity limits the throughput. When catalysts lose activity quickly in gas-phase
catalytic processes, back-mixing of gas/solids reduces reaction selectivity.
37
Figure 2.6 Circulating fluidized bed reactor (CFBs) (Chemical Engineering
World, n.d.)
CFBs have a variety performance for industrial uses, including combustion,

gasification, and fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) (Reh, 1995). When compared to TFBs,
they are operated in the fast fluidization regime with high fluidizing gas velocities,
resulting in higher gas throughput and less gas/solids back-mixing, but poorer overall
solids holdup. Furthermore, the circulation operation can continually extract and add
vast amounts of material. Particle amount, independent control of gas and solids flux,
and large-scale operation. In the axial direction, they have a dense bottom and a dilute
top region, and in the radial direction, they have a dilute core region surrounded by a
dense annulus region (Grace & Bi, 1997). Gas bypassing through the excessively dilute
core region and low overall gas-solids interaction efficiency result from this
hydrodynamic non-uniformity. Even though the solids holdup axial distributions in
high density CFBs remained rather uniform, radial segregation of gas and solids still
existed, which is unfavorable to gas-solid contacting and reactor performance (Wang
et al., 2014).
The Nitrilation of EA and ammonia is carried out in the Fluidized bed reactor
using the titanium dioxide (TiO2) according to the following irreversible equation:
38
𝐂𝟓 𝐇𝟖 𝐎𝟐 + 𝐍𝐇𝟑 → 𝐂𝟑 𝐇𝟑 𝐍 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐇𝟓 𝐎𝐇 + 𝐇𝟐 𝐎
The suitable operating condition and assumption for the reactor is summarized
in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 The operating condition of the reaction (R-101)

Aspects Description
Reactant Ammonia and Ethyl Acrylate
Product Acrylonitrile, Ethanol, Water,

Ammonia, Ethyl Acrylate
Mass flowrate of feed (kg/hr) 20000
Mass fraction of Ethyl Acrylate 0.3
Mass fraction of ammonia 0.7
Pressure (kPa) 400
Temperature (K) 583.15
A mass balance, often known as a material balance, is a type of mass

conservation application used in physical system evaluation. Mass flows are identified
by calculating for material entering and leaving a system that would otherwise be
unknown or difficult to measure. The primary criterion for the design of a chemical
plant to be considered at an early stage is mass balance. The general equation below is
the main principle that is utilised to compute manually.
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 + 𝑮𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 − 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Where;
39
Accumulation : The total build-up within the system
Input : The total mass that enters system boundary
Generation : The total mass produced within the system
Output : The total mass leaves through the system boundary
Consumption : The total mass consumed within the system
For the continuous processes at steady state, accumulation is equal to zero and
since it is a non-reactive species, the generation and consumption will be equal to zero
as well. Therefore, the equation can be simplified to:
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
The extent of reaction is used to find mole flowrate of the component in the
feed and outlet stream. For the continuous process at steady state, the equation to find
the extent of reaction is stated below.
𝒏𝒊 = 𝒏𝒊𝟎 + 𝒗𝒊 𝝃
Where;
𝑛𝑖 : final molar amount of the species i
𝑛𝑖0 : initial molar amount of the species i
𝑣𝑖 : stochiometric coefficient of the species i
40
𝜉 : extent of reaction
After that, the mass flowrate of the component can be obtained using the
equation below.
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 × 𝝃
Process design uses energy balance to determine the amount of energy that
flows in or out of each process unit whether the energy must be added or removed
from the system. The general energy balance is stated below.
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 =

𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝒃𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 −
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝒃𝒚 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 +
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 + 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎
The shift in enthalpy over the activity of the equipment and the heat flow for
each stream were computed to evaluate the energy balance in the reactor phase by
applying certain assumptions, including:
• The system obeys the law of energy conversion in which Ein – Eout = Eaccumulated.
• The reactor is in steady state.
• The kinetic energy and potential energy are negligible.
Thus, the energy balance is Q = ∆H. The reference temperature is 298.15 K.
The main references for the energy balance calculation are obtained from
Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th Edition (Green & Perry, 2008) and Yaws’
41
Handbook of Thermodynamic and Physical Properties of Chemical Compounds
(Yaws, 2003) respectively.
The heat capacities of inorganic and organic liquid are calculated using the
formula below. From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook.
𝑪𝒑𝑳 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐𝑻 + 𝑪𝟑𝑻𝟐 + 𝑪𝟒𝑻𝟑 + 𝑪𝟓𝑻𝟒
𝑻
𝑻 𝑪𝟐𝑻𝟐 𝑪𝟑𝑻𝟑 𝑪𝟒𝑻𝟒 𝑪𝟓𝑻𝟓
After integration ∫𝟐𝟗𝟖⋅𝟏𝟓 𝑪𝑷 𝒅𝑻 = [𝑪𝟏𝑻 + 𝟐
+ 𝟑
+ 𝟒
+ 𝟓
]
𝟐𝟗𝟖⋅𝟏𝟓
Heat capacities of ammonia is calculated using the following formula:
𝑪𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟑𝟐 𝒕𝟑 𝑪𝟑𝑪𝟒𝒕𝟒 𝑪𝟒𝟐 𝒕𝟓

𝑪𝒑𝑳 = + 𝑪𝟐 − 𝟐𝑪𝟏𝑪𝟑𝒕 − 𝑪𝟏𝑪𝟒𝒕𝟐 − − −
𝒕 𝟑 𝟐 𝟓
𝒕 = 𝟏 − 𝑻𝒓
𝑻
𝑻𝒓 =
𝑻𝒄
From Yaws’ Handbook of Thermodynamic and Physical Properties of

Chemical Compounds.
𝑪𝒑𝑳 = 𝑨 + 𝑩𝑻 + 𝑪𝑻𝟐 + 𝑫𝑻𝟑
𝑻
𝑻 𝑩𝑻𝟐 𝑪𝑻𝟑 𝑫𝑻𝟒
After integration ∫𝟐𝟗𝟖⋅𝟏𝟓 𝑪𝑷 𝒅𝑻 = [𝑨𝑻 + 𝟐
+ 𝟑
+ 𝟒
]
𝟐𝟗𝟖⋅𝟏𝟓
The heat capacities of inorganic and organic in the ideal gas state are calculated
using the formula below.
From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook.
42
2 2
𝐶3 𝐶5
𝐶𝑝𝐺 = 𝐶𝐼 + 𝐶2 [ 𝑇 ] + 𝐶4 [ 𝑇 ]
𝐶3 𝐶5
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ ( 𝑇 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ ( 𝑇 )
After integration
𝑻
𝑻
𝑪𝟑 𝑻
∫ 𝑪𝒑 𝒅𝑻 = [𝑪𝟏𝑻] 𝟐𝟗𝟖.𝟏𝟓 + 𝑪𝟐𝑪𝟑 [𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒉 ( )]
𝟐𝟗𝟖⋅𝟏𝟓 𝑻 𝟐𝟗𝟖.𝟏𝟓
𝑪𝟓 𝑻
− 𝑪𝟒𝑪𝟓 [𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉 ( )]
𝑻 𝟐𝟗𝟖.𝟏𝟓

Chemical Compounds.
𝑪𝒑𝑮 = 𝑨 + 𝑩𝑻 + 𝑪𝑻𝟐 + 𝑫𝑻𝟑 + 𝑬𝑻𝟒
𝑇
𝑇 𝐵𝑇 2 𝐶𝑇 3 𝐷𝑇 4 𝐸𝑇 5
After integration ∫298⋅15 𝐶𝑃 ⅆ𝑇 = [𝐴𝑇 + 2
+
3
+
4
+
5
]
298⋅15
The specific enthalpy change of each substance was determined by using the
temperature range based on the below:
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡) + ∆𝐻𝑓@𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑇1
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑇2
Where;
T1: Temperature inlet
43
T2: Temperature outlet
The heat duty each unit process for non-reactive unit process is the net heat
change in the enthalpy flowrate was calculated using equation:
𝑄 = 𝐻𝑇,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐻𝑇,𝑖𝑛
Where;
Q : Heat duty
HT, out : Total enthalpy flowrate of outlet stream (kJ/hr)
HT, in : Total enthalpy flowrate of inlet stream (kJ/hr)
Heat of formation of the component can be calculated by using the formula

shown below.
𝑯𝒇 = 𝑨 + 𝑩𝑻 + 𝑪𝑻𝟐
Where;
Hf : specific enthalpy of component (J/mol. K)
A, B, C and D : coefficient constant (J/mol. K)
T : Temperature (K)
The enthalpy flowrate of the component is calculated by using the equation

below.
44
𝐻̇𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 × 𝐻𝑖
Where;
𝐻̇𝑖 : Enthalpy flowrate of the component i (kJ/hr)
𝑛𝑖 : molar flowrate of component i (kmol/hr)
2.5.2 Flash column
The flash column seen in Figure 2.6 is one of the simplest separation methods.
The multi-component liquid stream is partially vaporized in a flash drum at a specific
pressure and temperature. A flash drum is essentially a single stage with a heater and
valve. Typically, the heater raises the temperature and enthalpy of the mixture, while
the valve lowers the pressure. This creates two phases: the vapor phase, which is
enriched with the more volatile components, and the liquid phase, which is enhanced
with the less volatile features and partly vaporized in the flash drum. The components
of feed are classified based on their relative volatility. If the constituents are more
volatile, it is referred to as a light key; if they are less volatile, it is referred to as a
heavy key. Figure 2.7 shows the schematic diagram of a flash column (F-101 and F-
102). In chemical facilities, the flash separation assembly performs a simple separation
operation before performing more complex separation processes.
45
Figure 2.7 Flash column
This separation technique is utilized when the relative volatility of the

chemicals to be separated is significantly different. Although desalination of seawater
is one of the most often reported applications, this approach is relatively easy
thermodynamically compared to the separation of liquid solutions from numerous
components (Ali et al., 1997). This technique utilizes two flash columns to extract
ammonia from acrylonitrile, ethanol, ethyl-acrylate, and reactor water. The flash
column separates the components depending on their boiling points. Simultaneously,
the heavy and light keys in this combination are calculated using the boiling points of
the constituents. Table 2.3 shows the boiling points of the components at standard
temperature.
Table 2.3 Boiling points of the components at standard temperature.
Components Boiling Point
Water 100
Ethyl-acrylate 99.6
Ethanol 78
Acrylonitrile 77
Ammonia -35
46
The method for manual mass balance calculation of the multicomponent flash
separation as stated below. The first step is by finding the partial vapour pressure of
each component inside the flash drum by using equation below:
𝐵
log 𝑃 ∘ 𝑘 = 𝐴 −
𝐶+𝑇
Where;
P∘k = Vapor pressure of the component
A, B, and C = constants obtained from Law’s handbook
T -= Temperature of the flash drum
The Raoult’s law is used to assume the system is in ideal, whereby the relative
volatility,
α, can be obtained from equation below:
𝑝𝑖
𝛼𝑖⁄ =
𝑘 𝑝𝑘
Where;
𝑎𝑖/𝑘 = relative volatility of the component i
𝑝𝑖 = vapour pressure of component i
47
𝑝𝑘 = vapour pressure of the heavy key component
As for the calculation procedure for the split fraction of the components, 𝜀in
the stream, short-cut multi-component distillation method using equation below the
split fraction for light key and heavy key can be calculated using formula below:
𝛼𝑖⁄ (𝜉𝑛 )
𝑘
𝜉𝑘 =
1 + (𝛼𝑖⁄ − 1)(𝜉𝑛 )
𝑘
Where;
𝜉lk = split fraction of light key component
𝜉hk = split fraction of heavy key component.
𝑎𝑖/𝑘 = relative volatility of the component
The molar flow rate of each component at the top stream was calculated using
the formula as below:
𝜈𝑘 = 𝜉𝑘 × 𝑛
Where;
𝑣𝑘 = molar flow rate of each component at the top stream (kmol/hr)
𝑛 = molar flow rate of the inlet (kmol/hr)
The mole fraction, 𝑦𝑘 of each component in the top stream was calculated using
the formula below:
48
𝜈𝑘
𝑦𝑘 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜈𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
The molar flow rate of the bottom stream component was lk which was
calculated by using the formula below:
𝑙𝑘 = 𝑛 − 𝑣𝑘
The mole fraction, xk of each bottom stream component was calculated by

using the formula as below:
𝑙𝑘
𝑥𝑘 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
In order to calculate energy balance for the flash column, all information
including temperature, states and pressure for each stream need to be determined
beforehand. The method for manual mass balance calculation of the multicomponent
flash separation as stated below.
Specific heat capacities of inorganic and organic liquids can be calculated by

∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑑𝑇 = A + BT + C(T)^2 + D(T)^3 + E(T)^4
Where;
Cp = Specific heat capacity of component (J/mol.K)
A. B, C, D and E are the constants (J/mol.K)
T = Temperature (K)
49
Heat of vaporization involved in phase change can be calculated using the
formula below.
𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 = A (1 − T/Tc)^n
Where;
A, is the constants (J/mol.K)
T = Temperature (K)
Heat of formation of the component can be calculated by using the formula as

shown below.
𝐻𝑓 = A + BT + CT^2
Where;
Hf = Specific enthalpy of component (J/mol.K)
A, B, C and D are the constants (J/mol.K)
T = Temperature (K)
The enthalpy flow rate of the component is calculated by using the equation
below.
Ḣ 𝑖 = ni × H i
Where;
50
Ḣ𝑖 =enthalpy flow rate of component (kJ/hr)
𝑛𝑖 = molar flow rate of component (kmol/hr)
The enthalpy change across the extractive distillation column is calculated

using the equation below.
△ Ḣ = ∑ Ḣ𝑜𝑢𝑡 − Ḣ𝑖𝑛
Where;
ΔḢ =enthalpy change (kJ/hr)
Ḣ𝑜𝑢𝑡 = enthalpy flow rate of outlet stream (kJ/hr)
Ḣ𝑖𝑛 = enthalpy flow rate of inlet stream (kJ/hr)
To recover all the ammonia vapour from the mixture of acrylonitrile, ethyl
acrylate, ethanol and water, the flash column (F-101) is being used to recover all the
ammonia from the mixture before the mixture entering the distillation column (C-101).
The temperature of F-101 is kept constant at 45 ℃ and the pressure was at 2 bar. The
operating conditions are shown in Table 2.4 and Table 2.5
Table 2.4 Operation condition of flash column (F-101)

Pressure 3 bars
Temperature 10
Light key Component (lk) Ammonia
Split Fraction of light key (𝝃lk) 0.99
Heavy key component (hk) Acrylonitrile,
51
Split Fraction of heavy key (𝝃hk) 0.01
Table 2.5 Operation condition of flash column (F-102)

Pressure 1 bar
Temperature 25
Light key Component (lk) Ammonia
Split Fraction of light key (𝝃lk) 0.99
Heavy key component (hk) Acrylonitrile
Split Fraction of heavy key (𝝃hk) 0.01
2.5.3 Distillation Column
Distillation is a process that achieved by controlling the column temperature

and pressure profiles to exploit the differences in the relative volatility of the mixture
components and therefore tendency to change phase. The greater the degree of
volatility, the easier it is to separate. This is due to the fact that when a substance's
volatility increases, the substance's tendency to evaporate at room temperature
increases. The lighter components (lower boiling point) will evaporate and travel up
to form top product meanwhile the heavier components (high boiling point) will
condense to the bottom to form bottom product. In this process, the component from
flash column which consists of will be fed to the distillation column (C-101). The
distillation column will separate acrylonitrile and ethanol as a distillate while the
remaining components will exit the distillation column to another absorber and flash
column respectively. as shown in Figure 2.8.
52
Figure 2.8 Distillation Column
In the distillation column, the feed will enter in the middle of the column with
33 trays and two streams at the top and bottom will leave separated acrylonitrile (ACN)
and ethanol from the mixture. ACN is our desired product, it is better for the ACN to
become light key of the mixtures. The conditions that used for this distillation column
is as in the table 2.6 below.
Table 2.6 Condition of distillation column

Inlet Outlet
Condition
S11 S12 S13
Temperature 25 90.82 123.96
Pressure (bar) 2 2 2
Assumptions:
1. Efficiency of the column: 99.99%
2. ξ for light key = 0.99
3. ξ for heavy key = 0.01
53
4. Light key component is Ethanol
5. Heavy key component is Ethyl acrylate
For multicomponent system which can be considered ideal, Raoult’s law can
be used to determine the composition of the vapour in equilibrium with the liquid.
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑃𝑖
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑥
𝑃 𝑖
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑘𝑖 𝑥𝑖
Where;
𝐾𝑖= vapor-liquid equilibrium constant or distribution coefficient for component i
The vapor pressure of each component of various temperatures was calculated

using the Antoine equations.
𝐵
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑃 = 𝐴 −
(𝑇 + 𝐶)
Where;
𝑃 = saturated vapor pressure (mmHg)
T = temperature (C)
54
The relative volatility was calculated using the formula as below:
𝑝𝑖
𝛼𝑖⁄ =
𝑘 𝑝𝑘
Where;
𝑎𝑖/𝑘= relative volatility of the component i
𝑝𝑖= vapour pressure of component i
𝑝𝑘= vapour pressure of the heavy key component
Frenske-Underwood-Gillian shortcut method was used to calculate the split

fraction:
𝛼𝑖⁄ (𝜉𝑛 )
𝑘
𝜉𝑘 =
1 + (𝛼𝑖⁄ − 1)(𝜉𝑛 )
𝑘
Where;
𝜉n = split fraction of key component
𝑎𝑖/𝑘 = relative volatility of the component
The molar flow rate of each component at the distillate stream was calculated
𝑣𝑘 = 𝜉𝑘 × 𝑛
55
Where;
𝑣𝑘 = molar flow rate of each component at the distillate stream (kmol/h)
𝑛 = molar flow rate of the input (kmol/h)
The mole fraction, 𝑦𝑘 of each distillate component was calculated using the
formula as below:
𝜈𝑘
𝑦𝑘 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜈𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
The molar flow rate of the bottom stream component was lk which was
calculated by using the formula below:
𝑙𝑘 = 𝑛 − 𝑣𝑘
The mole fraction, xk of each bottom stream component was calculated by

𝑙𝑘
𝑥𝑘 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
The minimum stages for stages can be calculated by Fenske’s formula:
𝑦 𝑥
log (𝑦 𝐿𝐾 )𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑥 𝐿𝐾 )𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝐻𝐾 𝐻𝐾
𝑁𝑚 =
log 𝛼𝐿𝐾
Where;
56
𝑥𝐿𝐾= mole fraction of the light key
𝑥𝐻𝐾= mole fraction of the heavy key
𝑎𝐿𝐾= relative volatility of light key
The minimum reflux ration, 𝑅𝑚 can be calculated using the Underwood’s

Equation.
𝛼𝑖 𝑥𝑖,𝑑
𝑅𝑚 + 1 = ∑
𝛼𝑖 − 𝜃
Where;
𝜃 is the Underwood Constant and can be calculated as the root of the following
equation.
𝛼𝑖 𝑥𝑖,𝑓
1−𝑞 =∑
𝛼𝑖 − 𝜃
Where; 1<𝜃<𝑎𝐿𝐾
As the feed stream entering the distillation column is liquid stream with a vapor
fraction of 0, which is a saturated liquid, therefore q can be substituted with 1.
The actual number of stages can be calculated by this formula:
𝑅 − 𝑅𝑚
𝑋=
𝑅+1
57
𝑁 − 𝑁𝑚 1 + 54.4𝑋 𝑋 − 1
𝑌= = 1 − exp [( )( )
𝑁+1 11 + 117.2𝑋 𝑋 0.5
The estimate feed plate location can be calculated by the formula below:
𝑁𝑒 𝑥𝐻𝐾,𝐹 𝐵 𝑥𝐿𝐾,𝐵 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 0.206 log[( )( )( ) ]
𝑁𝑠 𝑥𝐿𝐾,𝐹 𝐷 𝑥𝐻𝐾,𝐷
Where;
𝑁𝑒= number of theoretical stages above the feed plate
𝑁𝑠= number of theoretical stages below the feed plate
Bubble point and dew point can be calculated by the formula below by trial
and error.
For the bubble point (bottom temperature),
𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝐶
∑ 𝑦𝑖 = ∑ 𝐾𝑖 𝑥𝑖 = 1.0
𝑖−=1 𝑖−=1
For the dew point (top temperature),
𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝐶 𝑦𝑖
∑ 𝑥𝑖 = ∑ = 1.0
𝑖−=1 𝑖−=1 𝐾𝑖
The method for manual energy balance calculation of the distillation column is
stated below. According to the first law of thermodynamics, the change in the internal
energy of a system is equal to the heat added into the system minus the work down by
the system. By referring to the Yaws's Chemical Properties Handbook 1999, specific
58
heat capacity, specific enthalpy, enthalpy flow rate and enthalpy change of each
component can be calculated. Specific heat capacity of each gas state component can
be calculated by using the formula below.
∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑑𝑇 = A + BT + C(T)^2 + D(T)^3 + E(T)^4
Where;
T = Temperature (K)
Specific heat capacity of each liquid state component can be calculated using
the formula below.
∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑑𝑇 = A + BT + C(T)^2 + D(T)^3 + E(T)^4
T = Temperature (K)
Heat of vaporization involved in phase change can be calculated using the

formula below.
𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝 = A (1 − T/Tc)^n
59
Where;
A, is the constants (J/mol.K)
T = Temperature (K)
Heat of formation of the component can be calculated by using the formula as

shown below.
𝐻𝑓 = A + BT + CT^2
Where;
Hf = Specific enthalpy of component (J/mol.K)
A, B, C and D are the constants (J/mol.K)
T = Temperature (K)
The enthalpy flow rate of the component is calculated by using the equation
below.
Ḣ𝑖 = ni × Hi
Where;
Ḣ𝑖 =enthalpy flow rate of component (kJ/hr)
𝑛𝑖 = molar flow rate of component (kmol/hr)
60
The enthalpy change across the extractive distillation column is calculated
using the equation below.
△ Ḣ = ∑ Ḣ𝑜𝑢𝑡 − Ḣ𝑖𝑛
Where;
ΔḢ =enthalpy change (kJ/hr)
Ḣ𝑜𝑢𝑡 = enthalpy flow rate of outlet stream (kJ/hr)
Ḣ𝑖𝑛 = enthalpy flow rate of inlet stream (kJ/hr)
2.5.4 Absorption Column
Absorption column is a unit operation used to separate vapor mixture by

washing or scrubbing a gas combination with a suitable liquid in the chemical industry.
One or more of the vapor mixtures constituents’ dissolves or absorbs in the liquid,
allowing it to be eliminated from the mixture. This gaseous constituent produces a
physical solution with the liquid or solvent in some situations. In other circumstances,
it has a chemical reaction with one or more liquid components (Laso and von Stockar,
2003).
Figure 2.9 Absorption Column
61
It is usually carried out in vertical counter current columns, as shown in Figure
2.9. The vapour mixture will enter from the bottom inlet, and the liquid solvent will be
fed into the system from the top of the absorption columns. Then, the vapour mixture
will start to float upwards and the liquid solvent will flow downward, respectively.
The impurities or absorbed components from the vapour mixtures will be washed out
by the liquid solvent and flow downward into the bottom of the absorption column in
liquid solution. The clean vapour then flows upwards into the top outlet of the
absorption columns.
In this chemical plant, absorption columns have been used to separate the
acrylonitrile from the vapour mixture of ethanol, acrylonitrile, water, ethyl acrylate
and ammonia as acrylonitrile is the main products in our process. Dimethyl sulfoxide
has been used as liquid solvent to absorb the ethanol from the mixtures. After the
separation process, acrylonitrile will flow upwards in vapour phase while ethanol will
be flow downwards with solvent as liquid solution. The absorption columns take place
at 1 atm with temperature of 350.95 K. The boiling points of the components at the
standard temperature were listed in Table 2.7.
Table 2.7 Boiling points of the components
Boiling Point under 1 atm

Components
(K)
Ethanol (C2H5OH) 351.5
Acrylonitrile (ACN) 350.2
Water 373.2
Ethyl Acrylate 373.2
Ammonia 239.8
Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO) 462.2
62
In mass balance calculation for absorption column, the partial vapour pressure
of each component has been calculated by using equation below:
𝐶2
ln 𝑃 = 𝐶1 + + 𝐶3 ln 𝑇 + 𝐶4 𝑇 𝐶5
𝑇
Where;
P, in Pa = Vapor pressure of the component;
𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 , 𝐶4 , and 𝐶5 = constants obtained from the Perry’s Hand Book;
T = Temperature of the absorption column;
Next, the input flowrate of vapour mixture, liquid solvent, mole fraction of
vapour mixture, percentage of impurities absorbed was assumed in this process. Some
other assumption has been set in this process such as;
I. the system is at steady-state operation,
II. the gas and liquid flow rates are constant throughout the column,
III. the sections were assumed to be well mixed in the liquid and vapor
phases, and
IV. the system is at isothermal and isobaric condition.
63
Then, the mass balance was conducted accordingly. The total overall balance
on all stages is;
𝐿𝑂 + 𝑉𝑁+1 = 𝐿𝑁 + 𝑉1 = 𝑀
Where;
𝑉𝑁+1 = mol/h entering;
𝐿𝑁 = mol/h leaving the process;
𝑀= total flow;
For overall component balance;
𝐿𝑂 𝑥𝑂 + 𝑉𝑁+1 𝑦𝑁+1 = 𝐿𝑁 𝑥𝑁 + 𝑉1 𝑦1 = 𝑀𝑥𝑚
Where;
𝑥 and 𝑦 = mole fractions;
The number of theoretical stages had been calculated by using graph. The
equilibrium line is plotted related to the compositions of two streams leaving in
equilibrium with each other. The equilibrium line of the graph has been set by using
equation y=1.5x, where the m=1.5 has been assumed as ethanol substances did not
cover in Henry’s Law constant. The operating line also was set by using slope equation
𝐿𝑛
⁄𝑉 of the absorption columns. Hence, straight operating line was obtained as the
𝑛+1
slope was nearly constant. After both lines has been set, the number of theoretical
stages was counted respectively. Figure 2.10 shows the theoretical stage of absorption
64
column that obtain from graph. Number of theoretical stages obtained is
4.902662804≅5.
Figure 2.10 Theoretical stage of absorption column
For energy balance, all information for each stream, including temperature,
states, and pressure, must be known it can be calculated. The procedure for manually
calculating the energy balance of an absorption column is stated below.
Specific heat capacities of liquids and gas can be calculated by using the
formula below;
𝑖𝑔
𝐶𝑃 ⁄ 2 −2
𝑅 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑇 + 𝐶𝑇 + 𝐷𝑇
Where;
𝑖𝑔
𝐶𝑃 = Specific heat capacity of component (J/mol. K)
65
𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 = constants (J/mol.K)
𝑇 = Temperature (K)
Some other assumption has been set in this process to evaluate the energy
balance in the absorption column such as;
The system obeys the law of energy conservation in which Ein− Eout =
Eaccumulated.
I. No mixing heat or pressure actually affects the differences in enthalpy.
II. The reference temperature is 298.15K.
III. The separator is in a steady-state.
2.5.5 Auxiliary
Auxiliary equipment is the equipment that are added into the production line
in order to ensure the smoothness of the process. The auxiliary equipment is a non-
reactive reaction which mean, the value of component that goes into the equipment
will have the same value at the output. In the production of acrylonitrile from
ammonia, several auxiliary equipment has been included in the process which is
cooler, heater and pump
2.5.5.1 Cooler
Cooler is an equipment that is used to cool down the temperature of the

component inside the stream. This process required energy to reduce the temperature
until below the boiling point of the component. In the production plant, there is four
66
cooler that was applied to change the gas phase of acrylonitrile into the liquid phase
throughout the production line which is E-103, E-104, and E-105. The cooler E-103
was used to change the gas phase of the output from the reactor into the mixed phase
before entering the flash column. Cooler E-104 was used to reduce the temperature
before entering the distillation column while E-105 was used to change the phase of
the gas phase from the output of absorption column into mixed phase before entering
the flash column.
Figure 2.11 The cooler (E-103, E-104, E-105)
Table 2.8 Operating condition of cooler at E-103, E-104, E-105

E-103 E-104 E-105
Condition Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet

(S8) (S10) (S11) (S16) (S17)
(S7)
Temperature 310 10 45 25 116.5 25
(℃)
Pressure 3 3 3 2 1 1
(bar)
2.5.5.2 Heater
The heater is an equipment to that been used in the production line to increase
the temperature of the component inside the stream. It is also able to changes the phase
of the component from the liquid phase into gas phase. In this process, the heater was
required to increase the temperature of the raw material, ammonia and ethyl acrylate
67
before entering the fluidized bed reactor. In this production line, there are two heater
that been applied in the process which is heater E-101 and E-102. Heater E-101 is used
to increase the temperature of ammonia before entering the fluidized bed reactor.
Heater E-102 is used to increase the temperature of ethyl acrylate before entering the
fluidized bed reactor. Figure 2.12. and Table 2.9. shows the heater and the operating
condition of the heater.
Figure 2.12 The heater (E-101, E-102)
Table 2.9 The operating condition of heater. (E-101, E-102)

Condition E-101 E-102
Inlet (S2) Outlet (S3) Inlet (S5) Outlet (S6)
Temperature -40 310 70.18 310
(℃)
Pressure 4 4 4 4
(bar)
2.5.5.3 Pump
Pump is the equipment that is used to increase the pressure of the component
in the stream. Pump only can increase the pressure of the component that is in liquid
phase. In this process, the pump P-101 is used to increase the pressure of ammonia
stream from 1 bar into 4 bar. The pump P-102 is used to increase the pressure of ethyl
acrylate from 1 bar into 4 bar.
68
Figure 2.13 The pump (P-101, P-102)
Table 2.10 The operating condition of the pump.

Condition P-101 P-102
Inlet (S1) Outlet (S2) Inlet (S4) Outlet (S5)
Temperature -40 -40 70.18 70
(℃)
Pressure 1 4 1 4
(bar)
2.6 Manual Calculation
This section will display the results of a manual mass and energy balance
calculation. Below are the equations for each type of equipment.
2.6.1 Mass Balance
A mass balance, often known as a material balance, is a type of mass

conservation application used in physical system evaluation. Mass flows are identified
by accounting for material entering and exiting a system that would otherwise be
unknown or difficult to measure. The general equation below is the main principle that
is utilised to compute manually.
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
69
Where;
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 =The total mass that enters the system boundary.
𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = The total mass-produced within the system.
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = The total mass leaves through the system boundary.
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = The total mass-consumed within the system.
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = The total mass build-up within the system.
2.6.1.1 Pump (P-101)
Figure 2.14 depicts the pump symbol, P-101, and Table 2.11 depicts the mass
balance on pump.
Figure 2.14 Symbol of pump (P-101)
Table 2.11 Mass balance on pump (P-101)

Stream S1 S2
Phase Liquid Liquid
Temperature (°C) -40 -40
Pressure (bar) 1 4
70
Component Mass flow rate (kg/hr)
Ethyl acrylate 0 0
Ammonia 6000 6000
Acrylonitrile 0 0
Ethanol 0 0
Water 0 0
Total 6000 6000
2.6.1.2 Pump (P-102)
Figure 2.15 depicts the pump symbol, P-101, and Table 2.12 depicts the mass
balance on pump.
Table 2.12 Mass balance on pump (P-102)

Stream S4 S5
Phase Liquid Liquid
Temperature (°C) 70 70
Pressure (bar) 1 4
Ethyl acrylate 14000 14000
Ammonia 0 0
71
Acrylonitrile 0 0
Ethanol 0 0
Water 0 0
Total 14000 14000
2.6.1.3 Heater (E-101)
Figure 2.16 depicts the heater symbol, E-101, and Table 2.13 depicts the mass
balance on heater.
Figure 2.16 Symbol of heater (E-101)
Table 2.13 Mass balance on heater (E-101)

Stream S2 S3
Phase Liquid Vapor
Temperature (°C) -40 310
Pressure (bar) 4 4
Ethyl acrylate 0 0
Ammonia 6000 6000
Acrylonitrile 0 0
Ethanol 0 0
Water 0 0
72
Total 6000 6000
2.6.1.4 Heater (E-102)
Figure 2.17 depicts the heater symbol, E-102, and Table 2.14 depicts the mass
balance on heater.
Table 2.14 Mass balance on heater (E-102)

Stream S5 S6
Phase Liquid Vapor
Pressure (bar) 4 4
Ethyl acrylate 14000 14000
Ammonia 0 0
Acrylonitrile 0 0
Ethanol 0 0
Water 0 0
Total 14000 14000
73
2.6.1.5 Fluidized bed Reactor (R-101)
Figure 2.18 depicts the fluidized bed reactor symbol, R-101, and Table 2.15
depicts the mass balance on Fluidized bed Reactor.
Figure 2.18 Symbol of Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101)
Table 2.15 Mass balance on Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101)

Stream S3 S6 S7
Phase Vapor Vapor Vapor
Temperature (°C) 70 310 310
Ethyl acrylate 0 14000 596.9843
Ammonia 6000 0 3720.0000
Acrylonitrile 0 0 7103.3292
Ethanol 0 0 6167.5533
Water 0 0 2411.7690
Total 14000 14000 20000.00
2.6.1.6 Cooler (E-103)
Figure 2.19 depicts the Cooler symbol, E-103, and Table 2.16 depicts the mass
balance on Cooler.
74
Figure 2.19 Symbol of Cooler (E-103)
Table 2.16 Mass balance on Cooler (E-103)

Stream S7 S8
Phase Vapor Vapor
Pressure (bar) 4 4
Ethyl acrylate 596.9843 596.9843
Ammonia 3720.0000 3720.0000
Acrylonitrile 7103.3292 7103.3292
Ethanol 6167.5533 6167.5533
Water 2411.7690 2411.7690
Total 20000.00 20000.00
2.6.1.7 Flash Column (F-101)
Figure 2.20 depicts the Flash column symbol, F-101, and Table 2.17 depicts
the mass balance on Flash column.
75
Figure 2.20 Symbol of Flash column (F-101)
Table 2.17 Mass balance on Flash column (F-101)

Stream S8 S9 S10
Acrylonitrile 7103.3292 71.03329223 7032.295931
Ethanol 6167.553285 29.22111515 6138.33217
Water 2411.769033 4.453170552 2407.315862
Ethyl Acrylate 596.9843227 2.031239147 594.9530836
Ammonia 3720 3719.598982 0.401017778
Total 20000 3826.337799 16173.29806
2.6.1.8 Cooler (E-104)
Figure 2.21 depicts the cooler symbol, E-104, and Table 2.18 depicts the mass
balance on Cooler.
76
Figure 2.21 Symbol of cooler (E-104)
Table 2.18 Mass balance on Cooler (E-104)

Stream S10 S11
Phase Vapor Vapor
Pressure (bar) 3 4
Acrylonitrile 7032.295931 7032.295931
Ethanol 6138.33217 6138.33217
Water 2407.315862 2407.315862
Ethyl Acrylate 594.9530836 594.9530836
Ammonia 0.401017778 0.401017778
Total 16173.29806 16173.29806
2.6.1.9 Distillation Column (C-101)
Figure 2.22 depicts the Distillation Column symbol, C-101, and Table 2.19
depicts the mass balance on Distillation Column.
77
Figure 2.22 Symbol of Distillation Column (C-101)
Table 2.19 Mass balance on Distillation Column (C-101)

Stream S11 S12 S13
Temperature (°C) 25 90 123.96
Acrylonitrile 7032.2959 7005.752 26.544
Ethanol 6138.3322 6102.298 36.034
Water 2407.3159 12.419 2394.897
Ethyl Acrylate 594.9531 5.950 589.004
Ammonia 0.4010 0.40102 0
Total 16173.298 13126.819 3046.479
2.6.1.10 Absorption Column (C-102)
Figure 2.23 depicts the absorption column symbol, C-102, and Table 2.20
depicts the mass balance on absorption column.
78
Figure 2.23 Symbol of absorption column (C-102)
Table 2.20 Mass balance on absorption column (C-102)

Stream S12 S14 S15 S16
Phase Vapor Liquid Liquid Vapor
Temperature (°C) 70 70 70 70
Pressure (bar) 1 1 1 1
Ethyl acrylate 5.9495 0 0 5.95
Ammonia 0.4009 0 0 0.4009
Acrylonitrile 7005.75235 0 0 7005.75
DMSO 0 10000 10000 0
Ethanol 6102.2981 0 5797.18 305.11
Water 12.41858 0 0 12.42
Total 13126.8195 0 0 7329.64
2.6.1.11 Cooler (E-105)
Figure 2.24 depicts the cooler, E-105, and Table 2.21 depicts the mass balance
on cooler.
79
Table 2.21 Mass balance on cooler (E-105)

Stream S16 S17
Phase Liquid Vapor
Pressure (bar) 1 1
Ammonia 0.4009 0.4009
Acrylonitrile 7005.75 7005.75
DMSO 0 0
Ethanol 305.11 305.11
Water 12.42 12.42
Total 7329.64 7329.64
2.6.1.12 Flash column (F-102)
Figure 2.25 depicts the flash column, F-102, and Table 2.22 depicts the mass
balance on flash column.
80
Figure 2.25 Symbol of flash column (F-102)
Table 2.22 Mass balance on flash column (F-102)

Stream S17 S18 S19
Phase Mixed Vapor Liquid
Ethanol 305.1149 1.7685 303.3464
Ethyl Acrylate 5.9495 0.0225 5.9270
Water 12.4185 0.0028 12.3896
Ammonia 0.4009 0.4009 0.0000
Acrylonitrile 7005.7523 70.0575 6935.6948
Total 7329.6363 72.2783 7257.3579
2.6.2 Energy Balance
Process design uses energy balance to determine the amount of energy that
flows in or out of each process unit whether the energy must be added or removed
from the system. The general energy balance is stated below.
81
Rate of energy accumulatio
= Rate of energy entering system by inflow
− Rate of energy leaving the system by outflow
+ Rate of heat aⅆⅆeⅆ tosystem + Rate of work ⅆone on system
i. The system obeys the law of energy conversion in which Ein – Eout =
Accumulated.
ii. The reactor is in steady state.
iii. The kinetic energy and potential energy are negligible. Thus, the energy
balance is Q = ∆H.
iv. The reference temperature is 298.15 K.
The main references for the energy balance calculation are obtained from
Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th Edition (Green & Perry, 2008) and Yaws’
Handbook of Thermodynamic and Physical Properties of Chemical Compounds
(Yaws, 2003) respectively.
The heat capacities of inorganic and organic liquid are calculated using the
formula below. From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook.
82
𝐶𝑝𝐿 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2𝑇 + 𝐶3𝑇 2 + 𝐶4𝑇 3 + 𝐶5𝑇 4
𝑇
𝑇 𝐶2𝑇 2 𝐶3𝑇 3 𝐶4𝑇 4 𝐶5𝑇 5
After integration ∫298⋅15 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 = [𝐶1𝑇 + 2
+ 3
+ 4
+ 5
]
298⋅15
Heat capacities of ammonia is calculated using the following formula:
𝐶12 2
𝐶32 𝑡 3 𝐶3𝐶4𝑡 4 𝐶42 𝑡 5
𝐶𝑝𝐿 = + 𝐶2 − 2𝐶1𝐶3𝑡 − 𝐶1𝐶4𝑡 − − −
𝑡 3 2 5
𝑡 = 1 − 𝑇𝑟
𝑇
𝑇𝑟 =
𝑇𝑐

Chemical Compounds.
𝐶𝑝𝐿 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑇 + 𝐶𝑇 2 + 𝐷𝑇 3
𝑇
𝑇 𝐵𝑇 2 𝐶𝑇 3 𝐷𝑇 4
After integration ∫298⋅15 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 = [𝐴𝑇 + 2
+ 3
+ 4
]
298⋅15
The heat capacities of inorganic and organic in the ideal gas state are calculated
From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook.
2 2
𝐶3 𝐶5
𝐶𝑝𝐺 = 𝐶𝐼 + 𝐶2 [ 𝑇 ] + 𝐶4 [ 𝑇 ]
𝐶3 𝐶5
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ ( 𝑇 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ ( 𝑇 )
83
After integration
𝑇
𝐶3 𝑇 𝐶5 𝑇
∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = [𝐶1𝑇]𝑇298.15 + 𝐶2𝐶3 [𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ ( )] − 𝐶4𝐶5 [𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ ( )]
298⋅15 𝑇 298.15 𝑇 298.15

Chemical Compounds.
𝐶𝑝𝐺 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑇 + 𝐶𝑇 2 + 𝐷𝑇 3 + 𝐸𝑇 4
𝑇
𝑇 𝐵𝑇 2 𝐶𝑇 3 𝐷𝑇 4 𝐸𝑇 5
After integration ∫298⋅15 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 = [𝐴𝑇 + 2
+ 3
+ 4
+ 5
]
298⋅15
The specific enthalpy change of each substance was determined by using the
temperature range based on the below:
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑇1
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑇2
Where;
T1: Temperature inlet
T2: Temperature outlet
The heat duty each unit process for non-reactive unit process is the net heat
change in the enthalpy flowrate was calculated using equation:
84
𝑄 = 𝐻𝑇,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐻𝑇,𝑖𝑛
Where;
Q : Heat duty
HT, out : Total enthalpy flowrate of outlet stream (kJ/hr)
HT, in : Total enthalpy flowrate of inlet stream (kJ/hr)
Heat of formation of the component can be calculated by using the formula

shown below.
𝐻𝑓 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑇 + 𝐶𝑇 2
Where;
Hf : specific enthalpy of component (J/mol. K)
A, B, C and D : coefficient constant (J/mol. K)
T : Temperature (K)
The enthalpy flowrate of the component is calculated by using the equation

below.
𝐻̇𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 × 𝐻𝑖
Where;
85
𝐻̇𝑖 : Enthalpy flowrate of the component i (kJ/hr)
𝑛𝑖 : molar flowrate of component i (kmol/hr)
2.6.2.1 Pump (P-101)
Figure 2.26 depicts the pump symbol, P-101, and Table 2.23 depicts the energy
balance on pump.
Table 2.23 Energy balance on pump (P-101)

Stream S1 S2
Phase Liquid Liquid
Temperature (°C) -40 -40
Pressure (bar) 1 4
Component Enthalpy flow rate (kJ/hr)
Ethanol 0.0000 0.0000
Water 0.0000 0.0000
Ammonia -23666817.3068 -23666817.3068
Ethyl Acrylate 0.0000 0.0000
Total -23666817.3068 -23666817.3068
ΔH 0
86
2.6.2.2 Pump (P-102)
Figure 2.27 depicts the pump symbol, P-101, and Table 2.24 depicts the energy
balance on pump.
Table 2.24 Energy balance on pump (P-102)

Stream S4 S5
Phase Liquid Liquid
Pressure (bar) 1 4
Ethanol 0.0000 0.0000
Water 0.0000 0.0000
Ammonia 0.0000 0.0000
Ethyl Acrylate -50611605.7419 -50611605.7419
Total -50611605.7419 -50611605.7419
ΔH 0
87
2.6.2.3 Heater (E-101)
Figure 2.28 depicts the heater symbol, E-101, and Table 2.25 depicts the energy
balance on heater.
Table 2.25 Energy balance on heater (E-101)

Stream S2 S3
Phase Liquid Vapor
Temperature (°C) -40 310
Pressure (bar) 4 4
Ammonia 0.0000 0.0000
Ethanol -23666817.3068 -11523828.3518
Water 0.0000 0.0000
Total -23666817.3068 -11523828.3518
ΔH 12142988.9550
88
2.6.2.4 Heater (E-102)
Figure 2.29 depicts the heater symbol, E-102, and Table 2.26 depicts the energy
balance on heater.
Table 2.26 Energy balance on heater (E-102)

Stream S5 S6
Phase Liquid Vapor
Pressure (bar) 4 4
Ammonia 0.0000 0.0000
Ethanol 0.0000 0.0000
Water -50611605.7419 -44394913.8841
Total -50611605.7419 -44394913.8841
ΔH 6216691.8578
89
2.6.2.5 Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101)
Figure 2.30 depicts the fluidized bed reactor symbol, R-101, and Table 2.27
depicts the energy balance on Fluidized Bed Reactor.
Figure 2.30 Symbol of Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101)
Table 2.27 Energy balance on Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101)

Stream S3 S6 S7
Acrylonitrile 0 0 26260886.57
Ethanol 0 0 -28679691.4
Water 0 0 -31389933.74
Ammonia -11523828.35 0 -7144773.578
Ethyl Acrylate 0 -44394913.88 -1893076.257
Total -11523828.35 -44394913.88 -42846588.41
ΔH 13072153.82
90
2.6.2.6 Cooler (E-103)
Figure 2.31 depicts the Cooler symbol, E-103, and Table 2.28 depicts the
energy balance on Cooler.
Table 2.28 Energy balance on Cooler (E-103)

Stream S7 S8
Phase Vapor Vapor
Pressure (bar) 4 4
Acrylonitrile 26260886.5680 19909565.0769
Ethanol -28679691.4018 -36947257.4444
Water -31389933.7432 -38114704.2779
Ammonia -7144773.5781 -9761062.4574
Ethyl Acrylate -1893076.2569 -2226439.9719
Total -42846588.4120 -67139899.0748
ΔH -24293310.6628
91
2.6.2.7 Flash Column (F-101)
Figure 2.32 depicts the Flash column symbol, F-101, and Table 2.29 depicts
the energy balance on Flash column.
Figure 2.32 Symbol of Flash column (F-101)
Table 2.29 Energy balance on Flash column (F-101)

Stream S8 S9 S10
Acrylonitrile 19476025.9043 199866.3678 19786770.4164
Ethanol -37383339.7019 -174617.0007 -36680911.9939
Water -38402695.9104 -70265.7811 -37984606.1167
Ammonia -9761062.4574 -9487641.9263 -1022.8826
Ethyl Acrylate -2226373.2588 -7441.8582 -2179731.7723
TOTAL -68297445.4243 -9540100.1986 -57059502.3491
Stream S8 S9 S10
92
Acrylonitrile 19476025.9043 199866.3678 19786770.4164
Ethanol -37383339.7019 -174617.0007 -36680911.9939
Water -38402695.9104 -70265.7811 -37984606.1167
Ammonia -9761062.4574 -9487641.9263 -1022.8826
Ethyl Acrylate -2226373.2588 -7441.8582 -2179731.7723
TOTAL -68297445.4243 -9540100.1986 -57059502.3491
ΔH 1697842.8766
2.6.2.8 Cooler (E-104)
Figure 2.33 depicts the cooler symbol, E-104, and Table 2.30 depicts the
energy balance on Cooler.
Table 2.30 Energy balance on Cooler (E-104)

Stream S10 S11
Phase Vapor Vapor
Pressure (bar) 3 4
93
Acrylonitrile (LK) 19786770.4164 19495867.5357
Ethanol -36680911.9939 -36991212.5107
Water (HK) -37984606.1167 -38185747.2866
Ammonia -1022.8826 -1039.7619
Ethyl Acrylate -2179731.7723 -2202253.4236
Total -57059502.3491 -57884385.4471
ΔH -824883.0980
2.6.2.9 Distillation Column (C-101)
Figure 2.34 depicts the Distillation Column symbol, C-101, and Table 2.31
depicts the energy balance on Distillation Column.
Figure 2.34 Symbol of Distillation Column (C-101)
Table 2.31 Energy balance on Distillation Column (C-101)

Stream S11 S12 S13
Temperature (°C) 25 90 123.96
94
Acrylonitrile 2583880699.989 23950675.650 91735.965
Ethanol -4928681349.320 -31044906.523 -181283.738
Water -5101284970.045 -193567.194 -36993599.796
Ammonia -24.483 -983.057 -0.0486
Ethyl Acrylate -13086670.646 -21258.393 -2062028.098
TOTAL -7459172314.505 -7310039.518 -39145175.715
ΔH 7412717099.271
2.6.2.10 Absorption Column (C-102)
Figure 2.35 depicts the absorption column symbol, C-102, and Table 2.32
depicts the energy balance on absorption column.
Figure 2.35 Symbol of absorption column (C-102)
Table 2.32 Energy balance on absorption column (C-102)

Stream S12 S14 S15 S16
95
Phase Vapor Liquid Liquid Vapor
Temperature
(°C) 70 70 70 70
Pressure
(bar) 1 1 1 1
Acrylonitrile
23950675.65 0.00 0.00 23950675.65
(ACN)
Ethanol -31044906.52 0.00 -34242928.37 -1552245.33
Water -193617.91 0.00 0.00 -166916.30
Ammonia -983.05697 0.00 0.00 -983.05697
Ethyl
-21259.03 0.00 0.00 -21161.69
Acrylate
DMSO 0.00 -25894544.79 -25894544.79 0.00
TOTAL -7310090.869 -25894544.79 -60137473.16 22209369.27
ΔH -4723468.2262
2.6.2.11 Cooler (E-105)
Figure 2.36 depicts the cooler, E-105, and Table 2.33 depicts the energy
balance on cooler.
96
Table 2.33 Energy balance on cooler (E-105)
Stream S16 S17
Phase Liquid Vapor
Pressure (bar) 1 1
Acrylonitrile (ACN) 23950675.6497 19422279.7600
Ethanol -1552245.3262 -1838703.0910
Water -166916.3010 -197038.8190
Ammonia -3127662.2772 -3307903.9905
Ethyl Acrylate -21161.6945 -22023.1941
DMSO 0.0000 0.0000
Total 19082690.0509 14056610.6654
ΔH -5026079.3855
2.6.2.12 Flash column (F-102)
Figure 2.37 depicts the flash column, F-102, and Table 2.34 depicts the energy
balance on flash column.
97
Figure 2.37 Symbol of flash column (F-102)
Table 2.34 Energy balance on flash column (F-102)

Stream S17 S18 S19
Phase Mixed Vapor Liquid
Acrylonitrile 19422279.7600 0.1515 19422279.6085
Ethanol -1838703.0910 -1031.9149 -1837472.6020
Water -197038.8190 -4146.6197 -192865.2062
Ammonia -582.2805 -582.2013 -0.1414
Ethyl Acrylate -12429.4962 -100637.6197 78614.4256
TOTAL 17373526.0733 182441.5516 17181715.8047
ΔH -9368.7170
98
2.7 PRO/II Simulation
Aveva PRO/II Simulation is a steady-state simulator that optimizes plant

performance by improving process design, operational analysis, and performing
engineering studies. This software simulates and performs the material and energy
balances of the entire process, ensuring the correctness and reliability of the mass and
energy generation and consumption calculations that were previously done manually.
The Table 2.35 and Table 2.36 below shows the component and unit operation used in
PRO/II.
Table 2.35 List of components used in PRO/II Simulation.

COMPONENT ID COMPONENT NAME
ETHANOL Ethanol
ACRN Acrylonitrile
H2O Water
NH3 Ammonia
EACR Ethyl Acrylate
DMSO Dimethyl Sulfoxide
Table 2.36
List of unit operation used in PRO/II Simulation.
UNIT/STREAM IN UNIT
COMPONENT ICON
PRO/II OPERATIONS
Fluidized Bed (R-

Equilibrium Reactor
101)
99
Flash column
Flash
(F-101& F-102)
Distillation column
Distillation column
(C-101)
Distillation column Absorption columns

(without condenser
and reboiler) (C-102)
Pump
Pump
(P-101 & P-102)
Heater/Cooler
Simple HX (E-101, E-102, E-

103, E-104, & E-
105)
In this process, with specified mass yield of the reactant and chemical equation,
equilibrium reactor has been selected to the model as a fluidized bed reactor (R-101).
In addition, flash has been selected to model flash columns (F-101 and F-102) for
vapor liquid in equilibrium such that a multicomponent mixtures state present.
Distillation was selected to be the model for distillation column (C-101) and absorption
column (C-102) in this process. Since in the AVEVA PRO II Simulation does not have
100
absorption column, we used the distillation column without the reboiler and condenser
to represent the absorption column that was used in our process.
Lastly, the simple heat exchanger (HX) is used to represent both cooler (E-103,
E-104, E-105) and heater (E-101, E-102) in this process. The simple HX was used to
change the temperature of the process stream whether increase or to lower down the
temperature of that process stream. The pressure change used in this process is pump.
The pump was used to make sure that the liquid will be transported during the process
and at the same time to increase the pressure.
101
Figure 2.38 Flowsheet of the process flow diagram in PRO/II Simulation
102
2.8 Comparison of Manual and Simulation Calculation
The total process has effectively converged, according to the simulation

performed with PRO/II Simulation. After simulating the process, all data relating of
the mass and energy balances was collected and compared to the manually measured
data. The deviation between the simulation and manual results was calculated using
the algorithm below;
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(%) = | | × 100%
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2.8.1 Mass Balance Comparison
This section will elaborate on the comparison of the manual mass balance
calculation with the simulation performed using the PRO/II software. The results for
all the mass flow rates in kg/hr of all the streams involved in the manual computation
and PRO/II, as well as the percentage deviation, are listed in the table below.
Table 2.37 Comparison of the manual mass balance calculation with the
simulation
MANUAL
SIMULATION
STREAM CALCULATION DEVIATION (%)
(kg/hr)
(kg/hr)
S1 6000.0000 6000.0000 0
S2 6000.0000 6000.0000 0
S3 6000.0000 6000.0000 0
S4 14000.0000 14000.0000 0
103
S5 14000.0000 14000.0000 0
S6 14000.0000 14000.0000 0
S7 20000.00 20000.00 0
S8 20000.00 20000.00 0
S9 3826.337799 2879.8038 32.8680
S10 16173.29806 17120.0833 5.5303
S11 16173.29806 17120.0833 5.5303
S12 13126.8195 14083.4069 6.7923
S13 3046.544 3036.6764 0.3228
S14 10000 10000 0
S15 15797.18 15660.5554 0.8724
S16 7329.6363 9313.4641 21.3006
S17 7329.6363 9313.4641 21.3006
S18 72.2783 1618.2761 95.5336
S19 7257.3580 7695.1880 5.6897
Most of the streams have a percentage deviation under 20 percent, according

to Table 2.37, which compares manual analysis and AVEVA PRO II simulation in
mass flowrate with percent of deviation. This suggested that the manual calculation is
quite precise and accurate. There are only two streams that shows the deviation above
20% which are S9, S16, S17 and S18. This high value of deviation maybe because of
the calculation of vapor pressure of ammonia. Each stream shows that the vapor
pressure value of ammonia is extremely higher than other component in the stream.
The vapor pressure calculated in manual is affecting the value of mass flow rate
obtained. Thus, this leads to higher deviation value for S9, S16, S17 and S18.
104
2.8.2 Energy Balance Comparison
The comparison of the manual energy balance calculation with the simulation
made using the PRO/II software will be discussed in this section. The percentage
variation and results for all the enthalpy flow rates in J/hr of all the streams involved
in the manual calculation and PRO/II are listed in the table below.
Table 2.38 Comparison of Simulation done by PRO/II and manual calculation in

enthalpy flow rate (kJ/hr).
MANUAL
SIMULATION
UNIT
CALCULATION DEVIATION (%)
OPERATION (kJ/hr)
(kJ/hr)
Pump (P-101) 0 0 0
Heater (E-101) 12142988.95 11477129.36 5.8016
Pump (P-102) 0 0 0
Heater (E-102) 6216691.8578 7111966.3308 12.5883
Fluidized Bed
13072153.82 9210402.868 41.9281
Reactor (R-101)
Cooler (e-103) -24293310.6628 23688003.73 202.5553
Flash column (F-

1697842.8766 5031065.696 66.2528
101)
Cooler (e-104) -824883.0980 929994.988 188.6976
Distillation
-10436718.738 -34193452.24 69.4774
Column (C-101)
Absorption
-4723468.22620 -4722124.048 0.0285
Column (C-102)
Cooler (E-105) -5026079.3855 6005282.425 183.6943
Flash column (F-

-1464447.9064 572560.1003 355.7719
102)
105
For the energy balance comparison, we calculated the ∆H value for each unit
operation and then the value is compared to the value of the unit operation duty that
were obtained from the simulation. According to the Table 2.38, we can observe that
most of the unit operation shows high value of the deviation. First, the fluidized bed
reactor display that the deviation value is 41.9%. This error might happen due to the
calculation for the heat capacity data from the manual calculation. The equation used
from the simulation might be different from the equation used for manual calculation.
Since coefficient value is differs from the simulation, this may lead to the higher
deviation obtained.
For the cooler E-103, E-104 and E-105 the deviation value for the energy
balance comparison is 202.6%, 188.7% and 183.7% respectively. This inaccuracy
happened because of the calculation value of the enthalpy for the inlet and outlet
stream for the manual calculation is different from the calculated enthalpy from
simulation. All the enthalpy value for the manual calculation for both inlet and outlet
stream show higher value compared to the enthalpy obtained from the simulation. The
∆H value calculated from the manual is relatively high from the simulation value.
Therefore, this condition will be affecting the deviation value for the cooler.
Lastly, the calculated deviation for flash column F-102 values is 355.8%. The
flash column F-102 shows the highest deviation because of the molar flow rate
obtained from the manual calculation for the top outlet (S18) is 0.303 kmol/hr while
the value obtained from the simulation is 60.46 kmol/hr. In addition, the molar flow
rate of the outlet value of bottom stream for that unit operation from manual calculation
is 214.01 kmol/hr and value obtained from simulation is 150.03 kmol/hr. Due to the
difference on the molar flow rate, the value for energy calculation will also be affected
because to calculate the enthalpy, we need the molar flow rate value. Thus, this will
increase the deviation value for the flash column since the difference of the enthalpy
from simulation and manual calculation is high
106
CHAPTER 3
WASTE MANAGEMENT
3.1 Introduction
Industrial was is the waste that can come in form of gas, liquid, and solid.
Different form of waste will require different way of disposal or treatment. This
industrial waste can be categorized into two types, hazardous and non- hazardous
waste. Non-hazardous waste is any waste that is not harmful to people and the
environment and can be disposed of easily. However, for hazardous waste, it can give
impact to the human especially in term of health risk. Plus, it is also can affect the
ecosystem of the environment in a dangerous way. Therefore, it is important to treat
the waste in a proper way according to the regulations. This is important to reduce the
risk of pollution to the environment and threaten the human health. This chapter will
discuss regarding the effluent and waste that been produced from production of
Acrylonitrile from Ammonia. The waste and by-product that formed from the reaction
will be categorised into their phase which is solid, liquid and gas, in order to
considering and finalizing the method of disposal or treatment.
3.1.1 Waste Management Practices
Waste management referred to an act to manage and dispose of wastes. It can

be by discarding, destroying, processing, recycling, reusing, or controlling wastes
(Davies, 2022). The main purpose of this waste management is to reduce the number
of unusable materials and to reduce potential health and environmental hazards. Proper
waste management is necessary to minimize the environmental impact as well as
reducing pollution in the environment. Waste management hierarchy act as a guideline
107
to rank the waste management options according to the most proper way for the
environment. The first priority of the hierarchy goes to preventing waste at the first
place. The ranks then followed by re-use, recycling, recovery and disposal. The
diagram of the waste management can be referred as Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 The Waste Management Hierarchy
Prevention is basically defined as the steps of avoiding from becoming the

waste at the first place. It is known as the most preferred option among the others
option in the waste management hierarchy. It can be done by avoiding the use of
unnecessary materials during the manufacturing process. By preventing the waste from
arising at the first place, it will avoid the need to reuse, recycle, recovery, it and thus
less waste disposal at the landfills. If the first steps of waste hierarchy cannot be
avoided, the reuse action will be prioritised. This stage will consider any possible route
by reusing the products and materials. As a manufacturer, reusing back the by-product
that form in the middle of the production process will reduce the output waste and thus
will save the cost of raw material.
After that, the rank will descend to the recycle stage. The recycling
process is an action of turning the waste into a new item or product. It is known as the
most environmentally friendly solution. As the manufacturer, recycling the waste or
the material will provide side profit to the company aside from reducing the waste that
been produce. Recovery is the fourth stage of the hierarchy of waste management. For
this stage, it is defined in term of recovering the waste into energy form. It is the
108
process of incinerating the waste that cannot be recycled to produce energy that can
generate electricity. By applying energy recovery stage, it will reduce our dependency
on the fossil fuels and reduce the rate of carbon that released to the environment. As
the manufacturer, energy recovery can contribute to the reduction of utilities cost and
lessen the waste production at the same time. When all the stage in the waste hierarchy
cannot be conduct, then the last option can be applied which is waste disposal.
However, this method only can be applied followed by the strict regulations to avoid
environment from possible pollution.
3.1.2 Environmental Quality Act,1974
The Environmental Quality Act 1974 is a legislative act that governs the
prevention, reduction, and control of pollution and the enhancement of the
environment. An Act deals with the prevention, removal, and management of
corruption, the improvement of the environment, and related purposes. This rule
establishes a Director-General for Environmental Quality responsible for coordinating
all actions involving waste discharge into the environment, pollution control, and the
enhancement of environmental quality. To address environmental issues, the
Malaysian government has enacted several significant environmental laws and
policies, including the Environment Quality Act 1974 and its Regulations 1989, and
implemented some international ecological obligations to achieve a sustainable
environment and development in the country.
3.1.3 Sustainable Development Goals
Sustainable development is the process of changing from today's society to one

that is more environmentally friendly. With the global facing a potential climate crisis
- water problems, dehydration, starvation, and extreme weather - the purpose of
sustainable development is to assure a commitment and balance between economic
109
growth, environmental preservation, and social well-being. There are 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) introduced which targets to achieve by year 2030 for
peace, prosperity, dignity for the planet and humankind. Figure 3.2 below shows the
17 sustainable goals that are focusing on three aspects, social, economic and
environmental sustainability. From the SDGs shows below, there are some of
sustainable goals that can be aided by our production plants.
Figure 3.2 Sustainable Development Goals (United Nations, 2020)
From the SDGs, Goal 3 focuses on the good health and well-being for all ages.
It’s quite related with our production plant by ensuring to manage the waste either it’s
chemical, biological or physical waste from the production plant properly. It is because
disposing the waste especially the chemical waste in improper way can lead to
environmental and health problems. Chemical waste itself is quite hazardous which
may cause fire explosion, adverse health effects, and damage to the environment.
Hence, the most important purpose for good waste management is to safeguard the
environment as well as the public's health and safety to achieve the goal 3 of the SDGs.
Next, more than 40% of individuals in the world are affected by water scarcity
although water demand has increased at more than double the rate of population
110
growth over the previous century. So, this problem is one of the main reasons why
SDGs of Goal 6 should be achieved. It’s to ensure every people can access clean
drinking water. So, in our production plant, if the wastewater is treated properly which
means all of the contaminant, nutrients, heavy metals, micro-pollutants and others is
removed completely, this goal of SDGs may achieve successfully. The technology to
treat the wastewater also should be improved to reuse the used water and prevent from
consuming a lot of water.
Other goals that are can be implemented in our production plant is Goal 12
which is responsible consumption and production. In order to achieve this goal, the
way of harmful waste and contaminants being disposed from plant should be efficient
and manage well. According to United Nations, by encouraging the industries,
businesses and consumers to reduce and recycle their waste which will reduce the
ecological footprint at the same time. It is very important to develop a more sustainable
consumption by year 2030.
Lastly, our production plant also contributed in aided to achieve goal 13,
climate action. As we all already know, extreme weather events such as heat waves,
droughts, and floods are becoming more common and intense as a result of climate
change. There’s a lot of causes that lead to climate change due to human activities.
The greenhouse effect is the primary cause of climate change. The greenhouse gaseous
can result in global warming due to some gases that trapped the sun’s heat and prevent
it from escaping to the space. Various strategic initiatives have been taken by industries
to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous
oxide to the environment. In response to the impacts of climate change, industries are
encouraged to establish resilience and adaptive capability for the industry and its
supply chain.
111
3.1.4 Standards and Regulations for Wastewater Management in Malaysia
The Environmental Quality Act 1974 regulates the standards and restrictions
for industrial effluent discharge into common water bodies in Malaysia. The
Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974 is a body of legislation in Malaysia that relates
to the prevention, reduction, and control of pollution and the improvement of the
environment. The effluent standards govern effluent discharge from a wastewater
treatment facility to any receiving body of water. The Department of the Environment
(DOE) established these discharge guidelines to assist in the protection of receiving
waters and aquatic ecosystems and safeguard human health from the harmful effects
of untreated wastewater. There are environmental quality regulations 1974 that must
be followed by any establishment that discharges sewage into or into any soil, inland
water, or Malaysian water, save for any housing or commercial development with a
population equivalent of fewer than 150 people. Environmental Quality Act (EQA)
1974 stipulates two kinds of effluent discharge: Standard A for releases upstream of
any raw water intake and Standard B for releases downstream of any raw water intake
(Environmental Quality Act, 1974 – Policies – IEA, 2020).
3.2 Sources of Waste
There are three types of waste generated in acrylonitrile production plants that
use the ammoxidation method which consist of solid, liquid, and gas. Table 3.1 lists
the waste classifications generated by the production plant and their sources of
generation.
Table 3.1 The waste classifications generated by the production plant and their
sources of generation.
Source Of Waste
Type Of Waste Waste Generated
Generated
112
• Fluidized Bed
Solid • Titanium Dioxide
Reactor
• Wastewater
• Distillation
• Ethyl Acrylate
Column
Liquid • Ethanol
• Dimethyl
• Absorber
Sulfoxide
• Ammonia
Gas • Flash Drum
• Ethanol
3.3 Solid Waste
Solid waste is the waste that produce during the production process in solid
form. Normally for the industrial was, the most common sources of solid waste are
from catalyst.
3.3.1 Source of Solid Waste
In the production of acrylonitrile from ammonia, ammonia will be reacted with

ethyl acrylate to form acrylonitrile. During this reaction, the titanium dioxide is used
as a catalyst to increase the reaction rate of process.
113
3.3.2 Management of Solid Waste
The solid waste needs to be treated properly to avoid from polluting the
environment and risking the human health when exposed to it. Several methods have
been proposed to manage the solid waste produced. The method includes scheduled
waste and catalyst regeneration.
A. Scheduled Waste
According to the Environmental Quality Act 2005 (Scheduled Wastes), the

spent catalyst is one of the hazardous substances and labelled with waste code of
SW202. Therefore, all the procedure of disposal of spent catalyst must be comply with
all the regulation that has been stated. Only the licensed contractors from the
Department of Environment can be assigned for the disposal task of scheduled waste.
This method is practically much safer since it practices safe handling.
B. Catalyst Regeneration.
Catalyst Regeneration is one of the alternatives to treat the spent catalyst to

avoid the catalyst from becoming waste. This method is conduct by restoring back the
chemical properties of the spent catalysts in order to regain back the efficiency of the
catalyst through the regeneration of catalyst process (Gumerov et al., 2016). This
method can be a better route since it creates awareness regarding the environmental
concerns if the disposal method is chosen. It is also might attracted the manufacturer
since the regenerated catalyst is cost much cheaper than fresh catalyst.
114
3.3.3 Comparison and Selected Solution
Table 3.2 The Option of Technology to Treat Solid Waste
Technology Advantage Disadvantages
• Safer method toward the • Effect the

Scheduled
person that handling since environment since
Waste
it is aligned with the it will use up the
regulation. landfill.
• Extended use of the • Not economy

Catalyst
catalyst, friendly since
Regeneration
• Minimises the use of new reusing back the
raw materials spent catalyst.
• Reduces the need for • Reduce the
ultimate recovery or efficiency of
disposal. catalysts.
Based on the Table 3.2, after considering all the advantages and disadvantages
of the scheduled waste and catalyst regeneration, the scheduled waste will be choosing
as the method to treat the waste. This is because since the catalyst is one of hazardous
substances that can need proper handling, disposed the waste can be much safer route.
Furthermore, this process will avoid from using the spent catalyst that might affect the
efficiency of the reaction.
3.4 Liquid Waste
Liquid wastes, which include sewage and domestic wastewater, as well as

processed water and other liquids, are created by industrial activities, particularly in
industries like pulp and paper, food processing, and chemical manufacturing. These
115
liquids are quite hazardous and sometimes harmful to human health and the
environment. There are regulations that apply to the storage, transportation, treatment,
and disposal of hazardous and liquid wastes.
3.4.1 Source of Liquid Waste
From our production of ammonia to produce acrylonitrile, several liquid wastes

will be generated throughout the process, such as wastewater, ethyl acrylate, ethanol,
and dimethyl sulfoxide. The wastewater and ethyl acrylate will be generated from the
distillation column at S13 while the ethanol and dimethyl sulfoxide will be generated
from the absorber at S15.
3.4.2 Management of Liquid Waste
Our company has proposed a few technologies that can be used to treat these
liquid wastes that will tabulated in Table 3.3 below.
Table 3.3 Technologies that can be used to treat liquid wastes

Stream Wastes Technology
Wastewater • Chemical wastewater

treatment
S13
• Adsorption with
Ethyl Acrylate
activated carbon
• Membrane bio-reactor
Ethanol
• Reverse Osmosis
S15 • Ultraviolet Irradiation
Dimethyl Sulfoxide
• Biological treatment
116
3.4.2.1 Wastewater Treatment of Ethyl Acrylate and Water from S-13
Ethyl acrylate (EA) is a widely known and sustainable molecule that was used
to make polymers including resins, plastics, rubber, and denture material. It can be
made in a variety of industrial ways, such as by reacting acrylonitrile with ethanol
using sulfuric acid as a catalyst to make ethyl acrylate. Acetylene, carbon monoxide,
and ethanol can also be used to make it. Heat, light, and peroxides all speed up the
polymerization of ethyl acrylate when it is left to stand. However, because of its
flammability, toxicity, and strong reactivity, ethyl acrylate poses a safety risk (And,
2016). This chemical is the main raw material that has been used in our plant. This
unreacted reactant is produced from the distillation unit operation. The main effluent
produced through the distillation unit is water and EA with the composition of 78.61%
and 19.33% respectively. There are several technologies can be used to treat this
wastewater.
A. Chemical Wastewater Treatment
Chemical wastewater treatment can be done by using chemical reactants to

break down all of the contaminants and impurities in the wastewater. It is suitable for
wastewater containing high levels of chemical toxins, such as effluent from chemical
or pharmaceutical industries, pulp and paper mills, laboratories, and textile producers.
Chemical treatment can be a simple or complex operation depending on the impurities
in the water and the chemical reactions that occur. The majority of wastewater
chemical treatment involves precipitation (neutralization process), coagulation,
flocculation, ion exchange, or disinfection steps in treating the wastes. The industrial
waste such as EA required neutralization process as a pre-treatment process. This
process is important to control the pH for the chemical. In order to neutralize the EA,
the alkaline medium such as aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is added to lower the
pH of the chemical and it is commonly used as it not produces toxic chemicals which
are harmful to the environment. For our production plant, disinfection of wastewater
117
will be used to treat the chemical wastes. Disinfection, which eliminates or detoxifies
hazardous microorganisms such as viruses and bacteria, is the final stage for
wastewater that needs to be treated thoroughly before being reused. Chlorine is an
inexpensive disinfectant that has been widely used in disinfection. The wastewater
may go through intermediate phases, such as pH modifications to improve coagulation
or temperature adjustments to maximise chemical reactions, depending on the
contaminants. Thus, these treatment methods can be used to treat the wastewater.
B. Adsorption
Adsorption is the accumulation of a material (adsorbate, or sorbate) on the

surface of a solid (adsorbent, or sorbent). The adsorbate can be in the form of a gas or
a liquid. Unsaturated forces at the solid surface that can form bonds with the adsorbate
are the driving force for adsorption. Electrostatic or van der Waals interactions are the
most common types of forces (reversible). Direct electron transport between the
sorbent and the sorbate occurs in stronger contacts (irreversible). The relative ease or
difficulty of removing (desorbing) the adsorbate for adsorbent regeneration and
adsorbate recovery is determined by the strength of this interaction. The adsorbent's
selective character is owing to the relative access and strength of the surface contact
for one component in a feed combination. The solid is the mass-separating agent, and
the partitioning between the fluid and solid phases is the separating mechanism. To
reverse the process and renew the sorbent, an energy-separating agent, usually a
pressure or temperature shift, is needed. Adsorption procedures are utilised in the
chemical process industries for a wide range of separations. The most common
adsorbent is activated carbon (Noble and Terry, 2004).
118
3.4.2.2 Comparison and Selected Solution
Table 3.4 shows a comparison of the technologies offered for liquid waste
management in S13.
Table 3.4 Comparison of Technology to Treat S13

Technology Advantages Disadvantages
• Disinfection is very • High requirement of
cheap manual labour
Chemical • Quite effective at • High level of
Wastewater rendering large maintenance
Treatment quantities of harmful • Required careful
microorganisms handle
• Easy to implement
• Most effective • High requirement of
adsorbent manual labour
Adsorption with • Produce a high-quality • Relatively high cost
activated carbon treated effluent • Performance
• High efficiency (>99%) depends upon
adsorbent
From the comparison of the technologies that have been proposed above, our
company decided to choose method B, which is to treat the wastewater using the
adsorption with activated carbon. As we can observed from the Table 3.4, the
adsorption with activated carbon is better than chemical wastewater treatment because
the adsorption process helps to produce a high-quality treated effluent and the
efficiency for the treatment is very high. Hence, adsorption with activated carbon
treatment technology is the best choice to treat the wastewater and it also produce clean
effluent before discharge to river or to be reused by the plant.
119
3.4.2.3 Waste Treatment of Ethanol and Dimethyl Sulfoxide from S15
Wastewater treatment is the removal of impurities contained in the wastewater

by treating it before it is released into another body of water to prevent it from being
polluted. Organic and inorganic materials are commonly found in various
concentrations in chemical industrial wastes. Acids, bases, poisonous compounds, and
matter with a high biological oxygen demand, colour, and low suspended solids
content are all present. Dissolved oxygen is essential for marine life to survive, and its
depletion can put their lives in danger. To solve this problem, wastewater treatment is
used to prevent water pollution from occurring and eliminate the dissolved solids as
much as possible. In our production plant, the absorption column will release the
dimethyl sulfoxide with ethanol mixture that will be sent to the waste treatment. It is
assumed that the wastewater contains no solids.
Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) has been used in the production plant as a solvent
to remove the excess of ethanol in absorption column. It is because DMSO has been
widely used as solvent due to its characteristics that is miscible with water. DMSO
also known as a nontoxic, aprotic and inert substances that quite stable at high
temperature. Although it is not too toxic, DMSO has caused very few harmful effects
in people. Nausea, skin rashes, headaches, and an odd garlic-onion-oyster odour in the
body and breath are the most prevalent symptoms when someone is over-exposed to
this chemical. Even if dimethyl sulfoxide has no significant environmental impact,
industrial wastewaters containing DMSO must be treated before being released into
the environment.
Ethanol is a side product that has been generated in the production plant. In
order to increase the purity of the product, ethanol must be removed. Hence, DMSO
has been used to absorb the ethanol from the mixture by using an absorption column.
Ethanol contains a substance that is toxic to aquatic organisms. The product contains
ethanol substances that are hazardous for the environment. So, the wastewater that
contains both DMSO and ethanol should be treated before being released to the nearby
water sources. Several technologies can be used to treat this kind of wastewater.
120
A. Advanced Oxidation Process
An advanced oxidation process (AOP) has been devised for the breakdown of
organic contaminants in wastewater. This treatment can be used to treat ethanol and
DMSO because they are organic compounds. AOP are a type of chemical treatment
that oxidises organic molecules in wastewater that are difficult to handle biologically
and converts them to simple final products. AOP can be used with ultraviolet (UV)
irradiation to provide a powerful wastewater treatment. UV irradiation is commonly
employed in AOPs because the exposure of UV light can enhance the formation of
free radicals from oxidising chemicals which is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (Ibrahim
et al., 2019). By directly photolysis of hydrogen peroxide, UV-based radical AOPs
generate potential oxidising species such as the hydroxyl radical. Hydrogen peroxide
will quickly degrade DMSO and ethanol when it is combined with the UV. There will
be no toxic compounds produced as a result of this interaction. It is also inexpensive
to treat.
Figure 3.3 Ultraviolet decomposition system of DMSO wastewater (Koito et al.

(1998))
B. Selling It Off as By-Product
Other than using AOP to treat the wastes, selling the DMSO as a by-product or
reusing it again in the production plant are also ways to prevent it from being released
121
to the environment or nearby water sources. Before selling it or recycling it, the DMSO
has to undergo a separation process like a distillation column to separate the DMSO
and ethanol, respectively. If the DMSO is not recycled back into the absorption
column, it can be sold as a cleaning agent to individuals, businesses, and institutions.
It can be used as an electronic component cleaner, chemical reactor cleaning agent,
plant cleaning agent, mould release solvent for motor parts moulding and so on. As
pure DMSO solvent is quite expensive, which is around RM 419.45 per pound, selling
DMSO as a by-product to the other company can save the money from buying pure
materials. Hence, the circular economy concept can be achieved as the by-product is
processed and sold again. The linear economy also can be eliminated instantly. The
same goes for ethanol. Since the mass flowrate is also quite high, instead of releasing
it to the nearby water sources, it can be sold to the painting industry as an effective
solvent to be used in paints, lacquers, and varnish, as well as personal care and
household cleaning products.
Table 3.5 Comparison of Technology to Treat S15.

Technology Advantages Disadvantages
• Chemical free • High quality effluent
• Environmentally needed
Advanced
friendly • High costs of
Oxidation
• Low energy use equipment,
Process
• Faster treatment chemicals, and
electricity
• Got extra income • Each composition of
Selling It Off as • Environmental benefits value may be
By-Product • Save aquatic life and different from the
human health original product.
122
• Got issues of the
storage of the
substances
From the comparison of the technologies that have been proposed above, our
company decided to choose method B, which is to sell the DMSO and ethanol liquid
as a by-product after undergoing a separation process. We discovered that selling the
substances would provide us with more benefits than disposing of them in nearby
water sources after treatment. Other than giving benefit to us, it also saves the
environment and aquatic life as all of the chemical substances will be sold. Another
reason is that S15 has produced a lot of DMSO and ethanol, around 11538.61 kg/hr
and 1941.29 kg/hr, respectively. Treating the substances and releasing them to the
nearby water sources will cause losses to our company as a higher flowrate of
substances has been generated. Instead, selling it is more sustainable and appropriate
compared to waste treatment.
3.5 Gas Waste
Gaseous waste is the waste released in the form of gas by factories, mobiles,
and biomass combustion. These gaseous wastes can have a harmful influence on the
environment if they are not adequately managed.
3.5.1 Source of Gas Waste
In our production, we produce excess unreacted, made during ethyl acrylate's

nitrification. The gases include ammonia, acrylonitrile, and ethanol. Gaseous waste is
waste that the plant discharges in the form of gas. Ammonia gas is condensed in the
atmosphere and falls as acid rain, affecting public health and biodiversity. Table 3.6
123
shows the respective flow rates of each gaseous component in each stream. Gaseous
waste was released from S9 which is the distillate of the flash column.
Table 3.6 The component exists in gas effluent from S9

S9
Component
Mass Flow (kg/hr) Composition (kmol/kmol)
Acrylonitrile (HK) 71.0333 0.0186
Ethanol 29.2211 0.0076
Water 4.4532 0.0012
Ammonia (LK) 3719.5990 0.9721
Based on S9 stream contain a high composition of ammonia which is 0.85.

Ammonia cannot be released into the environment because it can cause acid rain. In
this section, we will compare alternative technologies for the treatment of waste
gaseous.
3.5.2 Management of Gas Waste
The technologies that can be used to treat this gaseous waste are as stated below
in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7 Technologies that can be used to treat gaseous wastes
Stream Wastes Technology
S9 Ammonia
• Wet Scrubber
124
• Selling It Off as
Acrylonitrile
By-Product
Ethanol
3.5.2.1 Waste Treatment of Ammonia, Acrylonitrile and Ethanol in S9
A few alternative methods have been proposed for gaseous waste management
in this process.
A. Wet Scrubber
A wet scrubber removes particulate matter and gaseous pollutants from the air.
The tower is supplied with a polluted gas stream. Within the tower, a bed of specialized
packing material nozzles sprays cleaning solutions onto the packing material, which
then makes its way down the tower. As the gas flows through the packing material,
particle and gas molecules come into touch with the cleaning liquid coating on the
packing. The tainted fluid runs down through the packing material and out the bottom
of the tower. The gas stream exits the tower through the top of the packing material,
past the nozzles, and through a mist eliminator.
125
Figure 3.4 Wet Scrubber
B. Selling It Off as By-Product
Apart from wet scrubbing the gas waste, selling the ammonia as a by-product
or reusing it in the manufacturing facility are alternative options to avoid being
discharged into the environment or a nearby water source. Before it can be sold or
recycled, ammonia gas must be separated from other chemicals using a distillation
column. If ammonia is not recycled into the reactor, it may be utilised in industry for
various purposes, including petroleum refining, pharmaceutical manufacturing, water
disinfection, and as a refrigerant. Pure ammonia solvent is highly costly, ranging
between USD 664 and USD 789 per metric tonne (Ammonia Price, Prices, Pricing,
Market & Analysis | ChemAnalyst, 2021). The ammonia market is estimated to reach
USD73.15 billion in 2028, with a compound annual growth rate of 6.64 per cent over
the forecast period (Market Research Future, 2021). Selling ammonia to another firm
as a by-product may save money purchasing pure ingredients. As a result of the by-
product being processed and resold, the circular economy notion may be realised.
For other substances, anaerobic treatment is preferable due to its reduced

energy use throughout the procedure. Anaerobic wastewater treatment is more
ecologically friendly than aerobic wastewater treatment because it generates less
126
biomass, consumes less energy, and creates recyclable biogas ethanol as a by-product
(Poh & Chong, 2009).
Table 3.8 shows a comparison of the technologies offered for liquid waste
management in S9.
Table 3.8 Comparison of the technology to treat S9.
• Can handle high particle

loading
• Effluent liquid can
• Can handle incoming
create water pollution
streams a high temperature
problem
thus removing the need for
• Waste product
temperature control
Wet collected wet
equipment
Scrubbing • High potential for
• Gas adsorption and dust
corrosion problem
collection are handled in
• Disposal waste
one unit
sludge may be very
• Loading fluctuations do not
expensive
affect the removal
efficiency
• Each composition of
Selling it Off • Got extra income
value may be
as By- • Environmental benefits
different from the
Product • Save aquatic life and
original product.
human health
127
• Got issues of the
storage of the
substances
After considering the pros of the various technologies, our company chose
approach B, which involves selling ammonia as a by-product after a separation
procedure. We determined that selling the compounds would generate more revenue
than disposing them in local water sources after treatment. Apart from benefiting us,
it also helps the environment and marine life since all chemical compounds will be
sold. Another explanation is that S9 generated significant ammonia, around 3719.60
kg/hr. Treating the consequences and releasing them into nearby water sources would
result in losses for our firm because of the increased flow rate of imports. Rather than
waste treatment, selling it is more sustainable and suitable.
3.5.2.3 Waste Treatment of Ammonia and Acrylonitrile Gas from S18
Table 3.9 The Component Exists in Gas Effluent from S18

S18
Component
Mass Flow (kg/hr) Composition (kmol/kmol)
Ethanol 0.0403 0.006
Water (H) 0.0608 0.009
Ammonia (L) 0.2273 0.034
128
Based on the Table 3.9, the composition in S18 stream was dominated by
ammonia gas. Ammonia gas can affect the environment if it is keep released without
proper treatment.
A. Wet Scrubber
As been mention from previous part, the wet scrubber is one of the alternatives
that been widely used in the industry to treat the gas waste. Since it is designed to able
to trapped most of the particulate and hazardous gaseous without the need to use
specific reagent for a certain chemical released, it is become one of the methods that
highly flexible in solving the problem. It is also efficient in reducing the amount of
hazardous gas released to the surrounding
B. Dry Scrubber
Dry scrubber has been used to remove the harmful particulate from the
industrial exhaust gaseous before it is released to the environment. The mechanism is
quite similar to the wet scrubber. To differentiate the dry scrubber from the wet
scrubber, dry scrubber uses the dry reagents as a medium that will be sprayed into the
exhaust stream instead of water (Afework et al., 2022). The reagents used are normally
dry hydrated lime instead of the lime slurry used in the semidry scrubber system. The
mechanism of dry scrubber can be referred as in Figure 3.5.
129
Figure 3.5 The mechanism of dry scrubber equipment.
In the process, the exhaust gas must be cooled first to ease the removal of the
pollutants. Then, it will undergo the injection process where the dry reagent injected
into the stream to react with the harmful gaseous to reduce the acidity of the gas. Then
it will be using the fabric filter to capture the scrubbed powder and the cleaner gas
released from the scrubbing chamber (Kiang, 2018).
Table 3.10 shows a comparison of the technologies offered for gas waste
management in S18.
Table 3.10 Comparison of The Technology to Treat S18.
• Need for
Wet Scrubber • Avoid from the various of
maintenance
pollutants from entering
frequently.
the surrounding air through
• Can lead to
the exhaust gas.
corrosion quite
130
• Can be used to remove a severely since it is
wide range of pollutants. operating with
• Can withstand wide range water.
of temperature which is
flexible for any operating
condition.
• Residual waste
Dry Scrubber • Produce little waste
powder that must
material.
be disposed of
• Able to dealt with the very
because it is a
acidic streams.
hazardous
• No associated cost with
material.
removing, transporting,
• Specific reagent
and storing waste water.
needed for a
• Smaller space requirement
certain gaseous.
• The process of
scrubbing is
expensive.
After considering the advantages and disadvantages of the technologies, wet

scrubber will be choosing as the method of treatment since it is more flexible in dealing
with any types of hazardous gaseous with any temperature condition. Plus, the
operational cost is quite low rather than the dry scrubber mechanism making it more
attractive route to treat the waste. Since the waste from the S18 only produce about
6.6916 kg/hr, it is not worth to spend the cost of operation to the more expensive
equipment. Therefore, wet scrubber will be applied to treat the gaseous waste from this
stream.
131
CHAPTER 4
ENERGY INTERGRATION
4.1 Introduction
Heat integration is a mechanism for integrating the mass and energy involved
in any production procedure. Integration of mass and energy in any process is crucial,
as these two factors significantly affect the total process performance, operating costs,
and capital expenditures. Heat is a type of energy that cannot be generated or destroyed
but can only be transported from one form to another. The design of a chemical
process's parameters will be prioritized and adjusted based on several measurements,
including those for economic, environmental, and sustainable factors, before the stiff
heat integration (Ryu & Maravelias, 2019). In general, heat integration projects began
with a well-designed process. Our finding has shown that integrating heat into plant
production is both feasible and effective.
Heat integration is a design strategy that takes advantage of interactions

between different plant components to reduce costs and make efficient use of resources
(Bamufleh et al., 2017). The primary goal of process heat integration in any chemical
reaction is to maximize the number of heat exchangers among the process streams
while reducing the number of heating and cooling utilities. The next strategy is to
design a heat exchanger network when the design and recycling stages are completed.
Determining the supply and target temperatures as well as the necessary heat duty is
necessary while building the heat exchanger network.
The overall energy consumption in the plant can be decreased by incorporating

heat into the design because one unit can utilize the heat that another unit rejects.
Multiple hot streams must be cooled down in a typical operation, whereas several cold
132
streams must be heated. A lot of unnecessary external costs, such as those for heating
oil, steam, refrigerants, and cooling water, are incurred throughout the heating and
cooling process. Therefore, the integration of a heater and a cooler might lead to a high
saving cost.
Pinch analysis is a method for decreasing the overall amount of energy used in
a chemical reaction. It operates by determining the energy targets that are
thermodynamically feasible and achieving them through heat recovery systems,
process operating conditions, and energy supply optimization. The following stages
are necessary to finish the pinch analysis design:
1. Extracting data.
2. Choosing the minimum temperature difference (∆Tmin).
3. Construction of the grand composite, the composite curve, and the heat
cascade.
4. Building the heat exchanger network.
5. An economic analysis of energy conservation.
The pinch analysis approach has made the Heat Exchanger Network design
much more methodical and systematic. The combined hot and cold composite curves,
Tmin and the pinch point, and grand composite curve are some of the important
concepts that need to be emphasized on when performing a pinch analysis.
These fundamental terminologies and principles serve as the basis of what we

refer to as pinch technology. A diagram of a pinch analysis is shown in figure 4.1. The
pinch point, cold utility, hot utility, heat recovery, and other elements will often be
displayed in the pinch analysis diagram.
133
Figure 4.1 Pinch analysis diagram (Klemeš & Kravanja, 2013)
4.2 Stream Identification
Effective heat recovery in industry requires the comprehensive identification

of the necessary data. In the context of heat integration, this process is referred to as
data extraction. First, the hot and cold streams are determined from the process flow
diagram. Cold stream is defined as a stream that needs to be heated while hot stream
is described as a stream that needs to be cooled. In Table 4.1, a summary of the hot
and cold streams in the plant that can be employed to maximize energy recovery for
the processing plant is presented.
Table 4.1 Summary of the hot and cold stream available for heat integration
Stream Stream Stream Supply Target Heat Heat
No Name Type Temperature, Temperature, Load, Capacity,
TS (℃) TT (℃) ∆H (kW) CP (kW/℃)
C1 S2 Cold -40 310 3373.05 9.6373
C2 S6 Cold 70 310 1726.86 7.1952
H1 S10 Hot 310 45 -6748.14 25.4647
H2 S12 Hot 45 25 -229.13 11.4567
H3 S16 Hot 70 25 -1396.13 31.0252
134
4.3 Composition Curve
The temperature-enthalpy diagrams for the combined hot and cold streams are
essentially composite curves. It is a method for graphically identifying the heat
cascade. Following are the steps of drawing a composite curve:
1. The minimum allowable temperature difference, ∆Tmin, is set at 10 °C.
2. Construct the composite hot and cold curve.
3. Draw and fix the hot composite curve.
4. Draw the cold composite curve at the value of ∆T = ∆Tmin.
5. The pinch of the graph will correspond to ∆Tmin = 10°C.
6. The shifting rule states that the temperature of a cold stream must be added
∆Tmin,
with while the temperature of a hot stream must be subtracted with
2
∆Tmin,
.
2
The hot and cold composite data are shown in Table 4.2 and 4.3 respectively.
135
Table 4.2 Hot composite data
T (℃) ∆T (℃) Stream Temperature ∆CP Total CP Total Duty
(kW/℃) (kW)
310
240 H1 25.4647 6111.52
70
25 H1 + H3 56.4899 1412.25
45
20 H2 + H3 42.4819 849.64
25
Table 4.3 Cold composite data

T (℃) ∆T (℃) Stream Temperature ∆CP Total CP Total Duty
(kW/℃) (kW)
310
240 C1 + C2 16.8325 4039.81
70
110 C1 9.6373 1060.10
-40
The graph of hot composite curve, cold composite curve, hot and cold
composite curve and shifted composite curve for hot and cold are displayed in Figure
4.2, 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 respectively.
136
Figure 4.2 Hot Composite Curve
Figure 4.3 Cold Composite Curve
137
Figure 4.4 Hot & Cold Composite Curve
Figure 4.5 Shifted composite curve for ∆Tmin = 10℃
As despite in Figure 4.5, the shifted composite curves for ∆Tmin = 10℃.
According to the graph, the pinch temperature is at 305℃ while the hot pinch
temperature and cold pinch temperate are at 310℃ and 305℃ respectively. The
minimum heating requirement is 168.32 kW whereas the minimum cooling
138
requirement is 3441.82 kW. Furthermore, the energy recovery is 4931.59 kW and the
target or possible energy saving of heating and cooling requirement throughout the
process integration are 96.70% and 58.90% respectively.
4.4 Problem Table Algorithm
The composite curves that were previously discussed can be used to define
energy targets, but because they rely on graphical composition, they can be difficult.
The Problem Table Algorithm (PTA), an algebraic method for predicting energy goals,
was developed by Linnhoff and Flower. The specific number of cold and hot utilities
needed as well as the position of the pinch point are determined using the Problem
Table Algorithm (PTA). When compared to the composite curve, this method is more
accurate. Using the Problem Table Algorithm (PTA), it is possible to determine the
process's pinch temperature. The steps for the Problem Table Algorithm (PTA) are as
follows:
1. A global ∆Tmin used for calculation is selected.
2. The actual stream temperature, Tact is converted into shifted temperature, Tshift
by subtracting half of the minimum temperature difference from the hot stream
temperature while adding half of the cold stream temperature.
a. For hot stream, Ts* (shifted) = Ts – ½ ∆Tmin and Tt* (shifted) = Tt – ½ ∆Tmin
b. For cold stream, Ts* (shifted) = Ts + ½ ∆Tmin and Tt* (shifted) = Tt + ½

∆Tmin
3. As the temperature scale shifts from interval to interval, the balance of heat is
maintained. Then, select the largest negative heat flow as required by the
utilities. The temperature of the interval with zero heat flow is the pinch point
139
Table 4.4 Actual temperature and shifted temperature
Stream Stream Ts (℃) Tt (℃) CP Ts* (℃) Tt* (℃)
No. type (kW/℃)
C1 Cold -40 310 9.6373 -35 315
C2 Cold 70 310 7.1962 75 315
H! Hot 310 45 25.4647 305 40
H2 Hot 45 25 11.4567 40 20
H3 Hot 70 25 31.0252 65 20
140
Table 4.5 Problem Table algorithm
C1 C2 H1 H2 H3 Net CP ∆T ∆H Initial cascade Feasible cascade
315 0 168.33
-9.6373 -7.1953 -16.8325 10 -168.33
305 -168.33 0
-9.6373 -7.1953 25.4647 8.6322 230 1985.39
75 1817.07 1985.39
-9.6373 25.4647 15.8274 10 158.27
65 1975.34 2143.67
-9.6373 25.4647 31.0252 46.8526 25 1171.31
40 3146.66 3314.98
-9.6373 11.4567 31.0252 32.8446 20 656.89
20 3803.55 3971.87
-9.6373 -9.6373 55 -530.05
-35 3273.50 3441.82
141
Table 4.5 displays the problem Table algorithm resulting from the method. The
following is a list of the outcomes of the problem table algorithm approach;
1. Pinch temperature, Tpinch = 305℃
2. Hot pinch temperature, Tpinch, hot = 310℃
3. Cold pinch temperature, Tpinch, cold = 300℃
4. Minimum heating requirement, QH, min = 168.33 kW
5. Minimum cooling requirement, QC, min = 3441.82 kW
The minimum heating requirement, QH, min of 168.33 kW indicated that the
process would need additional heating utilities to fulfil the heating loaf of cold streams
while the minimum cooling requirement, QC, min of 3441.82 kW indicates that the
process will need additional cooling utilities to fulfil the cooling load of the hot
streams.
4.5 Heat Exchanger Network (HEN) for Maximum Energy Recovery (MER)
The reduction of capital and operating costs is encouraged using a heat

exchanger network (HEN) and heat integration. According to Kamel et al. (2020),
HEN is just a collection of heat exchangers linked together to maximize the heat
integration process in any chemical plant. The process's hot streams, which are
designed to heat the cold streams while the hot streams are being cooled, serve as the
process's heat sources (Kamel et al., 2020). Hafizan et al. (2019) claim that the primary
purpose of the HEN is to reduce the initial investment and ongoing operating costs of
the industrial chemical process plant using pinch analysis in accordance with the
composite curve and problem analysis table in sections 4.3 and 4.4, respectively. Pinch
142
analysis is a graphical depiction that allows designers to quickly interpret and
comprehend the complex chemical plant processes (Hafizan et al., 2019).
The design of HENs can be separated into two distinct categories: grassroots
and retrofit. Whereas retrofit refers to an improvement using a heat recovery system
for an existing plant, grassroots design refers to the designing of HEN for new plants.
As a result, the data needed for grassroot type are obtained directly from the mass and
energy balances by the simulations, whereas for retrofits it is possible to obtain both
the data from the simulation and data from the measurement at the current plant.
Additionally, the HEN's goal is to determine how many heat exchangers should be
included in the design and performance targets. The minimum heating (QH min) need,
and minimum cooling requirement (QC min) are part of the performance objective in
this context. The performance targets are denoted as maximum energy recovery
(MER), together with the quantity of heat exchangers (Gundersen, 2013).
HEN is frequently shown as grid diagrams that process streams and connect
heat exchangers between various streams. The hot and cold streams are represented by
horizontal lines with arrows, while the heat exchangers are represented by vertical
lines that are connected. The stream's arrows indicate the direction of heat flow.
Vertical illustrations show where the process gets constrained. By referring to the
pinch analysis from earlier, the pinch point is shown here. These were supported by
Yong et al. (2015), who noted that further calculations are necessary to show network
pinch (Yong et al., 2015).
4.6 Above Pinch and Below Pinch Design
The pinch design method (PDM) is a crucial HEN requirement. PDM refers to the
pinch decomposition principle used to separate the HEN, where the HEN is divided
into above and below pinch at the pinch temperature. These prevent any cross-pinch
143
heat transfer, which doubles the cost of heat transfer. The summary of the pinch design
method (PDM) is stated as follows (Gundersen, 2013):
1. Separate the HEN at pinch
2. The above pinch network and below pinch network of HEN are designed
separately.
3. The pinch exchanger is the first to be designed. The component directly above
and below the pinch is called a pinch exchanger.
4. Hot streams and cool streams are matched according to CP rule.
5. CP rules:
Above pinch: CPCj ≥ CPHi
Below pinch: CPHi ≥ CPCj
6. When CP rules are violated, the stream splitting technique must be considered.
7. A heater cannot be assigned below the pinch point. The cooler is also not
permitted at the higher pinch.
The process-to-process units are assigned with using the remaining heat and
cooling in the hot and cold stream as they move away from the pinch in both directions
after the pinch exchanger. The following equation must be used to demonstrate the
temperature of the connected heat exchangers in the grid diagram in order to show the
input and output temperatures of each assigned heat exchanger.
144
𝑄 = ṁ𝐶𝑃 (∆𝑇)
𝑄 = ṁ𝐶𝑃 (𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇𝑇 )
Where;
Q is the heat transferred between the streams (kW)
ṁ𝐶𝑃 is the heat capacity flow rate (kW/℃)?
𝑇𝑆 is the inlet temperature (℃)
𝑇𝑇 is the outlet temperature (℃)
145
Figure 4.6 Heat exchanger network (HEN) for below and above pinch for maximum energy recovery
146
4.7 Comparison between Utilities Consumption Before and After MER
This section will explain about the total utilities’ consumption before and after
heat integration.
4.7.1 Total Utilities Consumption Before Heat Integration
Table 4.6 Utilities consumption before heat integration

Stream Cooling Utility Heating Utility
S2 C1 3373.05
S6 C2 1726.86
S10 H1 6748.14
S12 H2 229.13
S16 H3 1396.13
Total 8373.41 5099.91
4.7.2 Total Utilities Consumption After Heat Integration
Table 4.7 Utilities consumption after heat integration

Utility type Before HEN (kW) After HEN (kW) % Saving
Hot (steam) 5099.91 168.30 96.70
Cold (cooling 8373.41 3441.47 58.90

water)
147
Figure 4.7 Process flow diagram after heat integration
148
CHAPTER 5
PROCESS CONTROL
5.1 Introduction to Piping and Instrumentation
In designing the production plant, a piping and instrumentation diagram or

commonly known as P&ID is one of the aspects that need to be consider since it is one
of the important elements in designing the production plant. Technically, P&ID
present on the connection between the process equipment with the assist of the
symbols, represents flow directions, safety and control systems, pressure ratings and
other key piping and instrument details of a system ("Process and Instrumentation
diagrams", 2022). An understanding of P&IDs is essential when carrying out plant and
process operations, such as tracing faults, isolating equipment and locating items for
maintenance. The subordinate of P&ID, which is called process flow diagram (PFD)
illustrates a simpler diagram of the plant operations that only shows the major
equipment and main stream of the plant. The plant workers will extensively use both
of the P&ID and PFD in managing the production process, keeping the maintenance
of the equipment on track and safeguards of the plant. With the assist of the P&ID, it
will ease the process of tracing the equipment locations, valves and also pipeline of
the stream. As an addition, this P&ID is also will become the foundation process
during making Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) analysis. Since it displays the
piping of the process flow as well as the equipped machinery and instrumentation, it
will helps the engineer analysed the possible hazards that might occur in the plant or
any equipment malfunction. In this production plant project, the main objective
preparing the P&ID is to ensure that the plant processes run smoothly and consistently
with limited operator interference using an automation and control system.
149
5.2 Control System
Control system is defined as the combination of various elements connected as

a unit to direct or regulate itself or any other system in order to provide a specific
output. It is one of the acts of regulating or directing the functioning of a physical
system to carry out the desired objective. Depending on what we intend to monitor or
control, various chemical plant control systems may have different functions.
5.2.1 Controlled Variables
Basically, there is four types of parameters that commonly been regulated in

the P&ID. These four parameters are important in securing the safety and efficiency
of the production plant.
a) Pressure Control
Pressure control products are designed to control the amount of force produced
by a fluid system. The pressure controller functioning by sensing the downstream
pressure via a feedback loop that automatically adjusts to maintain setpoint ("Control
System", 2022). When the output of the regulator senses that the pressure has dropped
below a predetermined point, the regulator opens and allows more pressure though.
Once the pressure reaches the setpoint, the regulator closes and no longer allows flow.
b) Temperature Control
Temperature control is a mechanism that regulated the temperature of the

system. It is measured by a suitable sensor such as a thermocouple, thermistor or infra-
red pyrometer and converted to a signal acceptable to the controller (Garrett, 2014).
The control system works by comparing the temperature signal to the setpoints and
actuates the final control device. The final control device alters the manipulated
150
variable to change the quantity of heat being added or taken from the process. Some
of the materials that commonly manipulated in temperature-controlled process are
water, steam and gas.
c) Flow Control
Flow control is a mechanism that regulates the flow or pressure of liquid. To

be able to effectively manage flow control, flow control valves are used. Flow control
is an important aspect in process plants where there are many control loops that hold
essential process variables like flow, pressure, temperature and level ("Flow Control",
2019). With proper flow control the quality of the end product can be guaranteed and
disturbances that could cause corrosion damage can be prevented.
d) Level Control
Liquid Level Control System is a system specifically designed to control the

level of fluid in tanks. In this level control system, it is important in order to measure
the liquid level inside the tank and prevent flooding inside the column ("Control
System", 2022). It is working by controlling the rate with which the pump delivers
fluid to the tank and so it can reach the desired level inside the tank.
5.2.2 Type of Control System
The process control system has been the vital aspect in the production plant.
Commonly, there are two types of control system that been applied in the process
control system which is feedback control and feedforward control. In a feedback
controller system or normally known as closed-loop system, the applied input or
controlling factor depends on the output of the system. In this system, the comparison
between input and achieved output is done to get the desired output signal("Control
151
System", 2022). Figure 5.1 shows the process diagram of the feedback controller
diagram.
Figure 5.1 Feedback controller diagram
The feedforward controller or normally called as open-looped control system

works as the applied input or the controlling factor is independent of the system output.
This is so because no comparison is done between input and output of the system for
controlling actions. The figure 5.2 shows the feedforward controller diagram.
Figure 5.2 Feedforward controller diagram.
In addition, the advance control system also been introduced as cascade

controller. Cascade control involves the use of two controllers with the output of the
first controller providing the set point for the second controller, the feedback loop for
one controller nestling inside the other (Bolton, 2021). This system helps in improvise
the response to the disturbance. Figure 5.3 shows the cascade controller diagram.
152
Figure 5.3 Cascade controller diagram.
5.3 Control System Designs for Individual Operational Equipment
In a standard P&ID layout, it is necessary to have the symbols and legends that
being used to assist the people to figure out the production plant control system. It is
commonly related to flowrate, temperature, pressure and liquid level. Table 5.1 &
Table 5.2 shows the list of symbols and legends that been used in the P&ID layout.
Table 5.1 List of legends in P&ID layout.

SYMBOLS DESCRIPTION FUNCTION
Liquid Level Control Instrumentation.
LT Level Transmitter Converts the level reading

into a standard signal and
send to the controller.
LIC Level Indicator Controller Detect the changes in

level measurement and
control the changes of the
opening and closure of
valve.
153
LAL Level Alarm Low Sends the warning and
alarmed when the level
reaches the low setpoint.
LAH Level Alarm High Sends the warning and

alarmed when the level
reaches the high setpoint.
Temperature Control Instrumentation
TT Temperature Transmitter Converts the temperature

reading into a standard
signal and send to the
controller.
TIC Temperature Indicator Detect the changes in

Controller
temperature measurement
and control the changes of
the opening and closure of
valve.
TAL Temperature Alarm Low Sends the warning and

alarmed when the
temperature reaches the
low setpoint.
TAH Temperature Alarm High Sends the warning and

alarmed when the
temperature reaches the
high setpoint.
154
Pressure Control Instrumentation
PT Pressure Transmitter Converts the pressure

reading into a standard
signal and send to the
controller.
PIC Pressure Indicator Detect the changes in

Controller
pressure measurement and
valve.
PAL Pressure Alarm Low Sends the warning and

alarmed when the pressure
PAH Pressure Alarm High Sends the warning and

alarmed when the pressure
Flow Control Instrumentation
FT Flow Transmitter Converts the flow reading

into a standard signal and
send to the controller.
FIC Flow Indicator Controller Detect the changes in

flow measurement and
155
valve.
FFC Flow Fraction Controller Control the ratio of the

both feed inlet stream.
FAL Flow Alarm Low Sends the warning and

alarmed when the flow
FAH Flow Alarm High Sends the warning and

alarmed when the flow
Table 5.2 List of symbols used in P&ID.

ELEMENTS SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
Control Valve Butterfly valve, Gate Valve,

Globe Valve
Controller Temperature Indicator

Controller, Level Indicator
Controller, Pressure Indicator
Controller, Flow Indicator
Controller,
156
Alarm Pressure Alarm High (PAH),
Pressure Alarm Low (PAL),
Level Alarm High (LAH),
Level Alarm Low (LAL),
Temperature Alarm High
(TAH), Temperature Alarm
Low (TAL). Flow Alarm
High (FAH), Flow Alarm
Low (FAL).
Instrument Main pipeline / instrument

Lines
pipeline
Pneumatic signal
Electric signal
5.4 Control System Unit for Equipment
The equipment in this production plant is regulated by a variety of control

systems. In this production plant, it consists of five major equipment which is fluidized
bed reactor (R-101), flash separator (F-101 and F-102), distillation column, (C-101),
and absorption column, (C-102). It is also involved with the auxiliary equipment which
is pump, heat exchangers, heater and cooler. In comparison with the feedforward
control loop, the control system in this plant uses a feedback control loop so it will
take corrective action back to its set point value regardless of the source of disruption.
157
Most of the equipment will be installed with an alarm controller to alerted the workers
regarding any issue or malfunction that occurred in the plant.
5.4.1 Fluidized Bed Reactor
Controlling the reactors that exist in the plant is one of the most important
aspects of a chemical plant. This is because the reactor is at the center of all operations,
and several aspects must be considered to ensure that the operation runs smoothly
(Johnson, 2014). Flow rate, pressure, temperature, load capacity, efficiency, and cost
are all parameters that are used in this chemical plant to achieve maximum yield
efficiency and purity. To maintain a stable operation, an effective, well-designed
control system is required. This chemical facility has only one operational reactor in
the overall processing plant.
The control system exists for the reactor are:
1. The inlet of the feed which are ammonia and ethyl acrylate is controlled by
manipulating the feed flow rate.
2. The internal temperature of the reactor is controlled by manipulating the inlet

flow rate of the coolant (steam).
3. The internal pressure of the reactor is controlled by adjusting the appropriate

value of the valve at the outlet vapor stream.
158
Table 5.3 Control system analysis of reactor (R-101)
Control Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set point
variable Variable controller
Temperature Inlet flowrate Temperature Cascade T=310°C, if

in R-101 of cooling of stream 4 temperature at ± 5%
medium and 8 of the set point, the
alarm will be
activated
Pressure in Outlet Inlet flowrate Ratio P= 10 bar, if the

R-101 flowrate at at stream 4 pressure at ± 5% of
stream 9 and 8 the set point, the
alarm will be
activated
Feed Flowrate of Flowrate at Ratio Total flowrate of

flowrate of ammonia at stream 4 and inlet is 20,000 kg/hr,
the inlet inlet stream 4 8 if the flowrate at ± of
and ethyl the set point, the
acrylate at alarm will be
stream 8 activated
159
Figure 5.4 Control system design of reactor (R-101)
5.4.2 Flash Separator
Several control criteria must be met while building the control system for the
flash column in order to preserve the purity of the final result. (Ellis, 2012) It is
necessary to create an effective control system using the four primary control variables
listed below.
• Level control
The level controller is fitted to prevent the liquid level in the column from
becoming too high or too low. This mechanism serves as the flash column's control
point and is located at the base of the column. Level transmitters are devices that
convey signals to level control systems (Tabereaux & Peterson, 2014).. Streams with
160
level controls will have their appropriate valves automatically open or close in
response to the feedback. If the liquid level exceeds or falls below 5% of the setpoint,
the control panel will display an alert.
• Pressure control
As the production involves vapour phase chemicals, a pressure control system

is necessary. The pressure in the flash column must be maintained at an optimal level
in order to prevent column malfunction and flowrate irregularities. (Tabereaux &
Peterson, 2014).
• Flow control
Flow is the pipe variable that is sensed and regulated by the valve positioned
after the pump. As the pressure drop increases, the control system would detect an
increase in fluid flow. In response, the control system would slightly open the valve
until the fluid flow reached the appropriate level. (Pazil .H, 2016)
Table 5.4 Control system analysis for flash drum (F-101)

Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
Variable variable Controller
Pressure of Flowrate of Inconsistent Feedback 4bar, if the

the column stream 11 feed flow rate controller pressure above
of stream 13 this values the
alarm will be
activated
Liquid Outlet stream Inconsistent Feedback 5% height to

level in the 12 flow rate flow rate controller prevent drum
column from the from drying
column by 50% height to
161
valve prevent from
adjustment overflow
Flow in the Feed flowrate Inconsistent Feedback Inlet flowrate

column of the flash flowrate of controller must
column, stream outlet stream 19999.635
11 from reactor kg/hr ± 5%
Figure 5.5 Control system design of flash column (F-101)
162
Table 5.5 Control system analysis of flash column (F-102)
Controlled Manipulated Disturbance Type of Set Point
Variable Variable Controller
Pressure of The Flowrate of Feedback 1 bar, the

the column temperature stream 21 Controller alarm will
fluctuation. alert the
system if there
is fluctuation.
Liquid level Adjustment of Inconsistent of Feedback 5% and 50%

of the column valve at stream the flow rate. Controller from the
22. height of the
column to
indicate the
low level or
high level
inside the
vessel.
Flowrate of The flowrate Feed volume Feedback Low than

the inlet of the stream decrease. Controller 1000kg/hr, the
stream 17. can be alarm will
adjusted by the detect the
stream valve decrement and
20. alert the
system.
163
Figure 5.6 Control system design of flash column (F-102)
5.4.3 Distillation Column
Distillation control is typically the most complex control system design since
it incorporates several variables, non-linear, non-stationary behavior, and significant
control loop interaction. Inadequate control of distillation results in fluctuations and
instability. Consequently, product purity, column capacity, economic performance,
and plant operation will be compromised.
• Temperature control
164
The temperature of the column of distillation must be maintained at an optimal
level. As the distillation column will adhere to the boiling point concept, the
temperature is the most critical parameter that must be maintained and regulated at all
times. When the distillation column is overheated, more liquid will evaporate, leading
the undesirable component to rise to the top of the column, whereas when it is
underheated, the product purity will drop. Therefore, it is essential to maintain the
proper temperature, as both overheating and underheating will reduce the distillation
column's performance. By controlling the flowrate of cooling water or steam required
to feed the condenser and reboiler, temperature control is performed to reduce energy
usage.
• Level control
Two level controls will be implemented in a single distillation column. The

liquid level control system in the reflux drum is the initial level control system. The
volume of liquid remaining in the reflux drum is reliant on the condenser alone. The
higher the coolant flow rate, the greater the level in the reflux drum, or, in other words,
the more rapidly the condenser converts vapor to liquid. The second level control
system is located at the base of the distillation column and plays a crucial role in
preventing the entire column from getting inundated, dried out, and containing off-
specification product.
• Pressure control
Controlling the pressure is crucial for the majority of systems using vapor or
gas. The disturbance in pressure control may be caused by a malfunctioning pump or
compressor, as well as discrepancies in the flow rate of overhead (vapor). As a result,
the overhead vapor flow rate is chosen as the variable to be changed.
• Flow control
165
The flow control system will regulate the material balance on the feed streams.
Using a ratio, the flow control system will measure the critical feed flowrate or a
process mixture flow.
The control system for this distillation column is design to achieve the following
objectives:
1. To control the pressure in the column at an optimum level.
2. To control the temperature at the top of the distillation column at the desired
temperature.
3. To control the temperature at the bottom of the distillation column at the

desired temperature.
4. To control liquid level in the distillation column at the desired level.
5. To control the liquid level in the reflux drum at the desired level.
6. To control the flow rate of the bottom product at a desired value.
7. To maintain the reflux ratio of the overhead product stream and the reflux
stream.
Table 5.6 Control system analysis of distillation column 1 (C-101)

Controlled Manipulated Type of
Disturbance Set point
Pressure Inconsistent
Flowrate of
inside the feed pressure Feedback P = 2 bar, if
the overhead
distillation and feed controller pressure is ±10%
vapor stream
column. flowrate at the of the set point,
inlet of
166
distillation alarm will be
column activated
Temperature Inconsistent Flowrate of T = 90.82°C, if

at the top of refrigerant the temperature is
Feedback
the flow rate refrigerant ±10% of the set
controller
distillation entering entering the point, alarm will be
column condenser condenser activated
Temperature T = 123.96°C, if
Flowrate of
at the bottom Accumulation temperature is
the steam Feedback
of the of temperature ±10% of the set
entering controller
distillation from reboiler point, alarm will be
reboiler
column activated
The height is at
Inconsistent 50% of the
Liquid level
outlet flowrate distillation column
at the bottom Flowrate of
from reboiler Feedback to avoid flooding
of the the bottom
to the controller and the height at
distillation outlet stream
distillation least 5% of the
column
column distillation column
to avoid drying
167
The height is at
50% of the
Level of Inconsistent distillation column
Flowrate of
condensate in flowrate of the Feedback to avoid flooding
the overhead
the reflux overhead controller and the height at
vapor stream
drum vapor stream least 5% of the
distillation column
to avoid drying
Flowrate of
the reflux
Inconsistent
Reflux ratio stream
flowrate of the Reflux ratio =
of the recycled into Ratio
overhead 0.945
condensate the
stream
distillation
column
168
Figure 5.7 Control system design for distillation column 1 (C-101)
5.4.4 Absorption Column
The primary goal of a absorption column control is to separate vapour mixtures

by washing or scrubbing a gas mixture with a suitable liquid while also warning the
user if the process condition changes in a dangerous way. Controlling the reactors in a
chemical plant is one of the most important parts of the process.
The control system for this column is designed:
169
1. To keep the liquid level in the column from becoming too high or too
low.
2. To control the pressure of the column at a desirable point in S16 before

entering other equipment.
3. To control the flow rate of the top and bottom feed at a desired number
before entering the column.
Table 5.7 Control system analysis of absorption column (C-102)

Disturbance Set Point
Flow ratio of Inlet flowrate Inconsistent Feedforwa Ratio of

Dimethyl of stream 16 of feed rd Dimethyl
Sulfoxide (stream and stream flowrate of controller Sulfoxide
17) and gas 17. stream 16 (stream 17) and
mixture (stream gas mixture
16) from C-101 (stream 16)
entering the from C-101 is
absorption 1:2 ±5%
column (C-102)
Liquid level in Bottom outlet Inconsistent Feedback 50% height to

the column liquid of feed controller avoid flooding,
flowrate flowrate of 5% height to
(stream 19) stream 16 avoid column
by altering drying If the
the valve liquid level
exceeds or falls
below 5% of the
set point, a high
170
or low alarm
will be
triggered.
Pressure of the Top outlet Inconsistent Feedback P = 1 atm. The

column gas flowrate pressure or controller alarm will sound
(stream 18) flow rate of if the pressure
the feed falls ± 2 bar
stream below the set
(stream 16) point.
Figure 5.8 Control system design of absorption column (C-102)
171
5.4.5 Heat Exchanger
Heat exchanger are one of the auxiliary devices that is use to transfer the heat
from one medium to another medium. In this production plant, after considering the
Heat Exchanger Network (HEN), there are three heat exchanger that been installed in
the production line that labelled as E-101, E-102 and E-105. Heat exchanger E-105,
that is used to cool down the fluid from reactor product will transfer the heat to both
E-102 and E-101. E-102 and E-101 are used to heat up the ethyl acrylate feed stream
and ammonia feed stream respectively.
Table 5.8 Process control analysis of heat exchanger (E-101)

Temperature Inlet flowrate Temperature at Feedback T=300.25℃

at stream 3 of the heat stream 2. Controller
exchanger
pipeline.
172
Figure 5.9 Control System of Heat Exchanger E-101.


at stream 7. of the heat stream 6. Controller
exchanger
pipeline.
173
Figure 5.10 Control System of Heat Exchanger E-102


at stream 10 of the heat stream 9. Controller
exchanger
pipeline.
174
Figure 5.11 Control System of Heat Exchanger E-105.
5.4.6 Heater
Heater is one of the auxiliary devices that is functioning as the temperature

riser of the liquid that flow in a stream with the help from steam. For this production
plant, there are two heater that is been installed in the plant which is E-103 and E-104.
E-103 heater is used to heat up the ammonia feed to 310℃ after heat transferring via
heat exchanger E-101. E-104 is used to heat up the ethyl acrylate stream feed to 310℃
after heat transferring via heat exchanger E-102. This both heaters are important as the
preparatory stage before the feed undergo reaction in the reactor R-101.
175
Table 5.11 Process control analysis of heater (E-103)
Temperature at Inlet flowrate Temperature at Feedback T=310℃

stream 4. steam pipeline stream 3. Controller
Figure 5.12 Process control design of heater (E-103)
Table 5.12 Process control analysis of heater (E-104)

Temperature at Inlet flowrate Temperature at Feedback T=310℃

stream 8. steam pipeline stream 7. Controller
176
Figure 5.13 Process control design of heater (E-104)
5.4.7 Cooler
Cooler is one of the auxiliary devices that is used to reduce the temperature of
the fluid in stream. In this production plant, it consists of three cooler that been
installed in the plant production line which is E-106, E-107 and E-108. E-106 is used
to cool down the product stream temperature before undergoing the separation process
via flash separator, F-101. E-107 is used to reduce the temperature from the flash
separator bottom product before entering the distillation column, C-101. Then, E-108
is used to reduce the temperature of the top product of absorption column before
entering the second flash separator, F-102.
177
Table 5.13 Control system analysis of cooler (E-106)
Temperature at Inlet flowrate Temperature Feedback T=45℃

stream 11. of the cooling from heat Controller
water pipeline. exchanger E-
105.
Figure 5.14 Control system design of cooler (E-106)

178
stream 14. of the cooling from stream Controller
water pipeline. 12.

179
stream 20. of the cooling from stream Controller
water pipeline. 18.
5.4.8 Pump
Pump is one of the devices that is functioning as the pressure riser of the liquid
that flow in a stream. For this production plant, there are two pump that is been
installed in the plant which is P-101 and P-102 that is will be used to transport the
ammonia and ethyl acrylate from the feed to the reactor. P-101 is used to increase the
180
pressure of ammonia feed stream from 1 bar to 4 bar while P-102 is used to increase
the pressure of the ethyl acrylate stream from 1 bar to 4 bar .
Table 5.16 Process control analysis of pump (P-101)

Pressure at Control the The feed Feedback P = 4 bar

stream 2 flowrate from stream has
stream 1 by inconsistence
control valve. in pressure and
flowrate.
Figure 5.17 Process control design of pump (P-101)
181
Table 5.17 Process control analysis of pump (P-102)
Pressure at Control the The feed Feedback P = 4 bar

stream 6 flowrate from stream has
stream 5 by inconsistence
control valve. in pressure and
flowrate.
Figure 5.18 Process control design of pump (P-102)
182
5.5 Overall P&ID Control System
EQUIPMENT TAG
P-101 P-102 E-101 E-102 E-103 E-104 E-105 E-106 E-107 E-108 R-101 F-101 F-102 C-101 C-102
PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION
Fluidized
Heat Heat Heat Flash Flash Distillation Absorption DIAGRAM OF ACRYLONITRILE
Pump Pump Heater Heater Cooler Cooler Cooler Bed
Exchanger Exchanger Exchanger Separator Separator Column Column PRODUCTION
Reactor
LIC LEVEL INDICATOR CONTROLLER LT LEVEL TRANSMITTER XAL ALARM LOW DRAWING NO.
PIC PRESSURE INDICATOR CONTROLLER PT PRESSURE TRANSMITTER AAC2021

CONTROL VALVE
FIC FLOW INDICATOR CONTROLLER FT FLOW TRANSMITTER S HEET
FFC FLOW FRACTION CONTROLLER TT TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER DIGITAL CONTROL 1 OF 3

TIC TEMPERATURE INDICATOR CONTROLLER XAH ALARM HIGH SYSTEM CRYLON SDN. BHD.
183
EQUIPMENT TAG
Fluidized
Reactor

CONTROL VALVE

184
EQUIPMENT TAG
Fluidized
Reactor

CONTROL VALVE

185
CHAPTER 6
PROCESS SAFETY
6.1 Introduction
Global process operators prioritise safety to comply with local and international
requirements and effectively prevent production risks. However, differing persons'
understanding of safety concepts influences the measures performed to reduce risk and the
performance metrics employed. Specific locations emphasise occupational safety
enhancements, such as preventing falls and slips. Other plants, meanwhile, face more
significant safety concerns, such as explosions and fires in production zones (Kim, Kim, Lee,
Lim, & Moon, 2009). Both dimensions of safety require adequate consideration and the
adoption of suitable risk reduction strategies.
Based on the Malaysian Guideline on Occupational Safety and Health management

systems (OSHMS), the objective is to protect workers from accidents and their associated risks
and eradicate work-related occurrences, illnesses, ill health, cancer, near-misses, and fatalities.
It frequently includes the maintenance of necessary equipment and, in some cases, the
chemicals used in the workplace. Before beginning any project, all contractors, employees, and
agents must adhere to and be aware of the site's safety laws. No work will start before a
thorough site safety induction has been conducted
Safety is the condition of being protected against harm or other unfavourable effects.
Safety is frequently defined as managing known dangers to maintain an acceptable level of
risk. This is essential in a chemical processing facility, a hazardous industry where an accident
might have catastrophic results. The primary emphasis was on worker safety. In recent years,
loss prevention has virtually superseded protection. This definition includes danger detection,
186
technology evaluation, and the design of new engineering elements to prevent loss. In the past,
process accidents at industrial sites involving toxic, reactive, flammable, or explosive dangers
frequently resulted in fatalities and significant property damage, costing hundreds of millions
or billions of dollars (Chen, Pittman et al., 2015). Numerous elements may contribute to the
occurrence of an event, some of which may be associated with the incident's onset and others
with its escalation. A recent analysis identified safety culture, emergency preparation, and
mechanical integrity as the most prevalent causes of process safety mishaps across 14
industries, including mining, chemicals, agriculture, and pharmaceutical manufacturing
(Bhusari, Goh et al., 2021).
The process safety structure of an acrylonitrile production facility is based on the hazard
identification and technical evaluation criteria, considering all the chemical components
involved, such as ammonia and ethyl acrylate. In addition to temperature, the equipment's
pressure ranges and process conditions are considered. With the guidelines and regulations
established by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration in Malaysia, safety
management is formulated with this concern in mind. This chapter discusses safety measures
such as hazard and operability study (HAZOP). HAZOP is a formal and systematic
examination of a complex planned or current process or activity that identifies and evaluates
concerns that may constitute a threat to people or equipment. In addition, a chemical health
risk assessment (CHRA) is built to investigate the management of hazardous substances.
6.2 Plant Safety
By regulating the installation of appropriate safety measures at the plant, it is possible

to prevent the occurrence of an undesired event. Every piece of equipment and its working
parameters should be evaluated for safety, as even the most minor flaw might damage the entire
facility. However, the safety procedures should encompass everything in a plant, including the
company's transportation, chemical storage and process vessels, chemical substance
management, and utility management.
187
6.2.1 Plant Location
When selecting a location for a plant, a lot of things must be considered. Earlier theories
of industrial position utilised a simple framework to examine data, with locational and
exceptional diversification estimated by merely modifying the location and weight distance
features of inputs and outputs. Among the factors that influence the location of a plant are the
availability of raw materials, infrastructure facilities, workforce, government policy, market
proximity, regulation and taxation, local laws, ecological and environmental factors, land costs,
subsidies for backward areas, incentives, political climate, and climatic climate. First and
foremost, when addressing the plant site for all chemical plants, the plant should be positioned
far from any residential areas to avoid injuring surrounding residents.
6.2.2 Chemical Storage and Process Vessel
Every chemical plant utilises chemicals for production. However, the exact number
varies. Improper storage of chemicals will result in chemical accidents (Simmons et al., 2008).
Implementing precautions while working with hazardous materials is very important to prevent
incidents involving the use of chemicals. They must be handled and stored correctly.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has specific standards for the
location and construction of rooms or buildings that house these compounds, including
descriptions of what should not store with particular categories of hazardous substances. Every
part of the design of a storage room has a rationale and a function, which prevents accidents
and tragedies involving the stored items and those around.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has specific standards for the
location and construction of rooms or buildings that house these compounds, including
descriptions of what should not store with particular categories of hazardous substances. Every
part of the design of a storage room has a rationale and a function, which prevents accidents
and tragedies involving the stored items and those around.
188
Multiple OSHA regulations involve storage restrictions for hazardous materials. Most
of these restrictions are to single substances, such as liquefied hydrogen, or groupings of
substances, including flammable and combustible liquids. Consequently, defining the qualities
of the dangers by labelling every chemical is crucial. The user can then adhere to the
precautions listed on the label, such as donning protective clothing and equipment. The
following parts should constantly review before entering a hazardous material storage area:
Physical and chemical properties Data on fire and explosion danger Reactivity Data on health
hazard Protection from hazards
6.2.3 Transportation
A sufficient transportation substructure is necessary to carry workers, equipment, raw

materials, and finished goods to the chosen plant location. In this situation, a place must
examine at least two significant modes of transportation: road, rail, waterway (canal or river),
and seaport. Significantly, three transportation-related factors must be considered when picking
the site. First, suppliers and transportation are required for the importation of agricultural
products. There must be multiple transportation facilities. The second is that transportation
facilities are crucial when considering cost and delivery time. The location of the site is
convenient for numerous modes of transportation. Thus, the raw material must be obtained
with reduced delivery time and travelling costs. The final factor is the accessibility of airports.
It is crucial since the factory's head office will require technical and management help during
its startup phase. At the same time, it is operational if the airport is as close to the factory, total
travel time and expense decrease.
6.3 Worker Safety
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires employees to

create a safe workplace free of recognised dangers and comply with the OSHA Act's standards,
rules, and regulations. Every business or sector must provide a safe workplace to guarantee
189
their employees' safety, health, and welfare. These rules acknowledge that identifying and
addressing potential dangers before an accident happens is a far more effective means of
preventing a negative consequence. Workers, equipment, and the surroundings of the
production plant are all protected by safety regulations. Every company should be responsible
for providing employees with the required safety and health information, training, and
supervision. In addition to adhering to OSHA's principles and regulations when performing
work duties, employees must also comply with them.
6.3.1 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Personal protective equipment, or PPE, is equipment worn to reduce exposure to risks

that cause severe injuries and illnesses on the job. These injuries and conditions may be caused
by chemical, radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical, or other risks in the workplace. All
personal protective equipment must be developed and maintained safely and dependably. It
should fit comfortably, enticing workers to utilise it. If personal protective equipment does not
fit properly, it might be the difference between being adequately protected and being exposed
to risk. When engineering, work practice, and administrative controls are impracticable or
insufficient, employers must provide workers with personal protective equipment and ensure
its correct usage. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is required to ensure proper safety and
health practices. Employers are required to provide sufficient PPE to all employees. In contrast,
according to OSHA 1994, the employer may be sued for failing to comply with the general
duties of the employer. Therefore, the available PPE necessary in some chemical plant facilities
is outlined in Table 6.1 below.
Table 6.1 General PPE at workplace

PPE Functions
190
Goggle • Provide eyes area from dust, splashes and
impact
• Tight fit protection that covers eye

completely
Safety helmet • Ensure protection from impact and hard

penetration
Coverall • Provide protection against chemicals, burns

and possible sharp items
Safety boots • Provide ground protection from sharp item

and possible chemical splitting
6.4 Fire Hazard
The greatest threat to a chemical industry is fire, which can cause explosions due to
gases, vapours, mists, and dust that escape during the production, processing, transportation,
and storage of combustible substances. This will result in fatalities and property destruction.
Fire risk management becomes crucial and essential to avoid such a catastrophic event. The
most important parts of risk management are ensuring employee safety, preventing fires, and
responding appropriately in the case of a fire. Some procedures can be taken in order to avoid
a fire from bursting and causing no deaths, collateral damage, or equipment failure.
191
6.4.1 Fire Detection and Alarm System
A fire and smoke detection device is a tool for identifying the earliest stages of fire by
monitoring the passage of smoke through the air. As soon as smoke is detected, the alarm will
signal fire and inform the building's residents. This early warning aids the personnel in
evacuating the building immediately when the alarm sounds. In addition, a fire detection
system can detect heat, gas, and light radiation emitted by a fire. Automatic detectors offer a
precise and rapid indication of the origin of a fire, and the presence of many sensors in the
facility helps mitigate severe damage. Modern smoke detectors are typically powered by
batteries, although the most common type is wired directly to the building's electrical system.
The direct wiring detector generally is equipped with a battery that serves as a backup power
source if the building's wiring system fails. In addition to frequent sensor inspections, it is
necessary to periodically replace the batteries to ensure adequate protection (Kubba, 2016)
A fire alarm system gives visible and audible warnings in the event of smoke and carbon
dioxide during a fire. This device functions alongside smoke and alarm detectors. The alarm is
promptly activated by using automation and the appropriate sensors. They are also manually
operable via call points or pull stations (Wong, 2004). Installing a smoke detector and alarm
system near potentially dangerous areas such as laboratories and chemical storage rooms is
essential. As soon as a minor fire flares, the alarm and sensors are activated, alerting others to
escape the premises immediately.
In the event of a fire, fire detectors and alarm systems are two essential tools that can
ensure the safety of employees. The alert will notify staff of the fire and expedite their response.
Notably, many innocent lives can be saved, and material damage can be diminished. The alarm
also notifies the closest fire station of the incident, allowing them to arrive swiftly.
192
6.5 Plant Emergency Response
According to the World Health Organization (2002), emergency response is the phase
of the disaster-management cycle that gets most of the attention. Floods, hurricanes, fires, and
explosions are emergencies that may affect operations. Environmental health services are the
most needed when this occurs. A risk assessment should be undertaken to identify the potential
emergency issues for designing an emergency response plan, an emergency response plan
(ERP) should be reviewed often as it gives techniques to evaluate the plan's efficacy in
responding to accidents Below are the contingency of an emergency action plan lies under
procedural, program and equipment requirements provided by OSHA (2004),
1. Identify potential emergency based on the design and environment of the workplace.
2. Fire preparation and protocols for emergency reporting.
3. Evacuation procedures, including method of evacuation and escape routes in the event
of an emergency.
4. Procedures for those who would stay behind to run vital operations before being
evacuated.
5. Procedures for locating and accounting for staff that have been evacuated.
6. Rescue and emergency procedures for workers.
7. Contact information for those who need more information or clarification on the
programme
193
6.6 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP)
6.6.1 Introduction
A Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) analysis is a structured and scientific examination

of a proposed or existing process or operation to identify and evaluate problems that may
provide a risk to persons or equipment or prohibit efficient operation. According to Dunjó et al
(2010), a HAZOP study was first proposed with the goal of identifying potential dangers in
facilities that handle extremely hazardous compounds. The goal was to minimise any potential
sources of major accidents, such as toxic spills, explosions, and fires.
The HAZOP technique is divided into four stages which are definition, preparation,
examination, and reporting and follow-up. In the same way as HAZOP approaches can be
applied to processes, they can also be applied to machines and automated factories. The actions
or operations of the machine must first be divided into subsystems or tasks. The operation's
activities must then be defined, and each activity can then be evaluated for deviation using the
standard guide words.
6.6.2 The Purposes of HAZOP
The purposes of HAZOP are listed as follows:
1. To determine the hazards using a multi-factor risk assessment.
2. To categorise probable deviations from standard procedures.
3. To guarantee that the plant is properly protected.
4. To determine the source of the divergence and calculate the effects.
194
5. To cut maintenance costs caused by operational issues.
6. To apply to the government's standard of operational procedure.
6.6.3 Steps to Complete HAZOP Analysis
1. Create a comprehensive flow chart. Divide the flow chart into several process units
(e.g., reactor or storage tank). Choose a unit to study.
2. Select a study node (e.g., vessel, line, operating instruction).
3. Describe the study node's design purpose. (For example, Vessel V-1 is designed to store
benzene feedstock and provide it to the reactor on demand.)
4. Select a process parameter, such as flow, level, temperature, pressure, concentration,

pH, viscosity, state (solid, liquid, or gas), agitation, volume, reaction, sample,
component, start, stop, stability, power, inertia.
5. Use a guiding word (next page) to suggest possible deviations for the process parameter.
6. Determine possible causes and any protective systems if the deviation is applicable.
7. Analyse the consequences of the deviation (if any).
8. Make a recommendation for action (what, by whom, and when).
9. Keep record of everything.
10. Repeat steps 5 through 9 until the selected process parameter has obtained all
appropriate guiding words.
195
11. Repeat steps 4 through 10 until all applicable process parameters for the given study
node have been considered.
12. Repeat steps 2–11 until all study nodes for the given section have been considered, then
move on to the next part on the flow sheet.
Table 6.2 Guide Words for HAZOP Analysis

Guide Words Meaning Comments
NO, NOT, The complete No part of the design intention is achieved, but
NONE negation of the nothing else happens.
intention
MORE, Quantitative increase Applies to quantities such as flow rate and
HIGHER, temperature and to activities such as heating and
GREATER reaction.
LESS, LOWER Quantitative Applies to quantities such as flow rate and
decrease temperature and to activities such as heating and
reaction
AS WELL AS Qualitative increase All the design and operating intentions are
achieved along with some additional activity,
such as contamination of the process streams.
PART OF Qualitative decrease Only some of the design intentions are achieved,
some are not.
REVERSE The logical opposite Most applicable to activities such as flow or
of chemical reaction. Also applicable to substances,
for example, poison instead of antidote.
OTHER THAN Complete No part of the original intention is achieved, the
substitution original intention is replaced by something else.
SOONER Too early or in the Applies to process steps or actions
THAN wrong order
196
LATER THAN Too late or in the Applies to process steps or actions
wrong order
WHERE ELSE In additional Applies to process locations, or locations in
locations operating procedures.
Table 6.3 Deviations generated from guide words and parameters

Parameters Guide words Deviations
▪ No flow
Flow NO/HIGH/LOW ▪ High flow
▪ Low flow
▪ High pressure
Pressure HIGH/LOW
▪ Low pressure
▪ High temperature
Temperature HIGH/LOW
▪ Low temperature
▪ High level
Level HIGH/LOW
▪ Low level
6.6.4 HAZOP studies in selected equipment
Almost all of the major equipment in plant has encountered a HAZOP analysis. A table
is used to describe the detailed HAZOP for each selected unit operation. There are seven main
equipment have been selected to analyze their HAZOP which are;
• Reactor
197
• Flash column
• Distillation column
• Absorption column
• Heat Exchanger
• Pump
198
Figure 6.1 Figure 1 P&ID part 1 of 3
199
Figure 6.2 P&ID part 2 of 3
200
Figure 6.3 P&ID part 3 of 3
201
6.6.5 HAZOP Study on Heat Exchangers, Heaters and Coolers
For heat exchangers, heaters, and coolers, the following goal is suggested:
1. Product quality control
• To ensure that the heat transfer process occurs by maintaining the heat transfer
at a defined value.
2. Operational limitations
• A satisfactory minimum cooling water or stream requirement should be reached

to ensure safety.
• To comply with equipment operation safety regulations.
6.6.6 HAZOP Study on Pumps
For the pumps, the following goal is suggested:
1. Product quality control
• To maintain the outlet pressure at a predetermined value in order to attain the

target pressure.
2. Operational limitations
• Ensure that the process and equipment employed are in good working order •
Maintain the desired pressure.
202
Table 6.4 HAZOP on Heat Exchanger and Pump
HAZOP WORKSHEET
Project: Production of Acrylonitrile from Ammonia Date: 15 May 2022
Node: Node 1- Heat Exchanger, Heater, Cooler and Pump Page:
HAZOP Team Member:
1. Anis Khadijah Binti Md Ariffin
2. Nazira Syahira Binti Zulkifli
3. Nur Alia Farhana Binti Ros Madi
4. Siti Aisyah Binti Mohd Shukri
5. Ummi Syifaa’ Binti Mohamad Rodzi
Node Description:
Include the heat exchanger E-101 and E-102, heater E-104, pumps P-101 and P-102, and stream 1,2,3,5,6 and 7 that responsible to phase
change of the inlet of raw material.
Parameter Guide Cause Consequences Safeguards Recommendation
Word
Pump P-101 or P- Possibility of the Regular inspection and
102 malfunction equipment to crack monitoring at the equipment.
High
or increment on Installed with the Pressure
Pressure the temperature. Indicator Controller (PIC 001 and
Pipeline leakage The flowrate of the PIC 002) Regular inspection and
Low at stream 1,2,3,5,6 feed decrease. monitoring at the pipeline.
or 7
Heat exchanger Excessive temperature Temperature Indicator controller
Assigned an operator to
Temperature High E-101 or E-102 may result to melting (TIC 001 and TIC 002) was
inspect the temperature
malfunction. of the material. installed.
203
Heat exchanger The desired regularly and to notify any
E-101 or E-102 temperature of the temperature fluctuation.
Low malfunction. feed is not achieved.
Inadequate heat
transfer.
204
6.6.7 HAZOP Study on Reactor
The following are the goals that reactors must achieve:
1. Maintain high product quality:
• To ensure that the process is under control in order to manufacture items that
meet specifications.
2. Parameter control and optimization:
• Guarantee that the pressure, flow and temperature of the reactor are constantly
within the specified range to ensure stable operation.
205
Table 6.5 HAZOP on Fluidized Bed Reactor (R-101)
HAZOP WORKSHEET
Node: Node 2- Fluidized Bed Reactor Page: 2
HAZOP Team Member:
Node Description:
Include the fluidized bed reactor, R-101 and stream 4,8,9 and 10 that responsible to do reaction of ammonia and ethyl acrylate.

Word
Pipeline blocked Pressure builds up in
No at stream 4 and 8 the pipeline at stream
4 and 8
Regular inspection and
Pipeline leakage Feed losses. Hence, Installed with the Flow Fraction monitoring at the pipeline.
Flow Less
at stream 4 and 8 less product produced. Controller (FFC 001)
Malfunction of Overflooding occurs
High
valve, V-107 in the reactor
High Pressure in Reaction did not Installed check valve.
Reverse
reactor occur.
206
Feed temperature Overheating of the
High at stream 4 and 8 reactor that may lead Assigned an operator to
high to melt down. Temperature Indicator controller inspect the temperature of
Temperature
Cooling medium Lower purity of (TIC 005) was installed. reactor regularly and to notify
Low leak into the desired product. any temperature fluctuation.
reactor
Pipeline at stream Overpressure in the Installed Pressure Indicator Regular monitoring at the
Pressure High 9 blocked reactor that may lead Controller (PIC 003) and safety pipeline.
to crack of the reactor relief valve.
207
6.6.8 HAZOP Study on Flash Column
The following goal is proposed that absorption column should achieve:
1. Quality assurance of the product:
• To guarantee that the components in the column are separated before proceeding
with the process.
2. Constraints in Operations:
• Maintain the column's pressure and level within the appropriate range to ensure
that the components are separated efficiently.
• To guarantee that the overall process complies with all safety regulations
208
Table 6.6 HAZOP on Flash Column (F-101)
HAZOP WORKSHEET
Node: Node 3- Flash Column Page: 3
HAZOP Team Member:
Node Description:
Include the flash column, F-101 and stream 11,12, and 13 that responsible to separate ammonia from product.

Word
Pipeline blocked at Feed losses. Hence,
No stream 11 low separation Regular inspection and
efficiency. Installed with the Flow
Flow monitoring at the pipeline
Indicator Controller (FIC 002)
Malfunction of Overflooding occurs in and valve.
High
valve, V-121 the column
Malfunction of Flooding may occur in
High Regular inspection and
Level valve, V-127 the column Level Indicator controller (LIC
monitoring at the pipeline
Pipeline blocked at Low desired product 001) was installed.
Low and valve.
stream 11 produce at stream 12
209
Failure of safety Rupture of the column Installed Pressure Indicator Regular monitoring at the
High
relief valve Controller (PIC 004) pipeline and valve.
Pressure
Pipeline leakage at Low efficiency of the
Low
stream 13. separation
210
6.6.9 HAZOP Study on Distillation Column
Following a thorough analysis of the column, the following goal is proposed:
with the process.
• Maintain the column's pressure, level, temperature and flow within the
appropriate range to ensure that the components are separated efficiently.
• To guarantee that the overall process complies with all safety regulations
211
Table 6.7 HAZOP on Distillation Column (C-101)
HAZOP WORKSHEET
Node: Node 4- Distillation Column Page: 4
HAZOP Team Member:
Node Description:
Include the distillation column, C-101 and stream 14,15, and 16 that responsible to separate acrylonitrile from liquid mixture.

Word
Flow control Change in product
Low valve, V-135 quality
failure Installed with the Flow Fraction
Regular inspection and
Reflux ratio Controller (FFC 002) and Level
Flow control Flooding in reflux monitoring at the valves.
Indicator Controller (LIC 002)
High valves, V-135 and drum
V-137 failure
Blockage at the Overpressure at the Regular inspection and
Level Level Indicator controller (LIC
High bottom outlet reflux drum monitoring at the pipeline and
003) was installed.
stream 15 valve.
212
Pipe partial Separation process is
clogged at the not effective
Low
bottom outlet of
the reboiler
Flow control Rupture of the column
High valves, V-131
failure Installed Pressure Indicator Regular monitoring at the
Pressure
Vapor line Low efficiency of the Controller (PIC 004) pipeline and valve.
Low leakage at stream separation
16
Reboiler control Distillation column
High
failed will dry up
Loss of heating Low condensate Installed Temperature Indicator Regular inspection at the
Temperature
due to steam production rate Controller (TIC 009) reboiler and valve.
Low
leakage at the
reboiler
213
6.6.10 HAZOP Study on Absorption Column
with the process.
• Maintain the column's pressure, flow and level within the appropriate range to
ensure that the components are separated efficiently.
• To guarantee that the overall process complies with all safety regulations.
214
Table 6.8 HAZOP on Absorption Column (C-102)
HAZOP WORKSHEET
Node: Node 5- Absorption Column Page: 5
HAZOP Team Member:
Node Description:
Include the absorption column, C-102 and stream 16,17,18 and 19 that responsible to absorb ethanol from liquid mixture.

Word
Malfunction of Low efficiency of
valve, V-148. absorption and the
vapor mixture could
High Regular inspection and
Level not be separated Level Indicator controller (LIC
monitoring at the pipeline and
004) was installed.
valve.
Pipe leakage Feed losses
Low
occur at S19
Malfunction of Rupture of column or Installed Pressure Indicator Regular monitoring at the
Pressure High valve, V-146 other related
Controller (PIC 006) pipeline and valve.
equipment
215
Leakage of the Low desired product
Low pipeline at stream produce at outlet
18 stream
Flow valve, V- The ethanol will not
144 malfunction be separated
No
Installed Flow Fraction Regular inspection at the
Flow
Controller (FFC 003) valves.
Flow valve, V- Column dry up
Reverse
144 malfunction
216
6.6.11 HAZOP Study on Flash Column
with the process.
• Maintain the column's pressure and level within the appropriate range to ensure
that the components are separated efficiently.
• To guarantee that the overall process complies with all safety regulations.
217
Table 6.9 HAZOP on Flash Column (F-102)
HAZOP WORKSHEET
Node: Node 6- Flash Column (V-102) Page: 6
HAZOP Team Member:
Node Description:
Include the flash column V-102, cooler E-108, stream 20, 21 and 22, and that used to separate the gas phase, mainly on Ammonia gas from the
liquid mixture of the main product stream, Acrylonitrile.
Word
Pipeline Separation cannot
High blockage at occur Installed the Pressure
Regular inspection and monitoring at
Pressure stream 21 Indicator Controller (PIC
the pipeline.
Pipeline leakage The purity of the main 007)
Low
at stream 20 product decrease
Valve V-154 Flooding in the column Assign an operator to regularly
High Level Indicator Controller
malfunction. V-102. checking on the condition of the
Level (LIC 005) was equipped and
Valve V-154 Low the efficiency of valves.
Low alarm system was provided.
malfunction. separation process.
Cooler E-108 High vapour product Temperature Indicator
Temperature High malfunction and low desired controller (TIC 010) was
product obtained. installed.
218
Cooler E-108 Low efficiency of Assign an operator to inspect the
Low malfunction separation process. temperature regularly and to notify
any temperature fluctuation at cooler.
Valve V-151 No separation process
No
malfunction. occurs Flow Indicator Controller Regular maintenance on the valves
Flow
Low feed No separation process (FIC 003) was installed. condition.
Reverse
flowrate. occurs
219
6.7 Chemical Health Risk Assessment (CHRA)
The Chemical Health Risk Assessment (CHRA) is an assessment that has to be

conducted by the employer arising from the use, handling, storage or transportation of
chemicals hazardous to health in their workplace as required by the Occupational Safety and
Health (Use and Standard of Exposure of Chemicals Hazardous to Health) Regulation 2000.
The objectives of the CHRA are as follows:
• To identify the hazards posed by each chemical substance used, stored, handled or
transported within the place of work.
• To evaluate the degree of exposure of employees to the hazardous chemicals through

inhalation, skin contact, and/or ingestion.
• To evaluate the adequacy of existing control measures.
• To conclude the significance of the health risk posed by the hazardous chemicals.
• To recommend further appropriate control measures to prevent or reduce such risks to

as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP)
220
ASSESMENT FINDINGS
LIST OF CHEMICALS HAZARDOUS TO HEALTH ASSESSED
1) Form B: List of Chemicals Hazardous to Health Assessed
Table 6.10 Chemical used in work unit
FORM B: LIST OF CHEMICALS HAZARDOUS TO HEALTH ASSESSED

WORK UNIT: DATE OF ASSESSMENT:
TABLE B1: Chemicals Use in Work Unit
No. Name of Hazardous Physical Hazard Classification H-Code Source of HR Dermal Ingestion
Chemical Ingredient Form Information (Y/N) (Y/N)
Flammable liquid- H225
1. Ethyl acrylate Ethyl acrylate Liquid Category 2 ThermoFisher 3 Y Y
(CAS-No): Acute oral toxicity- H302 SDS
140-88-5 Category 4 (24/12/2021)
Acute dermal toxicity- H312
Category 4
Acute inhalation H331
toxicity (vapors)-
Category 3
221
Skin corrosion/ eye H315
irritation- Category 2
Skin sensitization- H317
Category 1
Carcinogenicity- H351
Category 2
Specific target organ H335
toxicity (single
exposure)- Category 3
Flammable gasses- H221
2. Ammonia Ammonia Gas Category 2 Airgas 3 Y Y
(CAS-No): Acute inhalation H332 SDS
7664-41-7 toxicity- Category 4 (1/10/2019)
Skin corrosion- H314
Category 1
Serious eye damage- H318
Category 1
Acute aquatic hazard- H400
Category 1
222
3. Dimethyl Dimethyl Liquid Flammable liquids- H227 ThermoFisher 2 N Y
sulfoxide sulfoxide Category 4 SDS
(CAS No): (24/12/2021)
67-68-5
4. Titanium Titanium White solid Carcinogenicity- H351 NIST 4 N Y

dioxide dioxide Category 2 SDS
(CAS N0): (17/12/2014)
13463-67-7
223
Table 6.11 Chemicals released by the processes or work activities
FORM B: LIST OF CHEMICALS HAZARDOUS TO HEALTH ASSESSED

TABLE B2: Chemicals Released by the Processes or Work Activities
No. Name of Hazardous Physical Hazard Classification H-Code Source of HR Dermal Ingestion
Chemical Ingredient Form Information (Y/N) (Y/N)
1. Ethyl acrylate Ethyl acrylate Liquid Category 2 ThermoFisher 3 Y Y
(CAS-No): Acute oral toxicity- H302 SDS
140-88-5 Category 4 (24/12/2021)
Category 4
toxicity (vapours)-
Category 3
Skin corrosion/ eye H315
Category 1
224
Category 2
toxicity (single
Flammable gasses- H221
2. Ammonia Ammonia Gas Category 2 Airgas 3 Y Y
(CAS-No): Acute inhalation H332 SDS
7664-41-7 toxicity- Category 4 (1/10/2019)
Skin corrosion- H314
Category 1
Serious eye damage- H318
Category 1
Acute aquatic hazard- H400
Category 1
Flammable liquids- H225 ThermoFisher
3. Acrylonitrile Acrylonitrile Colourless Category 2 Scientific 4 Y Y
(CAS-No): liquid Acute oral toxicity- H301 SDS
107-13-1 Category 3 (24/12/2021)
225
Category 3
toxicity (vapors)-
Category 3
Skin corrosion/ H315
Serious eye damage/ H318
eye irritation- Category
1
Category 1
Category 1B
Reproductive toxicity- H361
Category 2
toxicity (single
226
4. Ethanol Ethanol Liquid Category 2 ThermoFisher 3 Y Y
(CAS No): Serious eye damage/ H319 SDS
64-17-5 eye irritation- Category (7/1/2022)
2
Category 2
toxicity (single
Specific target organs, H335
respiratory system-
Category 3
5. Dimethyl Dimethyl Liquid Flammable liquids- H227 ThermoFisher 2 N Y

sulfoxide sulfoxide Category 4 SDS
(CAS No): (24/12/2021)
67-68-5
6. White solid H351 4 N Y
227
Titanium Titanium Carcinogenicity- NIST
dioxide dioxide Category 2 SDS
(CAS N0): (17/12/2014)
13463-67-7
228
2) Form C: Work Unit Assessment
Table 6.12 Inhalation exposure assessment
FORM C: WORK UNIT ASSESSMENT

TABLE C1: INHALATION EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Job or task Name of FR DR FDR PEL Degree of release Degree of MR ER HR RR
Chemical or exposure chemical inhaled
Handling/Loading the Ethyl acrylate 5 5 5 20 mg/m3 High Moderate 4 4 3 12
raw material
Handling/Loading the Ammonia 5 5 5 35 mg/m3 High Moderate 4 4 3 12
raw material
Loading the catalyst Titanium 1 1 1 5 mg/m3 Low Low 1 1 4 4
into the reactor (R- dioxide (TiO2)
101)
Loading the dimethyl Dimethyl 1 1 1 - Low Low 1 1 2 2
sulfoxide into sulfoxide
absorber (C-102) (DMSO)
Handling/Loading the Acrylonitrile 4 5 5 5 mg/m3 Moderate Moderate 3 4 4 16
product
229
Table 6.13 Dermal Assessment
FORM C: WORK UNIT ASSESSMENT

TABLE C2: DERMAL ASSESSMENT
Duration of Exposure
Job or task Name of Hazardous Properties Extent of Short Term Long Term Level of Risk
Chemical Dermal Contact (<15 min/shift) (>15 min/shift)
Handling/Loading the Acrylonitrile May causes skin Large / High
product irritation and allergic
skin reaction
Handling/Loading the Ethanol Chemical that causes Large / Moderate
product serious eye irritation
Handling/Loading the Ethyl acrylate May causes skin Small / Moderate
raw material irritation and allergic
skin reaction
Handling/Loading the Ammonia May causes severe Large / Moderate
raw material skin burns and eye
damage
230
3) Form D: Technical Controls
Table 6.14 Control Measures and Recommendations

FORM D: CONTROL MEASURES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
TABLE D1: TECHNICAL CONTROLS (TC)
Job or Name of Route of Existing technical control (TC) Overall Recommendation AP
task Chemical Exposure adequa on TC
(ROE) Inhalation or Engineering PPE cy
enclosure controls & (Y/N)
ventilation
Specify Adequa Specify Adequa Specify Adequa
cy cy cy
(Y/N/N (Y/N/N (Y/N/N
A) A) A)
Handling Ethyl Inhalation/ Store Y Enclose Y Face Y Y Administrative 2
/Loading acrylate dermal tightly operation shield, control: To
the raw closed and use safety develop safe work
material container local glasses, instruction on the
in a cool exhaust glove, handling of
231
away ventilatio full face chemicals at work
from n respirato area including
heat and ry emergency
light response method.
Handling Ammonia Inhalation/ Secure Y Use non- Y Face Y Y 2
/Loading dermal cylinder sparking shield, PPE: To provide
the raw in an ventilatio safety and ensure workers
material upright n system glasses, using chemical
position, full face glove and goggle
store respirato whenever handling/
separatel ry, directly exposed to
y and protectiv the chemicals.
keep the e
container clothing,
closed. glove
Handling Titanium Inhalation Store in Y Well Y Face Y Y 2
/Loading dioxide tightly ventilate shield,
the closed d area safety
catalyst container glasses,
in a cool glove
232
6.8 Plant Start-Up and Shut Down Procedure
There are two key procedures in a chemical processing plant: starting up and
shutting down the facility in order to make it safer to operate and maintain while also
increasing its efficiency. There should be no complication in the start-up and shutdown
operation of these procedures, and the risk to people and the environment should be
minimized as a result. Starting and shutting down the plant requires consideration of
several critical factors.
6.8.1 Plant Start-Up Procedure
The commissioning and startup of a process plant includes both new facilities
and the restarting of an existing facility following significant modifications. New plant
and equipment commissioning and startup involve significant technical and
organizational challenges. The initial startup of any plant, regardless of size, kind, or
sector, is a singular event. Therefore, the startup phase presents certain unique
challenges. Lack of experience in addressing these issues has repeatedly led in costly
and time-consuming launches. New equipment, processes, and technologies
necessitate training employees on how to use them safely and effectively. In order to
complete the commissioning of a new facility, it is necessary to carry out all of the
following steps: planning and preparation, mechanical completion and integrity
checks, P&ID checks and verification and commissioning and operational testing.
Furthermore, it is essential that all parties involved in the project maintain tight links
in order for the initiative to succeed. Below are the start-up procedures that can be
followed:
1. In order to ensure that the input valve covers are installed properly and
in accordance with the design specifications, the interiors of each tower and vessel
should be thoroughly inspected one last time.
233
2. Once the "turnaround worklist" is complete, make sure that all of the
equipment and associated wiring is back in place and working correctly.
3. When heat exchangers are reassembled after a turnaround, they must

be hydrostatically tested if they were opened for inspection, washing, or mechanical
work.
4. Verify that the alarm circuits on the control loops of each instrument
are functioning properly.
5. Ensure that all level gauge glasses are spotless.
6. Ensure that all control valves are in proper working order.
7. Determine whether the pumps are functioning.
8. Examine all the utilities, including the cooling water and power steam.
Ensure that all steam traps are operational.
9. Ensure that all safety valves have been checked and installed, and that
the block valve is in its corresponding functioning position.
10. Verify that all fire protection equipment, such as fire extinguishers,
water hoses, nozzles, and steam hoses, is in place and immediately usable.
11. Verify that all drains are unblocked and all water has been emptied from
the equipment.
12. Ensure that all flanges and man heads have good gaskets and are
assembled tightly.
234
13. The header for the safety valve, the blowdown line, and the flare system
have been successfully commissioned.
14. All needed shades and air-freeing devices are available, removed, or
fitted.
15. Ensure that all steam tracing is operational.
16. Ensure that all chemical supplies are sufficient.
17. Air leakage and seal testing
18. Gas blanketing.
19. When the flow of reactants is initiated, the catalyst must be activated
and sufficiently heated for the reaction to begin.
To ensure the smooth start-up of the plant, the final phase of mechanical
completion and the preliminary activities for commissioning have been completed,
while simultaneously reducing the risk of danger for each piece of equipment in the
plant. (Banergi, 2011) The following activities are included in the final phase:
6.8.2 Plant Shut-Down Procedure
Plant shutdowns, also known as turnarounds, are among the most crucial
phases of a plant's operation. Possibilities exist for shutdowns to have either a
beneficial or negative impact on the plant's financial future. A poorly planned
shutdown that exceeds its deadline or budget can have a detrimental effect on the
plant's profitability. A well-planned and executed plant turnaround can have a
235
favorable impact on the facility and allow it to operate at capacity for years. Typically
occurring at least once a year, plant shutdowns are frequently required for operational
maintenance. Without maintenance shutdowns, a firm may be derailed by faulty
equipment without warning. Maintenance of equipment and machinery, such as the
pneumatic conveying system, is an essential aspect of a plant's annual schedule.
The purpose of a shutdown is to devise a strategy for halting all plant operations
in order to carry out maintenance, repairs, equipment replacements, and other internal
maintenance tasks that are absolutely essential. A wide range of reasons may
necessitate this, including boosting throughput, maintaining or repairing internal mass
transfer equipment, and upgrading the process itself. As a result, shutdowns are
regularly required by federal and state authorities in order to keep facilities free of
hazards and in compliance with legal requirements.
An effective plant shutdown should result in reduced unplanned downtime,

reduced overtime, and greater operational efficiencies. Therefore, there are five
important phases of plant shutdown;
236
• The foundation for a plant shutdown.
Scoping (What to do) • Initial planning, scoping, and organization
occur during this phase.
• Represents the nuts and bolts of the

strategy and how to accomplish the work.
Planning (How to do it) • Basic requirements include a development
of job tasks, and the steps, duration, and
sequence.
• Keep the shutdown as short as possible.

• Can reduce cost and ensure the focus is on
Scheduling (When to do the work that can only perform usring a
it) shutdown.
• Defer all other work to a time outside of
the shurdown window.
• This is the phase where the rubber meets

the road.
• It's the time to inspect the equipments and
Execution (Doing it)
put in place any corrective actions needed.
• Repair and replace equipment and parts as
needed.
• Conduct post-mortem meeting to review

Wrap up (Evaluating it) shutdown in its entirety such as EHS
review, KPIs/metric, cost and schedule.
The following are the procedures for shutting down the plant:
1. Depressurization and cooling of the units
A depressurization process is necessary for the safe operation and safety of

chemical plants and associated machinery. Particularly in the case of hydrocrackers
237
and other high-pressure processing systems, this is true. The typical working
conditions of a hydro processing unit (measured at the reactor outflow) range from 100
to 207 bar and from 315°C to 427°C (Plant Emergency Depressuring System, 2022).
2. Pumping out the unit
Every substance must be transported to a particular spot. Centrifugal pumps

should be carefully monitored to ensure that no one entirely loses suction before the
pump is shut down. Even a little period of dry operation of a centrifugal pump can
cause severe harm. When available, reciprocal pumps are optimal for pumping out
because they have superior suction properties and are less likely to cause harm. After
the products have been drained from the system, they will be cooled further in heat
exchange equipment to a temperature below their flash point to prevent fire threats in
the delivery tanks (Speegle, 2006).
6.9 Plant Layout
The layout and design of a plant are key components of a company's overall
operations, both for boosting the production process's efficiency and fitting workers'
needs. Plant layout refers to the arrangement of physical facilities such as machinery,
equipment, and furniture within the factory building to achieve the quickest flow of
material at the lowest cost and with the fewest number of product transfers from the
receipt of raw materials to the shipment of finished goods. Plant planning is a method
for arranging machines, processes, and plant services within a factory to produce the
greatest quantity of high-quality goods at the lowest total cost of production. (Kiran,
2019) In conventional chemical processing plants, an ideal site would be divided into
individual plots by its primary road network, with additional access roads leading to
the bigger plots. However, plants in many industries may be too small for such a road
system. Larger plants may require two or more plots, and a site may comprise multiple
plots. (Chemical Engineering,2016)
238
When constructing the plant layout's preliminary design, the immediate
process unit is the most fundamental unit to consider. It must facilitate the most
efficient material flow, from the storage of raw materials through the finished product.
The product arrangement organises several workstations by the operating order of the
products they serve. This design is optimised for the mass production of highly
standardised, repeatable products and components. Other structures, such as the
administration office, medical centre, café, surau, and warehouse, must be arranged
closer to the main gate to reduce the travel time of staff members. The control room is
located near the process area to reduce the time a person must spend in the process
area when a problem arises. Three emergency assembly places are designated for the
workers: assembly areas 1, 2, and 3. The fire station is located near the relevant facility.
Accident response could be expedited, lowering the risk of staff injury. The material
storage and plant utilities are located near the process area to reduce the piping system's
cost and maximise the process's efficiency.
Five process units comprise the manufacturing of acrylonitrile: a plug reactor,

two vapour-liquid extractors, a distillation column, an adsorber, and a liquid-liquid
extractor. They are positioned closely together to shorten the pipe distance between
these processes. The future expansion location is often located in the processing area
if the management decides to increase the production rate of other essential elements
by adding or constructing additional equipment. The utility area is essential to the
running of the facility. Such utilities include refrigeration, compressed air, steam
boilers, electricity generating, and transformer stations. These utilities should be close
to the process area to reduce supply distance and expenses. Every facility must have a
waste treatment unit to treat the wastewater generated by process units before it is
released into the environment. Typically, it is deposited at the plant's conclusion for
direct disposal in the sea after treatment
239
240
CHAPTER 7
PROCESS ECONOMY
7.1 Introduction
The running of a chemical factory is intended to generate profits. When

determining the cost, all calculations of its operations and equipment are taken into
account. According to Towler and Sinnot’s (2012) analysis, the estimation of
investment is the most important step in determining the profitability of a project. All
calculations made in this chapter are considered pre-calculations. Pre-calculation is
essential for creating a cash flow diagram and a discontinued cash flow. Pre-
calculations consist of four crucial elements: estimating fixed capital investment, total
capital investment, total production cost, and revenue from sales. The economic
analysis is completed after doing all of the previously specified calculations.
After designing the process design, the next stage is to calculate the significant
units involved in the operation using the Preliminary Estimate (Based on Individual
Factors, Method of Guthries, 1969, 1974) from Product and Design Principles
Synthesis, Analysis, and Evaluation by Warren D. Seider. A few aspects should be
addressed to explain the choice of the Guthrie technique. To begin, the Guthrie method
recommends conducting an economic analysis after developing an optimal process
design that includes complete mass and energy balance calculations, material
selection, and a finalized process and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) that is
integrated with process control configuration. In addition, the Guthrie technique
acknowledges that the cost of the base, supporting structures, and ladders, as well as
241
the electricity, insulation, and paint, will be the same regardless of the type of
construction material utilized.
In calculating the total capital investment (CTCI), Guthrie method suggested

the equation as below.
𝐶𝑇𝐶𝐼 = (𝐶𝑇𝑃𝐼 + 𝐶𝑊𝐶 )
𝐶𝑇𝐶𝐼 = 1.18 (𝐶𝑇𝐵𝑀 + 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 + 𝐶𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 +𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 ) + 𝐶𝑊𝐶
CTBM in this equation stands for total bare-module cost and refers to the sum of
bare-module costs for all items involved in the process equipment. Csite refers to the
site development expenses stated briefly in the capital investment costs section. The
process buildings and non-process buildings are then classified as building costs,
Cbuildings. Offsite buildings, Coffsite facilities, on the other hand, include utility plants that
have their own utilities such as ponds, waste treatment, pollution control, offsite
tankage, and receiving and shipping facilities provided by the corporation.
The Guthrie method involves five steps as follow;
Step 1:
Prepare an equipment list based on the process design, including the equipment
title, label, size, construction material, design temperature, and design pressure.
Step 2:
The data described in Step 1 are combined with f.o.b. equipment purchase cost
data and linked to equipment list cost and matching cost index, Ib, of cost data. The
f.o.b. purchase cost in the Guthrie method is a base cost based on a near-ambient design
pressure, carbon steel as a building material, and a base design cost.
242
Step 3:
After then, the cost data is brought up to date in accordance with the most
recent cost index. Bare-module factors, FBM, are used to calculate the equipment's
bare-module cost. Be cautious when calculating non-carbon steel of construction
material equipment and/or the pressure of the equipment is not near ambient. The
Guthrie method's f.o.b. purchasing cost equation is as follows:
𝐼𝑖
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = ( ) 𝐶𝑝 [𝐹𝐵𝑀 + (𝐹𝑑 𝐹𝑝 𝐹𝑚 − 1)]
𝐼𝑏𝑖
Where;
𝐹𝐵𝑀 = bare module cost
𝐹𝑑 = equipment design factor
𝐹𝑝 = pressure factor
𝐹𝑚 = material factor
Step 4:
The total bare-module cost, CTBM is calculated by adding the bare-module costs
of process equipment.
Step 5:
Determine the total amount of the permanent investment. Add an estimate of

working capital to the total capital investment to get the total capital investment.
7.2 Equipment Costing
The costing of the major and auxiliary equipment involved in this plant will be
discussed in this section in order to obtain the total capital investment estimation cost,
which is important in determining the overall profitability of a plant and ensuring that
243
the plant runs smoothly without any production losses to the company. This
Acrylonitrile Production Plant includes 1 reactor, 2 flash columns, 1 distillation
column and 1 absorption column. This section will also cover auxiliary equipment
such as a heat exchanger, heater, and cooler.
7.2.1 Reactor (R-101)
The production of the ACN can be achieved via nitrilation process of

ammonia and ethyl acrylate. This reaction is being done in the presence of an
inexpensive catalyst which is titanium dioxide (TiO2). This process has high
conversion yield which is 98% (Karp et al., 2017). The chemical equation of this
process is stated below.
In the chemical engineering design of the fluidized bed reactor (R-101) for the
synthesis of ACN from ammonia and ethyl acrylate, a few key assumptions should be
made and followed. The following are the assumptions:
1. Steady operating condition.
2. The gases in the reactor are considered as an ideal gas.
3. Catalyst does not influence the mass balance.
4. Catalyst deactivation is considered in the reactor.
5. The reactor designing will be considered in the reactor.
244
For the preliminary design, the reactor is made of carbon steel with dimension
of 6.99 m in diameter and 20.53 m in length. The purchase cost of reactor, CP where
FM is the material factor of carbon steel, CV is the reactor cost and CPL represents
platforms and ladders cost are adapted from a textbook of Chemical Engineering
Design (Seider et al., 2017).
The formula below is representing R-101. The reactor volume is calculated

using the formula below:
𝑉 =𝑄×𝑡
Where;
𝑉 : reactor volume (m3)
𝑄 : volumetric flowrate (m3/hr)
𝑡 : residence time (hr)
The volumetric flowrate is calculate using the formula below (Fogler, 2013):
𝐹𝐴 𝑅𝑇
𝑣=
𝑦𝐴 𝑃
Where;
𝑣 : volumetric flowrate (m3/hr)
𝐹𝐴 : molar flow rate of A (kmol/hr)
245
𝑅 : ideal gas constant (8.314 Pa. m3/mol. K)
𝑇 : temperature (K)
𝑦𝐴 : mole fraction of A
𝑃 : total pressure (Pa)
Equation below can be used to compute the inside diameter using the stated
ratio.
1⁄3
4𝑉
Internal Diameter, 𝐷𝑖 = [ ]
𝜋 × 𝐿𝐷 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
Therefore, the height of the diameter can be calculated by using the relationship of the
ratio assume with the inner diameter calculator.
Height, 𝐿 = 3 × 𝐷𝑖
The formula used to determine the minimum thickness of the wall of cylindrical
reactor is shown below.
𝑃𝑑 𝐷𝑖
𝑡𝑝 =
2𝑆𝐸 − 1.2𝑃𝑑
Where;
𝑡 : Minimum thickness of the reactor’s wall, mm
𝑃𝑑 : Design pressure, N/mm2
𝐷𝑖 : Inner diameter of the vessel shell, mm
246
𝑆 : Maximum allowable stress, N/mm2
𝐸 : Welded joint efficiency
𝐶 : Corrosion allowance, mm
Purchase Cost
Freight (Free) on Board Purchase Cost, CV
To calculate freight (free) on board purchase cost, CV of the empty vessel, the
size factor (Weight, W) needs to be determined using equation below.
𝑊 = 𝜋(𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡𝑠 )(𝐿 + 0.8𝐷𝑖 )𝑡𝑠 𝜌
Where;
𝑊 : total weight of the shell, N
𝑡𝑠 : wall thickness, m
𝐷𝑖 : Inner diameter of the vessel shell, m
𝜌 : Density of the vessel material (Carbon steel A285), kg/m3
Hence, the F.O.B of the purchase cost can be calculated using the equation
below.
247
𝐶𝑉 = exp [7.1390 + 0.18255(ln 𝑊) + 0.02297 (ln 𝑊) 2 ]
Where;
𝐶𝑉 : F.O.B purchase cost ($)
Platforms and Ladders Cost, CPL
CPL is the additional cost for platforms and ladders, which is determined by the
vessel's internal diameter, and is calculated using the equation below for a vertical
pressure vessel.
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 410(𝐷𝑖 )0.73950 (𝐿)0.70684
Where,
𝐶𝑃𝐿 : cost of platform and ladder ($)
Total Purchase Cost, CP
The total purchase cost, CP is calculated using the equation as follow:
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿
Bare Module Cost, CBM
248
Delivery, insurance, taxes, and installation labor are all included in the
bare-module costs. The bare-module cost factor for a vertical pressure vessel is 4.16
and the total bare module factor, CBM is therefore determined using the following
equation.
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐹𝐵𝑀 × 𝐶𝑃
Table 7.1 Design Summary for Fluidized Bed Reactor
Catalytic Reactor Specification Sheet

Reactor Fluidized bed reactor
Item no. R-101
Catalytic conversion of ammonia and
Function ethyl acrylate to acrylonitrile
Orientation Vertical
Material of construction Carbon steel
Operating Conditions
Operating pressure, Po 4 bar 0.4 N/mm2
Operating Temperature, To 310°C 590°F
Design Pressure, Pd 0.44 N/mm2 4.4 bar
Design Temperature, Td 337.78°C 640°F
Mode of operation Continuous
Flow rate, Q 994.18 m3/min
Residence time 46 s
Volume, V 755.35 m3
Catalyst
Type of catalyst Titanium dioxide
Bed height at Umf 3.40 m
Bed volume at Umf 125.06 m3
Expended bed height at Uꝏ 10.13 m
Expended bed volume at Uꝏ 372.77 m3
Insulation
Insulating material Mineral wool
Density 130 kg/m3
Insulating thickness 0.05 m
Volume of insulation 22.07 m3
Shell Specification
Design stress, S 11500 psi 79.29 N/mm2
Weld Joint Efficiency 100%
249
L:D ratio 3
Internal diameter, Di 6.844 m 6844 mm
Outer diameter, Do 6.990 m 6900 mm
Length, L 20.53 m 20530 mm
Minimum wall thickness, tp 19.05 mm
Corrosion allowance, tc 0.002 m
Average thickness, tv 23.00 mm
Baffle cut 1.75 m
Head and closure 50.98 mm
Shell thickness 21.00 mm
Mass of vessel, Wv 116,429.55 kg
Weight of vessel, Wv 1,142,173.55 N
Mass of insulation, Wi 2,869.51 kg
Weight of insulation, Wi 28,149.93 N
Mass of catalyst 5928.82 kg
Weight of catalyst 58,161.77 N
Total mass, Wt 180,330.34 kg
Total weight, N 1,769,040.65 N
Gas Distributor Plate
Type of plate Perforated plate
Hole diameter 647.25 mm
Plate thickness 200.00 mm
Head and Closure
Type Formed flat plate
Diameter to height ratio 1:3
Head thickness 50.98 mm
Reactor Support
Type Straight cylindrical skirt (𝜃= 90°)
Material Carbon steel
Design stress, S 79.29 N/mm2
Wind loading, fw 8,947.24 N/m
Skirt support diameter, Ds 6.990 m
Skirt thickness, ts 23 mm
Skirt support height, Hs 3.00 m
Total weight including the skirt
support, WT 9,179 kN
Base ring and Anchor Bolts
Bolt spacing 600.00 mm
Bolt diameter 277.02 mm
Bolt Area 60,273.54 mm2
Circumference of bolt circle 6283.185 mm
Base ring thickness 36 mm
Number of bolts required 12
250
Type of bolt M24
Costing
Material factor, FM 1.0
Cost for column, CV ($USD) 31,294.36
Platform and ladders, CPL ($USD) 14,393.86
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 45,688.22
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 190,063.01
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 836.277.26
7.2.2 Flash Column (F-101 and F-102)
In this plant operation, it consists of two equipment that applied the flash
separation technique. It is F-101 and F-102. This equipment is basically are used to
separate the component with different phase. For the first flash separator vessel, F-
101, the equipment is mainly used to separate the large amount of ammonia gas from
the liquid mixture after the cooling process. For the second flash separator, F-102, it is
used to separate the main product, Acrylonitrile from the other component and plus to
increase the purity of the product.
In order to obtained the purchase cost and bare module cost of the equipment,
it is necessary to calculate all the component required related to the design and
measurement of the vessel. It includes the diameter of the vessel, total weight and
design pressure of the flash separator. All the summary details of the calculation have
been recorded in Table 7.2. and Table 7.3.
In order to estimate the bare module cost of the flash vessel, this parameter
should be calculated first. The column diameter indicates the internal width of the
cylindrical column. Column diameter will depend on the volumetric flowrate of the
fluid that will enter the column. The value of vapor volumetric flowrate was calculated
first in order to be used in diameter calculation. The formula to calculate the vapor
volumetric flowrate is as shown below;
251
𝑀𝑣
Vapor volumetric flowrate, 𝑉𝑣 =
3600 × 𝜌𝑣
where 𝑀𝑣 is the mass flowrate of the vapor outlet. The 𝑉𝑣 value obtained will
be forwarded into the formula to find the column diameter (Towler & Sinnott, 2011).
The formula is as shown below;
4𝑉
𝐷𝑣 = √𝜋𝑢𝑣
𝑡
where 𝐷𝑣 is the minimum vessel diameter of the flash separator. Then, column
height, 𝐻𝑣 indicate the minimum height required for the process in the cylindrical
column. Column height will depend on the volumetric flowrate of the liquid that will
enter the column. The value of liquid volumetric flowrate was calculated first in order
to be used in diameter calculation (Towler & Sinnott, 2011). The formula to calculate
the liquid volumetric flowrate is as shown below;
𝑀𝑙
Liquid volumetric flowrate, 𝑉𝑙 =
3600 × 𝜌𝑙
where 𝑀𝑙 is the mass flowrate of the liquid outlet. The 𝑉𝑙 value obtained will
be forwarded into the formula to find the hold-up volume. Hold up volume basically
is based on the hold-up time necessary for a smooth operation and control. Usually,
the hold-up time that is allowed is 10 minutes (Towler & Sinnott, 2011). Therefore,
the hold-up volume, 𝑉ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑑 is calculated using the formula;
𝑠
𝑉ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑉𝑙 × (10 min× 60 )
𝑚𝑖𝑛
252
Then, the hold-up volume will be divided with vessel cross-sectional area to
obtain the liquid depth required,ℎ𝐿 .
𝐷𝑣2
𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 = 𝜋 ( )
4
Therefore;
𝑉ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑑
ℎ𝐿 =
𝐴
According to Gavin Towler and Ray Sinnott (2011), the ℎ𝐿 value should be
added with 0.3m of height increment to allow the space to located the level controller.
The value of column height, 𝐻𝑣 was obtained using the formula below;
𝐷𝑣
𝐻𝑣 = ℎ𝐿 + + 𝐷𝑣 + 0.3𝑚
2
Design pressure, 𝑃𝑑 is one of the parameters that should be take into

consideration when designing the vessel. The vessel under internal pressure, the
maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) is set to be about 5% to 10% above
the normal working pressure of the process (Towler & Sinnott, 2011). For operating
procedure with pressure between 0 to 5 psig, the design pressure of 10psig should be
used. For the pressure between 10psig to 1000psig, the formula stated below should
be applied;
2
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒 [0.60608+0.91615(𝑙𝑛𝑃𝑜 )+0.0015655(𝑙𝑛𝑃𝑜) ]
While for pressure exceed 1000psig, it is determined by using the formula;
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑃𝑜 × 1.1
253
Column Dead Weight,𝑊𝑣 indicates the total weight of the vessel that includes
the shell of the vessel, nozzles, plates and also insulator. For this process, parts that
need to be included as the column dead weight is the vessel shell and the insulator.
The formula used calculate the total weight of the vessel is;
𝑊𝑣 = 240𝐶𝑤 𝐷𝑚 𝐻𝑣 + 0.8 𝐷𝑚 )𝑡
Where;
𝐶𝑤 = a factor to account for the weight of nozzles (1.08 for vessels with only a few
internal fittings)
𝐷𝑚 = mean diameter of vessel = (𝐷𝑖 + t × 10−3 )
Therefore, the mean diameter of the vessel should be calculated first before
calculating the column dead weight. For this vessel, since the material used is carbon
steel, the insulation material that is used will be mineral wool with the density of
mineral wool, 𝜌𝑖 of 130kg/𝑚3 . Therefore, the volume of insulation, 𝑉𝑖 can be
determined using the formula;
𝑉𝑖 = 𝜋 × 𝐷𝑖 × 𝐻𝑣 × 𝑡𝑖
Where 𝑡𝑖 is equal to the thickness of the insulation that is equal to

75mm.Therefore; the weight of the insulation, 𝑊𝑖 will be;
𝑊𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 × 𝜌𝑖 × g
254
Where g is the gravitational acceleration, 9.81m/𝑠 2 .Then, the weight of
insulator value obtained should be double to allow for fittings and sealing. Thus, the
total weight of the vessel is equivalent to the total addition of 𝑊𝑖 and 𝑊𝑣 .
Total weight, 𝑊𝑣𝑖 = 𝑊𝑖 + 𝑊𝑣
After obtaining the total weight of the flash vessel, the value will be applied to
calculated the cost estimation of the flash column. The cost estimation is one of the
necessary aspects that need to be considered during designing the process plant. The
capital cost estimation is usually based on the purchase of the major equipment items
in the process (Seider et al., 2016). For this individual part, the purchase cost, 𝐶𝑝 of
flash separator (F-102) was calculated first using the formula given;
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝑣 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿
Firstly, the Materials of Construction Factors, 𝐹𝑀 was obtained from the Table
16.26 in the Product and Process Design Principles: Synthesis, Analysis and
Evaluation, 4th Edition book. From this book, the material factor for carbon steel
material is equal to 1.0. Then, the value of cost of empty vessel, 𝐶𝑣 for the vertical
vessel was calculated using the formula;
2]
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒 [7.1390+0.18255(ln 𝑊)+0.02297(ln 𝑊)
Then, the added cost, 𝐶𝑃𝐿 should be calculated in order to be added to the
equation for purchase cost. The added cost should to be considered in the calculation
since the vessel comes with the outer part such as platform and ladder. Therefore;
𝐶𝑃𝐿 =410(𝐷𝑖 )0.73960(𝐿)0.70684
255
Where 𝐷𝑖 is internal diameter of vessel in ft and L is the height of vessel in ft.
Therefore, inserting all the information into the purchase cost, 𝐶𝑝 formula. Thus, bare
module cost can be calculated based on the following equation with the bare module
factor, FBM is equal to 4.16.
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
Table 7.2 Equipment Specification Sheet of Flash Column (F-101)
OPERATING CONDITION
Temperature 298.15K
Pressure 1 bar
VESSEL DESIGN
Domed Head Type Ellipsoidal
Minimum Wall Thickness 2.4235mm
WEIGHT OF COLUMN
Weight of vessel 0.4259kN
Weight of Insulation 2.5897kN
Total Dead Weight 3.0156kN
STRESS ANALYSIS
Pressure Stress 15.5307N/𝑚𝑚2
Longitudinal Stress 7.7654 N/𝑚𝑚2
Dead Weight Stress 0.7759 N/𝑚𝑚2
Bending Stress 1.9405 N/𝑚𝑚2
Resultant longitudinal stress(upwind) 10.4818 N/𝑚𝑚2
Resultant of longitudinal stress 6.6007 N/𝑚𝑚2

(downwind)
256
Different in principal stress 8.93 N/𝑚𝑚2
Critical buckling stress 94.5131 N/𝑚𝑚2
DESIGN OF NOZZLES
Feed nozzle diameter 2.1863mm
Top nozzle diameter 2.1131mm
Bottom Nozzle diameter 2.2021mm
EQUIPMENT COSTING
Material Factor 1.0
Cost of empty vessel, Cv (USD) 10995.67
Cost of platform and ladders, CpL 39.66
Purchase cost, Cp (USD) 11035.33
Bare Module Factor, FBM 4.16
Bare Module Cost, CBM (USD) 45906.97
Bare Module Cost, CBM (RM) 202312.02
Table 7.3 Equipment Specification Sheet of Flash Column (F-102)
Operating Condition
Temperature 298.15K
Pressure 1 bar
Vessel Design
Domed Head Type Ellipsoidal
Minimum Wall Thickness 2.4235mm
Weight Of Column
Weight of vessel 0.4259kN
Weight of Insulation 2.5897kN
Total Dead Weight 3.0156kN
Stress Analysis
257
Pressure Stress 15.5307N/𝑚𝑚2
Longitudinal Stress 7.7654 N/𝑚𝑚2
Dead Weight Stress 0.7759 N/𝑚𝑚2
Bending Stress 1.9405 N/𝑚𝑚2
Resultant longitudinal stress(upwind) 10.4818 N/𝑚𝑚2
Resultant of longitudinal stress 6.6007 N/𝑚𝑚2
(downwind)
Different in principal stress 8.93 N/𝑚𝑚2
Critical buckling stress 94.5131 N/𝑚𝑚2
Design Of Nozzles
Feed nozzle diameter 2.1863mm
Top nozzle diameter 2.1131mm
Bottom Nozzle diameter 2.2021mm
Equipment Costing
Material Factor 1.0
Cost of empty vessel, Cv (USD) 10995.67
Cost of platform and ladders, CpL 39.66
Purchase cost, Cp (USD) 11035.33
Bare Module Factor, FBM 4.16
Bare Module Cost, CBM (USD) 45906.97
Bare Module Cost, CBM (RM) 202312.02
7.2.3 Distillation Column (C-101)
The f.o.b. purchase cost of the distillation column using carbon steel as material
of construction including allowance for platforms, ladders, a nominal number of
nozzles and manholes, and trays installation in vacuum vessel is given by:
𝐶𝐵𝑇 = 468𝑒𝑥𝑝(0.1482𝐷𝑖 )
258
𝐶𝑇 = 𝑁𝑇 𝐹𝑁𝑇 𝐹𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝑇𝑀 𝐶𝐵𝑇
𝐶𝑣 = exp{7.1390 + 0.18255[ln(𝑊)] + 0.02297[ln(𝑊)]2 }
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 341(𝐷𝑖 )0.63316 (𝐿)0.80161
𝐼2021
𝐶𝑝 = (𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝑣 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿 + 𝐶𝑇 ) ( )
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒,2013
Where;
𝐶𝐵𝑇 = base cost for sieve tray at CE cost index ($)
𝐶𝑇 = cost for trays installation ($)
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = cost for platforms and ladders ($)
𝐶𝑝 = f.o.b purchase cost ($)
𝐶𝑣 = cost of empty vessel (including manholes, nozzles, and supports) ($)
𝑁𝑇 = number of trays
𝐹𝑁𝑇 = factor of number of trays
𝐹𝑇𝑇 = factor of tray type
𝐹𝑇𝑀 = factor of material construction
𝐹𝑀 = material of construction factor for vessel
259
Lastly, the bare-module cost (𝐶𝐵𝑀 ) is calculated by multiplying the purchase
cost, 𝐶𝑝 with a ratio of cost index, I at that later date to a base cost index, Ibase, and the
bare-module factor (𝐹𝐵𝑀 ) which is 4.16.
𝐼𝑖
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = ( ) 𝐹 × 𝐶𝑝
𝐼𝑏𝑖 𝐵𝑀
The complete calculation was shown in Appendix II
Table 7.4 Equipment Specification Sheet of Distillation Column (C-101)
Tag. No. C-101

Sheet No. DC101
Distillation Column Data Sheet Function Separation of Acrylonitrile from
the mixture of Ethanol, Water,
Ethyl Acrylate and Ammonia
Internal Condition
Temperature, °C 90.82
Pressure, bar 2
Top Section Liquid Density, kg/m3 3572.39
Vapor Density, kg/m3 2.7981
Surface Tension, mN/m 14.6775
Temperature, °C 123.96
Pressure, bar 2
Bottom Section Liquid Density, kg/m3 3170.39
Vapor Density, kg/m3 1.3176
Surface Tension, mN/m 51.4737
Reflux Ratio 0.94
Technical/Mechanical Data
Shell Material Carbon Steel SA-508
Shell Diameter, m 1.078
Shell Tangent Length, m 23.7
260
Column Cross-Section Area, m2 0.8771
Shell Thickness, mm 9
Design Temperature, °C 308.15
Design Pressure, bar 2.2
Insulation Materials Mineral Wool
Insulation Thickness, mm 50
Tray Type Sieve
Tray Material Carbon Steel SA-508
Liquid Flow Arrangement Reverse Flow
Number of Trays 46
Feed Point Location (From Top) 30
Number of Holes 3573
Tray Thickness, mm 5
Tray Diameter, m 1.06
Tray Spacing, m 0.45
Hole Diameter, mm 5
Hole Area, m2 0.00001963
Hole Pitch, mm 2000
Net Area, m2 0.7894
Active Area, m2 0.7017
Downcomer Area, m2 0.0877
Weir Length, m 0.7738
Weir Height, mm 50
Calming Zone Width, mm 50
Area of Calming Zone, m2 82.38
Turn-down, % 70
Downcomer Material Carbon Steel SA-508
Downcomer backup (hb), mm 178.99
Downcomer Height (Apron), mm 40
Pressure drops per plate, mm
56.04
liquid
261
Residence time per plate, s 10.29
Flooding Percentage, % 80
Type of Head Torispherical
Head and Closure Thickness,
0.4036
mm
Weight of Shell, N 65476.76
Weight of Plates, N 48712.53
Weight of Insulation, N 5032.5309
Skirt Material Carbon Steel SA-508
Skirt Thickness, mm 9
Skirt Height, m 3
Skirt Base Angle 90°
Nozzle Material Carbon Steel sch 40
Nozzle Diameter, m
D1 0.9535
D2 0.0843
D3 0.0276
D4 0.6391
D5 0.0130
Typer of Base Ring Double Ring Stiffened by Gussets
Base Ring Thickness, mm 15
Base Ring Diameter, m 0.135
Bolt Material Stainless Steel
Number of Bolts 12
Bolt Diameter, mm 25
Pitch Circle Diameter, m 2
Equipment Costing
Base cost of tray, CBT ($USD) 738.57
Cost for installed trays, CT
45007.73
($USD)
Material Factor, FM 1.00
262
Cost for column, CV ($USD) 60264.05
Platforms and ladders, CPL
24609.85
($USD)
Purchase cost, CP ($USD) 150987.84
Bare module factor, FBM 4.16
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 468216.44
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 2060162.34
7.2.4 Absorption Column (C-102)
Since acrylonitrile is the main product in our process, absorption columns were
utilised to separate it from a vapour mixture of ethanol, acrylonitrile, water, ethyl
acrylate, and ammonia in this chemical plant. To absorb the ethanol from the mixes,
dimethyl sulfoxide was utilised as a liquid solvent. Following the separation process,
acrylonitrile will flow upwards as a vapour, while ethanol will flow below as a liquid
solution with the solvent.
It's commonly done in vertical counter-current columns. The liquid solvent will
be fed into the system from the top of the absorption columns, while the vapour
mixture will flow from the bottom inlet. The vapour mixture will then begin to float
upwards, while the liquid solvent will flow downhill. The liquid solvent will wash off
any contaminants or absorbed components from the vapour mixes, allowing them to
flow downhill into the liquid solution at the bottom of the absorption column. The
clean vapour then flows upwards into the absorption columns' top outlet. When
calculating the cost of a purchase, certain factors must be considered Table 7.7 shows
the equipment specification sheet of absorption column.
In the absence of considerations for corrosion, wind, and earthquakes, and for
internal pressures larger than the exterior pressure, the cylindrical shell wall thickness
is determined using the ASME pressure vessel code formula.
263
𝑃𝑑 𝐷𝑖
𝑡𝑝 =
2𝑆𝐸 − 1.2𝑃𝑑
Where,
𝑡𝑝 is wall thickness in inch,
𝑃𝑑 is internal gauge pressure in psig,
𝐷𝑖 is inside shell diameter in inches,
𝑆 is maximum allowable stress of the shell material at the design temperature in pounds
per square inch,
𝐸 is fractional weld efficiency
The following equation can be used to estimate the approximate weight of a

vessel with domed heads and uniform wall thickness for preliminary calculations.
Weight of Vessel, 𝑊𝑣 can be obtained as below;
𝑊𝑣 = 240 𝐶𝑉 𝐷𝑚 (𝐻𝑣 + 0.8 𝐷𝑚 )𝑡
In the equation, 𝐶𝑉 is stand for a weight factor to account for nozzles,

manways, internal supports, and so on. For vertical vessels, the 𝐶𝑉 is calculated using
equation below when the weight is;
𝐶𝑉 = exp{7.1390 + 0.18255[𝑙𝑛(𝑊) + 0.02297[ln(𝑊)]2 ]}
The construction purchase cost, which includes an allowance for platforms,

ladders, and a nominal number of nozzles and manholes, is given by;
264
After that, the added cost, 𝐶𝑃𝐿 for platforms and ladders depends on the inside
diameter and the length of the column, in feet is given by;
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 410(𝐷𝑖 )0.73960 (𝐿)0.70684
Then, for material of construction factor, 𝐹𝑀 is given in the Table 7.5 below.
Table 7.5 Material of Construction Factor, FM (Coulson & Richardson., 2018)
After that, the bare-module cost needs to be calculated. The bare-module cost,
𝐶𝐵𝑀 or installed cost is calculated using the bare-module factor, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 and the
equipment’s free-on-board (f.o.b., excluding delivery costs). The bare-module factor,
𝐹𝐵𝑀 can be obtain from Table 7.6 below;
Table 7.6 Bare-Module Factors, FBM (Coulson & Richardson., 2018)
265
From the table, the 𝐹𝐵𝑀 for this vertical pressure vessel is 4.16. To
calculate the 𝐶𝐵𝑀 , the equation below is used;
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
Table 7.7 Equipment Specification Sheet of Absorption Column (C-102)
266
Absorption Column (C-102)
Item Absorption Column Date 25.4.2022
Item No C-102 Nur Alia Farhana Binti Ros
By
No. of unit 1 Madi
Function To separate ethanol from gas mixture using DMSO as solvent
Operation Continuous Operation
Operating Data
Stream TOP INLET BOTTOM INLET TOP OUTLET BOTTOM OUTLET
Temperature, K 343.15 343.15 343.15 343.15
Pressure, atm 1 1 1 1
Liquid Density (kg/m^3) 1100
Vapor Density (kg/m^3) 31.31500348
Composition (kg/hr)
Ethanol 0 6102.298124 305.11 5797.18
Acrylonitrile 0 7005.752305 7005.75 0.00
Dimethyl Sulfoxide 10000 0 0.00 10000.00
Water 0 12.41851908 12.42 0.00
Ethyl Acrylate 0 5.949530836 5.95 0.00
Ammonia 0 0.400997316 0.40 0.00
Total mass flowrate 10000 13126.81948 7329.64 15797.18
Chemical Design
Column Diameter, m 1.90 Column Height, m 7.71
Vapor Volumetric Flowrate, Pressure Drop, mmH2O/m
419.19 16.71
m^3/h packing
Liquid Holdup, m 3.52E-07 Wetting Rate, m^2/s 7.35E-06
Mechanical Design
Design Pressure, atm 1.1 Design Temperature, K 348.15
Materials of column Low Alloy Steel Thickness of column, mm 2.40

Thickness of Domed Head,
Type of Domed Head 2.40
mm
50 mm ceramic pall
Type of Packing Weight of Packing, N 30206.81
rings
Straight Cylindrical
Weight of Vessel, N 10937.71 Type of Skirt
Skirt
Material of Skirt Carbon Steel Thickness of Skirt, mm 6
Diameter of Skirt, mm 1901.52 Bolt Material Stainless Steel
Number of Bolts 12 Bolt Diameter, mm 80.14

Circumference of bolt
6284.00 Area of One Bolt, mm^2 125.90
circle,mm
Inlet Top Liquid Solvent Outlet Top Gas Mixture
43.41 127.94
Nozzle Diameter, m Nozzle Diameter, m
Inlet Bottom Gas Mixture Outlet Bottom Liquid
174.24 192.20
Nozzle Diameter, m Mixture Nozzle Diameter,
267
7.2.5 Heater (E-103 and E-104)
In this plant design, two heaters are employed to boost the temperature of
streams E-103 and E-104. The identification of heaters is accomplished by conducting
process integration and designing heater to determine how many heaters are required
to transfer heat efficiently in support of heaters. As a heating medium, the heaters
utilized hot steam to boost the temperature of the stream. In this facility, all heaters
used a shell-and-tube layout with counterflow to enhance heat transfer. Based on
preliminary research, the shell and tube heater are the most suited heater for increasing
the temperature of fluids in liquid or gaseous form (Albrecht, 2004).
The cost of purchase, Cp for all of our heaters can be done by using the
following formula;
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑀 𝐹𝐿 𝐹𝑃 𝐶𝐵
Where;
CB is bare cost,
FM is the material cost
FP is the pressure factor
FL is the tube length factor
Since our maximum operating temperature is only 310 degrees Celsius, we

have opted for a heater with a carbon steel shell and stainless-steel tubes. The
combination of stainless-steel tube and carbon steel shell is our material's most cost-
effective and dependable solution. To calculate the material factor, FM, the following
formula will be utilised:
268
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
Where;
𝐴 is the cross-sectional area for the heat exchanger,
𝑎 and 𝑏 is the factor for the chosen material
Chapter 16 of Warren D. Seider's Product and Process Design Principle

provides the values for 𝑎 and 𝑏. Similarly, the tube length factor was obtained from
the same chapter. The tube length factor is approximately 1.25 after assuming a tube
length of 12 feet for every heater. On the other hand, the following formula will be
used to compute the pressure factor for our heater:
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
Where;
P is the gauge pressure, psig
However, only equipment with a psig value over 100 should be considered,
and since our maximum psig is only at 58.07, the pressure factor will not be included
in the purchase cost. Lastly, to calculate our cost of purchase, the bare cost should also
be calculated, and it can be done by using the following formula;
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(𝐴)] + 0.09790 [ln(𝐴)]2 ]
Thus, in calculating the surface area of the heat exchanger A is a cross sectional
area of shell tube using the equation below,
269
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈 × ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
Where;
A is cross sectional area of shell tube
Q is heat transfer per unit mean temperature difference
U is an overall heat transfer coefficient
ΔTLM is log mean temperature difference
Then, in calculating log mean temperature difference, ΔTLM below is the equation used
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Where;
T1 is an inlet hot fluid temperature
T2 is an outlet of hot fluid temperature
t1 is and inlet of cold fluid temperature
t2 is an outlet of cold fluid temperature
Table 7.8 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (E-103)
270
Equipment Specification sheet
Item no. Heater (E-103)
Function To increase the temperature from
300.25oC to 310oC
Type of fluid Steam
Material of Construction
Shell Carbon Steel
Tube Stainless Steel
Tube Side Shell Side
Inlet 300.25 Inlet Temperature 300
Temperature(oC) (oC)
Outlet 310 Outlet Temperature 290
Temperature (oC) (oC)
Pressure (psig) 58.015 Pressure(psig) 58.015
Heat duty (W) 96400 Log Mean 10.124
Temperature
Driving force,
ΔTLM (oC)
Heat Transfer 1500 Tube Length, ft 12
Coefficient, U
(W/m2C)
Surface area, ft2 6.347 Tube length factor, 1.25
FL
Pressure Factor, FP 0.99
Material Factor, Fm 2.70
Base cost, CB (RM) 54130.95
Purchase cost, Cp (RM) 283052.90
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 203 926.78
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 897 277.80
271
Table 7.9 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heater (E-104)
Item no. Heater (E-104)
Function To increase the temperature from
270.16oC to 310oC
Type of fluid Steam
Shell Carbon Steel
Inlet Temperature 270.16 Inlet Temperature 280
(oC) (oC)
Outlet 310 Outlet Temperature 270
Heat duty (W) 72 000 Log Mean 5.7625
Temperature
Driving force,
ΔTLM (oC)
Heat Transfer 1 500 Tube Length, ft 12

Coefficient, U
(W/m2C)
FL
Base cost, CB (RM) 53 184.94
Purchase cost, Cp (RM) 247 373.80
Bare module cost, CBM ($USD) 178 221.57
272
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 784 174.90
7.2.6 Cooler (E-106, E-107 and E-108)
Coolers E-106, E-107 and E-108 are designed using the same shell and tube
heat exchanger theory as heaters as previously stated, but in a different manner that
removes heat from the system. All the coolers utilized water as the medium for cooling.
The concept of releasing heat from the process stream through shell-and-tube heat
exchangers remains the same, but with different operating conditions and temperatures
in which cooling water is utilized as the cooling agent. Therefore, the operational
design summary for all coolers is provided below.
The cost of purchase, Cp for all of our cooler can be done by using the following
formula;
Where;
CB is bare cost,
Since our maximum operating temperature is only 1,750 degrees Celsius, we

have opted for cooler with a carbon steel shell and stainless-steel tubes. The
273
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
Where;

length of 12 feet for every cooler. On the other hand, the following formula will be
used to compute the pressure factor for our cooler:
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
Where;
274
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(𝐴)] + 0.09790 [ln(𝐴)]2 ]
𝑄
𝐴=
Where;
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Where;
275
Table 7.10 Equipment Specification Sheet of Cooler (E-106)
Item no. Cooler (E-106)
Function To reduce the temperature from

183.49oC to 45oC
Type of fluid Cooling water
Shell Carbon Steel
Inlet 40 Inlet Temperature 183.49

Temperature(oC) (oC)
Outlet 178.78 Outlet Temperature 45


Temperature
Driving force,
ΔTLM (oC)

Coefficient, U
(W/m2C)

FL
276
Function To reduce the temperature from 45oC to

25oC
Shell Carbon Steel
Inlet Temperature 20 Inlet Temperature 45

(oC) (oC)


Temperature
Driving force,
ΔTLM (oC)
277
Coefficient, U
(W/m2C)

FL

Function To reduce the temperature from 70oC to
25oC
Shell Carbon Steel
Inlet Temperature 30 Inlet Temperature 70
(oC) (oC)
278
Temperature
Driving force,
ΔTLM (oC)

Coefficient, U
(W/m2C)
FL
7.2.7 Heat Exchanger (E-101, E-102 and E-105)
Heat exchangers are an important machine for the chemical processing

industry. They offer a method that is effective for supplying heat or recovering heat
energy from a particular system. A heat exchanger is a device that maintains thermal
contact while transferring thermal energy or enthalpy between two or more fluids, a
solid surface and a fluid, or a solid particle and a fluid. Normally, this equipment has
no external heat or work contact.
The most typical type heat exchanger that will be employed is a shell and tube
unit. Finned tubes, single- or two-phase heat transfer, counter-current flow, co-current
flow, or crossflow arrangements, as well as single, two, or multiple pass configurations
are the several types of flow configurations for heat exchangers. Counter-current flow
279
is the arrangement utilised in the plant because it distributes heat more evenly and
allows for maximum efficiency. Table 7.13, Table 7.14, and Table 7.15 show the
equipment specification sheet for all the heat exchangers.
The cost of purchase, Cp for all of our heat exchanger can be done by using the
following formula;
Where;
CB is bare cost,
Since our maximum operating temperature is only 1,750 degrees Celsius, we

have opted for a heat exchanger with a carbon steel shell and stainless-steel tubes. The
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
Where;
280
length of 12 feet for every heat exchanger. On the other hand, the following formula
will be used to compute the pressure factor for our heat exchanger:
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
Where;
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(𝐴)] + 0.09790 [ln(𝐴)]2 ]
𝑄
𝐴=
Where;
281
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Where;
Table 7.13 Equipment Specification Sheet of Heat Exchanger (E-101)

Item no. Heat Exchanger (E-101)
Function To increase the temperature from -40oC
to 300oC
Type of fluid Steam
Shell Carbon Steel
282
Inlet -40 Inlet Temperature 310
Temperature (oC)
(oC)
Outlet 300 Outlet 45
Temperature Temperature
(oC) (oC)
Heat duty (W) 3,276,650 Log Mean 35.05
Temperature
Driving force,
ΔTLM (oC)

Coefficient, U
(W/m2C)
FL
Base cost, CB (RM) 73,207.47
Purchase cost, Cp (RM) 143,680.90
Bare module cost, CBM (RM) 455,468.30

Function To increase the temperature from 70oC
to 270.16oC
Type of fluid Steam
283
Shell Carbon Steel
Inlet 70 Inlet Temperature 183.9
Temperature (oC)
(oC)
Outlet 270.16 Outlet 45
(oC) (oC)
Temperature
Driving force,
ΔTLM (oC)

Coefficient, U
(W/m2C)
FL
284

Function To decrease the temperature from
310oC to 270.16oC
Type of fluid Steam
Shell Carbon Steel
Inlet 310 Inlet Temperature 70
Temperature (oC)
(oC)
Outlet 183.49 Outlet 270.16
(oC) (oC)
Temperature
Driving force,
ΔTLM (oC)

Coefficient, U
(W/m2C)
FL
285
7.2.8 Pump (P-101 and P-102)
A pump is a part of the basic equipment in any plant that is used to move fluids
through a piping system from one type of equipment to another and to increase the
pressure of the process fluid. A centrifugal pump is used in this plant because it is
relatively inexpensive to buy and easy to assemble. It also has a wide range of materials
for construction and can handle slurries really well. The material used for the P-101
and P-102 is stainless steel because ammonia and ethyl acrylate flow through these
pumps, respectively. Ammonia has alkaline properties and is corrosive. Hence, using
stainless steel as the material of the pumps is a good choice because stainless steel is
resistant to corrosion and oxidation. Pumps that are made from stainless steel are also
resistant to solvents, acids, sea water, brine, and other chemicals. In our case, pumps
are mainly used to pump ammonia and ethyl acrylate into the reactor. P-101 and P-102
are the labels for the two pumps. Pump head, brake horsepower, size factor, material
factor, and type factor are all factors to consider when calculating a pump.
To begin the calculation, the size factor is calculated using the following
equation:
𝑆 = 𝑄(𝐻)0.5
Where:
Q is the flow rate in gallons per minute.
286
H is pump head (ft)
The pump head value can be calculated by dividing the pressure rise by the
pump in accordance with the density of the liquid ammonia. The base purchase cost is
then computed using formula depicted below.
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{12.1656 − 1.1448[ln(𝑆)] + 0.0862 𝑙𝑛[(𝑆)2 ]}
Then, the f.o.b purchase cost is given by the following equation.
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑇 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝐵
After calculating the 𝐶𝑃 of the pump, the cost of the electric motor is
considered, as centrifugal pumps are typically driven by an electric motor. First, the
value of 𝑃𝐶 's horsepower consumption is calculated using the following equation:
𝑃𝑇 𝑃𝐵 𝑄𝐻𝜌
𝑃𝐶 = = =
𝜂𝑃 𝜂𝑀 𝜂𝑀 30000𝜂𝑃 𝜂𝑀
Where:
𝑄= flow rate through pump (gallons/min)
𝐻= pump head of fluid flowing (ft)
𝑃𝐵 = pump brake horsepower
𝜌 = density of liquid (lb/gallon)
287
The following equation is used to calculate the value of 𝜂𝑃 , which
estimates the value as a function of the volumetric flow rate, Q, for Q values ranging
from 50 to 50,000 gpm.
𝜂𝑃 = −0.316 + 0.24015 (ln 𝑄) − 0.01199 (ln 𝑄)2
On the other hand, the following equation is used to determine the value of 𝜂𝑀
𝑃𝑇
for 𝑃𝐵 values ranging from 1 to 1,500 Hp. Using the above equation, 𝑃𝐶 = 𝜂 =
𝑃 𝜂𝑀
𝑃𝐵 𝑄𝐻𝜌
= 30000𝜂 , the value can be calculated.
𝜂𝑀 𝑃 𝜂𝑀
𝜂𝑀 = 0.80 + 0.0319 ( 𝑙𝑛 𝑃𝐵 ) − 0.00182 (ln 𝑃𝐵 )2
Once the value of horsepower consumption, 𝑃𝐶 , has been determined, the base
cost, 𝐶𝐵 , can be calculated using the equation below.
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{[ln(𝑃𝑐 )]2 + 0.071413[ln(𝑃𝑐 )]3 − 0.0063788[ln(𝑃𝑐 )]4 }
This is accurate for horsepower ratings ranging from 1 to 700. If a different

type of motor is used, the CP is calculated as follows:
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑇 𝐶𝐵
Whereas, PC, the value of FT is applicable between 1 and 1,500 HP of electric

motor power consumption. Tables 7.16 and 7.17 below summarise the pump summary
designs (P-101 and P-102).
288
Table 7.16 Equipment Specification Sheet of Pump (P-101)
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET

Pump No. P-101
Function To increase pressure from 1 bar to 4 bar
Material of Construction Stainless Steel
1 Outlet pressure, Po
Inlet pressure,Pi (bar) (bar) 4
-40 Outlet temperature,
Inlet temperature, Ti (°C) To (°C) -40
Flowrate, Q (gpm) 35.73 Size factor, S 500.55
Pump Head, H (ft) 196.25 Shaft (rpm) 3600
1 Max motor power
Number of stages (Hp) 75
1 Bare module factor,
Type factor, Ft Fbm 3.3
Vertical Split
Case split orientation Case (VSC) Material factor, Fm 2
Purchase Cost, Cp (RM) 4008.58
Bare module cost, Cbm (RM) 13228.30
Table 7.17 Equipment Specification Sheet of Pump (P-102)
EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION SHEET

Pump No. P-102
Function To increase pressure from 1 bar to 4 bar
Material of Construction Stainless Steel
1 Outlet pressure, Po
Inlet pressure,Pi (bar) (bar) 4
70 Outlet temperature, To
Inlet temperature, Ti (°C) (°C) 70
Flowrate, Q (gpm) 83.37 Size factor, S 1003.89
Pump Head, H (ft) 144.98 Shaft (rpm) 3600
Number of stages 1 Max motor power (Hp) 75
1 Bare module factor,
Type factor, Ft Fbm 3.3
Vertical Split
Case split orientation Case (VSC) Material factor, Fm 2
Purchase Cost, Cp (RM) 2037.49
Bare module cost, Cbm (RM) 6723.71
289
7.3 Waste Treatment Cost
Waste management is crucial in any chemical plant since the main production
necessitates compliance with the Environmental Quality Act's discharge standards and
regulations (EQA). As a result, the cost of waste disposal must be included in the
overall cost of the operation. In this plant, the waste that need to be treated is discharge
from the reactor (R-101), flash column (F-101), distillation column (C-101),
absorption column (C-102) and flash column (F-102) with 313 days of plant operation.
The waste streams for liquid wastes are summarized in Table 7.18.
Table 7.18 Wastewater streams discharged
Average
Mass Density Mass flowrate
Equipment Substances density
Fraction (kg/m3) (kg/hr)
(kg/m3)
Distillation Water 0.79 997 2392.08 787.63
column (C-101) Ethyl acrylate 0.19 940 588.52 178.60
Absorption DMSO 0.37 1100 10000 407.00
Column (C-102) Ethanol 0.63 789 5782.53 497.07
Total 18763.13 1870.30
Total liquid waste:
𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 24 ℎ𝑟 365 𝑑𝑎𝑦
= 18763.13 × × × = 87, 881.63 𝑚3 /𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
ℎ𝑟 1870.30 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
Then, the waste treatment cost, 𝐶𝑤𝑡 is estimated per year:
87, 881.63 𝑚3 $0.33

= × = $29, 000.94
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚3
290
= $29, 000.94 × 4.4 = 𝑅𝑀 127, 604.13
7.4 Utilities Cost
Utilities are one of the key expenses that must be included in the company's
financial accounts while operating a chemical plant. The most typical utilities
consumed in this acrylonitrile production plant are steam, electricity, cooling water,
and process water. Table 7.19 shows the allocated cost for the utilities of this plant.
Table 7.19 Allocated cost for utility of the plant
Utility Size factor, S Range of S Allocated cost ($)

Steam Flow rate, lb/hr 20,000-1,000,000 lb/hr Calloc = 930 × S0.81
Electricity Power, MW 0.5-1,000 MW Calloc = 2,900,000 × S0.83
Cooling water Flow rate, gpm 1,000-200,000 gpm Calloc = 1,100 × S0.68
Process water Flow rate, gpm 5-10,000 gpm Calloc = 1,700 × S0.96
1. Steam
Assuming flowrate of 42,379.55 lb/hr
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 = 930 × 𝑆 0.81
= 930 × 42,379.550.81
= $5,205,705.16
= 𝑅𝑀22,905,102.71
2. Electricity
291
Assuming power supply of 0.5 MW
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 = 2,900,000 × 𝑆 0.83
= 2,900,000 × 0.50.81
= $1,702,285.93
= 𝑅𝑀7,490,058.08
3. Cooling water
Assuming power supply of 1000 gpm
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 = 1,100 × 𝑆 0.68
= 1,100 × 10000.68
= $120,612.60
= 𝑅𝑀530,695.45
4. Process water
Assuming flow rate of 10 gpm
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 = 1,700 × 𝑆 0.96
292
= 1,700 × 100.96
= $15,504.18
= 𝑅𝑀68,218.41
7.5 Total Labor Cost
For estimation labor cost, the assumptions were made for this plant as follows:
Assumptions:
1. Total working days per year is considered 313 days.
2. Average total working period for single operators is 44 weeks/year.
3. 3 weeks of vacation are off and sick leave for each operator.
4. Operator working 8 hours per shift and 3 shifts per day .
Table 7.20 Operating labor estimation cost
Number of Number of Total of

Equipment Units Equipment
operator/shifts shifts operators
Reactor 1 R-101 1 3 3
Flash F-101
2 2 3 6
Column F-102
Distillation
1 C-101 1 3 3
Column
Absorption
1 C-102 1 3 3
Column
293
E-101
Heat
3 E-102 3 3 9
Exchanger
E-105
E-103
Heater 2 2 3 6
E-104
E-106
Cooler 3 E-107 3 3 9
E-108
Total of operators 39
The labor cost in Malaysia is around RM 1,555 per month multiply with the
total number of operators which is 39. Hence, the total operating labor cost is around
RM 60,645 per month and RM 727,740 per year respectively.
7.6 Profit Margin
An acrylonitrile manufacturing plant's profit margin is the amount of net

income made after deducting the cost of product revenue from the cost of raw
materials. The profit margin is used to calculate the profitability of the chemical plant.
The following equation was used to calculate the annual profit margin:
Profit Margin (RM) = Product Revenue (RM/year) – Raw Material (RM/year)
In this plant, ammonia and ethyl acrylate are the raw materials. Specifically,
the total required ammonia and ethyl acrylate per year is estimated to be 122,640 and
52,560 tonne/year respectively with the operation of 313 days/year which is
44weeks/year. The annual cost of catalyst is to be assumed as 1% of the raw material
cost (Towler & Sinnott. 2013). Table 7.21 below shows the raw material cost per year.
Table 7.21 Raw material cost
294
Raw Material Market Price Raw Material
Raw Material
Capacity (tonne/year) (RM/tonne) Cost (RM/year)
Ammonia 52560 3300 173,448,000

Ethyl Acrylate 122640 3310 405,938,400
DMSO 87600 6523.1 571,423,560
Total Raw Material Cost (RM) 1,150,809,960
Cost addition with 1% catalyst used in reactor (R-101) 1,162,318,060
In this chemical plant, the main product is acrylonitrile with a predictable

capacity of 61390 tonnes/year. Meanwhile, the expected by-product production of
ethyl acrylate, ethanol and DMSO are 5155.44 tonnes/year, 50654.96 tonnes/year and
87600 tonnes/year respectively. Table 7.22 showed the product revenue cost per year.
Table 7.22 Product revenue cost
Predictable Capacity Market Price Product Revenue

Production
(tonne/year) (RM/tonne) Cost (RM/year)
Acrylonitrile 61370 25560 1,568,617,200
Ethyl Acrylate
5155.44 3310 17,064,519.51
(by-product)
Ethanol (by-
50654.96 4750 240,611,073.3
product)
DMSO (by-
87600.00 4410 386,316,000
product)
Total Product Revenue, S (RM/year) 2,212,608,793
By using the equation stated below, the value of the profit margin is:
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝑀 2,212,608,793 − 𝑅𝑀 1,162,318,060 = 𝑅𝑀 1,050,290,733
Therefore, the acrylonitrile production plant was estimated profitable since the
profit margin is in positive value.
295
7.7 Total Capital Investment
The total capital investment is a one-time cost for designing, building, and
starting a new factory. In order to calculate the total capital investment (CTPI), the
Guthrie method is used which is shown below.
𝐶𝑇𝐶𝐼 = (𝐶𝑇𝑃𝐼 + 𝐶𝑊𝐶 )
Where CTPI is total permanent investment while CWC is the working capital.
Meanwhile, the total permanent investment (CTPI) is calculated using equation below.
𝐶𝑇𝑃𝐼 = 1.18 (𝐶𝑇𝐵𝑀 + 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 + 𝐶𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 +𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 )
Where the total bare-module cost, CTBM refers to the summation of the bare
module cost of each equipment that has been calculated previously. Csite is the total
site cost in which this acrylonitrile plant is assumed grassroot and there is an additional
integrated complex. Meanwhile, Cbuildings which is the total building cost includes
process buildings and non-process buildings. The overall cost of offsite facilities,
Coffsite facilities, includes the costs of utility plants for which the plant offers facilities for
its own employees. Furthermore, total depreciable capital (CTDC) is the value of a fixed
asset less all accumulated depreciation reported against it. The factor 1.18 in the
equation below included a contingency of 15% and a contractor fee of 3%.
Total allocated capital investment for offsite facilities:
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 = 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 (𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚) + 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 (𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)

+ 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 (𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)+𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 (𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
= 𝑅𝑀 22,905,102.71 + 𝑅𝑀 7,490,058.08 + 𝑅𝑀530,695.45 + 𝑅𝑀 68,218.41
296
= 𝑅𝑀 30,994,074.65
𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 = 15% 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑇𝐵𝑀
= 0.15 × 𝑅𝑀 9,870,398.16
= 𝑅𝑀 1,480,559.72
𝐶𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 20% 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑇𝐵𝑀
= 0.2 × 𝑅𝑀 9,870,398.16
= 𝑅𝑀 1,974079.63
𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐 + 5% 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑇𝐵𝑀
= 𝑅𝑀 30,670,128.75 + (0.05 × 𝑅𝑀 9,870,398.16)
= 𝑅𝑀 31,487,594.56
𝐶𝑇𝑃𝐼 = 1.18 (𝐶𝑇𝐵𝑀 + 𝐶𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 + 𝐶𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 +𝐶𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 )
= 1.18 × (𝑅𝑀 9,870,398.16 + 𝑅𝑀 1,480,559.72 + 𝑅𝑀 1,974079.63

+ 𝑅𝑀 31,163,648.69
= 𝑅𝑀 52,878,905.85
𝐶𝑊𝐶 = 17.6% 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑇𝑃𝐼
297
= 0.176 × 𝑅𝑀 52,496,649.69
= 𝑅𝑀 9,306,687.85
The total capital investment, 𝐶𝑇𝐶𝐼 :
𝐶𝑇𝐶𝐼 = 𝐶𝑇𝑃𝐼 + 𝐶𝑊𝐶
= 𝑅𝑀 52,878,905.85 + 𝑅𝑀 9,306,687.85
= 𝑅𝑀 62,185,593.28
Table 7.23 Summarization of total costs
Cost Equation Total Cost (RM)

CTBM - 9,870,398.16
CSite 15% of CTBM 1,480,559.72
CBuildings 20% of CTBM 1,974,079.63
COffsite facilities 5% of CTBM + Total Calloc 31,487,594.56
CTPI 1.18(CTBM+ Csite+Cbuidings+Coffsite facility) 52,878,905.85
CWC 17.6% of CTPI 9,306,687.43

CTCI CTPI + CWC 62,185,593.28
7.8 Total Depreciable Capital
Total depreciable cost equals the value of a fixed asset minus the cost
accumulated depreciation recorded against it. In a larger sense, depreciated cost is the
total amount of capital "used up" in a certain period, such as a fiscal year. The
298
depreciated cost can be analyzed for patterns in a company's capital investment and
how aggressive its accounting techniques are, as measured by how precisely
depreciation is calculated. The term "depreciated cost" is also used to refer to the
"salvage value," "net book value," or "adjusted cost base" (Hayes, 2021). Table 7.24
shows the total depreciable cost for this acrylonitrile production plant along with its
typical factor.
Table 7.24 Summarization of total depreciable cost, CTDC
Total depreciable capital, CTDC Typical factor Total CTDC (RM)

Total site and service cost, (Csite +
30% of CTBM 2,961,119.448
Cservice)
CTBM +Csite +
Direct permanent investment cost, CDPI 43,825,592.26
Cservice+ Calloc
Contingency cost and contractor fee,
18% of CDPI 7,888,606.607
Ccont
Total Depreciation capital, CTDC CDPI + CCONT 51,714,198.87
7.9 Total Annual Production Cost
The total annual production cost is the sum of the cost of manufacture and
general expenses which as shown in the equation below.
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑂𝑀 + 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑠
General expenses are activities carried out by a company's central operations,

sometimes at the corporate headquarters, and are funded by earnings generated by the
company's operating plants (Seider, 2004). The cost estimates include feedstocks,
services, labor-related operational costs (O), maintenance (M), operating overhead,
property taxes, insurance, and depreciation. Seider et al. discuss the calculation of the
size factor for each division. The manufacturing division considers operational labor,
operation and repairs, operating overhead, property taxes and insurance, and
299
depreciation. Then there are the general costs, which encompass departments such as
human resources, R&D, sales, and transportation. The annual cost estimation of the
acrylonitrile producing plant is described in Table 7.25.
Table 7.25 Summary of total annual production cost
Annual Cost Summary

Annual cost
Cost Factor Typical Factor
(RM)
Feedstocks (raw materials) - 1,150,809,960
Utilities (steam, cooling water, process
- 741,086.35
water, electricity)
Labour Operation Cost, (O)
Direct wages and benefits (DW&B) - 1,048,128
Direct salary and benefit 15% of DW&B 157,219.2
Operating supplies and service 6% of DW&B 62,887.68
Technical assistance to manufacturing - 60,645
Control laboratory - 50,000
Total labour-related operations 1,378,879.88
Maintenance (M)
Maintenance wages and benefits 3.5% of CTDC 1,809,996.96
Salaries and benefits 25% of MW&B 452,499.24
Material and services 100% of MW&B 1,809,996.96
Maintenance overhead 5% of MW&B 90,499.85
Total annual maintenance cost 4,162,993.01
Total M&O-SW&B 3,467,843.40
Operating Overhead
General plant overhead 7.1% of M&O-SW&B 246,216,881.40
General plant overhead 2.4% of M&O-SW&B 83,228.24161
Employee relation department 5.9% of M&O-SW&B 204,602.76
Business services 7.4% of M&O-SW&B 256,620.41
Total operating overhead 246,761,332.80
Property taxes and insurances
Property taxes and insurances 2% of CTDC 1,034,283.98
Depreciation
8% of (CTDC -
Direct plant 1,211,295.26
1.18Calloc)
Allocated plant 6% of 1.18Calloc 2,194,380.49
300
Total depreciation, D 3,405,675.75
Total cost manufacture, COM 1,408,294,212
General expenses
Total annual
General expenses Typical factor
(RM)
Transfer expenses 3% of sales 86,704,007.78
Direct research 4.8% of sales 138,726,412.50
Allocated research 0.5% of sales 14,450,667.96
Administrative expense 2.0% of sales 57,802,671.86
Management incentive compensation 2.0% of sales 57,802,671.86
Total general expenses, GE 272,150,881.5
Total production cost, C COM+GE 1,680,445,093
7.10 Cash Flow Analysis
The cash flow analysis diagram displays the entire flow of revenues and costs
during the plant's operation. Table 7.26 shows the cumulative cash flow, which may
be used to draw a cash flow diagram and calculate the payback period for a
acrylonitrile producing unit. The payback period of this plant is the amount of time it
takes for an investment to recoup its initial outlay in profits or savings. A graphical
representation of cumulative cash flow vs time period is required to calculate the
payback period. A set of computations, such as revenue, operating expenses, and cash
flow before and after tax, are required to construct the cumulative cash flow illustrated
in Table 7.26. A few assumptions have been made for this cash flow study.
1. For this acrylonitrile production plant, the total operating period is 20 years
with 3 years at the beginning as the start-up operation period.
2. For the first 3 years of operation, the plant is not going to reach maximum
operation. The revenue will be 20%, 50% and 90% of the maximum for year
1, 2, and 3 respectively.
301
3. The capital investment used in the first year of the plant is 50% from the total
capital investment CTCI which the second year is 30% of the CTCI. Meanwhile,
in the third year of operation, the remaining CTCI is made up of 20% capital
investment in the plant.
302
Table 7.26 Cash flow analysis for acrylonitrile production plant
Operating Operating Cash Flow
Annual Capital Depreciation, Taxable Cumulative
Year Revenue, R Expenses, Expenses, Taxes, Te After Taxes,
Investment, CTCI D Income, TI Cash Flow
OE CFBT CFAT
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 31092796.64 0 0 -31092796.64 0 0 0 -31092796.64 -31092796.64
2 18655677.98 0 0 -18655677.98 0 0 0 -18655677.98 -49748474.62
3 12437118.66 442521758.6 1680445093 -1250360453 3405675.748 -1241329011 -310332252.6 -940028200.8 -989776675.4
4 1106304396 1680445093 -574140696.9 3405675.748 -577546372.7 -144386593.2 -429754103.8 -1419530779
5 1991347914 1680445093 310902820.2 3405675.748 307497144.5 76874286.11 234028534.1 -1185502245
6 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 -785528051.5
7 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 -385553858
8 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 14420335.57
9 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 414394529.1
10 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 814368722.7
11 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 1214342916
12 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 1614317110
13 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 2014291303
14 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 2414265497
15 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 2814239690
16 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 3214213884
17 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 3614188078
18 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 4014162271
19 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 4414136465
20 2212608793 1680445093 532163699.5 3405675.748 528758023.7 132189505.9 399974193.5 4814110658
303
Cumulative Cash Flow for 0% Interest Rate
6,000,000,000.00
5,000,000,000.00
Cumulative Cash Flow (RM)
4,000,000,000.00
3,000,000,000.00
2,000,000,000.00
1,000,000,000.00
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1,000,000,000.00
-2,000,000,000.00
Year
Figure 7.1 Cumulative cash flow diagram with 0% interest rate
304
According to Table 7.27, the total capital investment, CTCI, is funded in the
first, second, and third years with varying percentages given in the assumption. The
graph in Figure 7.2 displays a negative number for cumulative annual cash flow for
the first 5.5 years. This is due to the fact that the investment necessary to develop and
build the facility spans three years. The cash flow curve then begins to rise in year 4
as the process begins to generate income from acrylonitrile sales, but the cumulative
cash flow remains negative due to the high capital investment, CTCI, which is finally
paid off in year 8.
It is reasonable to anticipate that the majority of the life of a chemical plant is

between 15 and 20 years. The operating period for this plant is 20 years, with a three-
year start-up time. Beginning in year 7, the project has consistently earned a return on
investment until the end of the project's life.
The annual interest rate generated by the profits on the original investment is
known as the return on investment (ROI). ROI provides a comprehensive picture of
the plant's profitability. The production cost is determined using straight-line
depreciation for ROI and all approximate profitability indicators, and the plant is
assumed to operate at full capacity each year for the same number of days each year
following the starting period. ROI can be calculated using the equation below.
Net annual profit

Return of Investment (ROI) = × 100%
Total capital investment
532,163,699.48
= × 100%
62185593.28
= 556.25%
Finally, it can be seen that the return of investment (ROI) of the acrylonitrile
production plant is 556.25%. Since the ROI is more than 100%, this indicates that the
305
investment is bringing profit towards the investors. However, if the ROI is less than
100%, the investments are unprofitable.
306
Table 7.27 Discounted Factor Cash Flow Analysis for Interest Rate of 5%, 10% and 15%
Cumulative i = 0% i=5% i = 10% i = 15%

Cash Flow
Year Non-discount Discounted Discounted Discounted
After Tax, Present Present Value Present Value
CFAT cumulative cash Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
Value (PV) (PV) (PV)
flow Cash Flow Cash Flow Cash Flow
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 -31092796.64 -31092796.64 -29612187.28 -29612187.28 -28266178.76 -28266178.76 -27037214.47 -27037214.47
2 -18655677.98 -49748474.62 -16921249.87 -46533437.15 -15417915.69 -43684094.45 -14106372.77 -41143587.24
3 -940028200.8 -989776675.4 -812031703.5 -858565140.7 -706257100.5 -749941195 -618083801 -659227388.2
4 -429754103.8 -1419530779 -353559764.7 -1212124905 -293527835.4 -1043469030 -245713303.6 -904940691.8
5 234028534.1 -1185502245 183367480.2 -1028757425 145313307 -898155723.3 116353542.5 -788587149.3
6 399974193.5 -785528051.5 298466901.5 -730290523.7 225775005 -672380718.4 172919881.5 -615667267.8
7 399974193.5 -385553858 284254191.9 -446036331.8 205250004.5 -467130713.9 150365114.4 -465302153.4
8 399974193.5 14420335.57 270718278 -175318053.9 186590913.2 -280539800.7 130752273.4 -334549880
9 399974193.5 414394529.1 257826931.4 82508877.56 169628102.9 -110911697.8 113697629 -220852251
10 399974193.5 814368722.7 245549458.5 328058336.1 154207366.3 43295668.49 98867503.49 -121984747.5
11 399974193.5 1214342916 233856627.1 561914963.2 140188514.8 183484183.3 85971742.16 -36013005.36
12 399974193.5 1614317110 222720597.3 784635560.5 127444104.4 310928287.6 74758036.66 38745031.3
13 399974193.5 2014291303 212114854.5 996750415 115858276.7 426786564.3 65006988.4 103752019.7
307
14 399974193.5 2414265497 202014147.2 1198764562 105325706.1 532112270.4 56527816 160279835.7
15 399974193.5 2814239690 192394425.9 1391158988 95750641.89 627862912.3 49154622.61 209434458.3
16 399974193.5 3214213884 183232786.6 1574391775 87046038.08 714908950.4 42743150.1 252177608.4
17 399974193.5 3614188078 174507415.8 1748899190 79132761.89 794041712.3 37167956.61 289345565
18 399974193.5 4014162271 166197538.8 1915096729 71938874.45 865980586.7 32319962.27 321665527.3
19 399974193.5 4414136465 158283370.3 2073380100 65398976.77 931379563.5 28104315.01 349769842.3
20 399974193.5 4814110658 150746067 2224126167 59453615.25 990833178.7 24438534.79 374208377.1
308
Payback Period at i = 0%, 5%, 10% and 15%
6,000,000,000.00
5,000,000,000.00
Cumulative Casf Flow (RM)
4,000,000,000.00
3,000,000,000.00
i = 0%
2,000,000,000.00 i=5%
i = 10%
1,000,000,000.00
i = 15%
0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-1,000,000,000.00
-2,000,000,000.00
Year
Figure 7.2 Discounted Factor Cash Flow Analysis for Interest Rate of 5%, 10% and 15%
309
Table 7.27 and Figure 7.2 are designed to examine the cumulative cash flow
trend at 0% discounted value and various discounted values of 5%, 10%, and 15%.
The present worth factor is a time value of money notion that varies depending on the
discounted value. The factor can be calculated using the Compound Interest Factor
Table found in Engineering Economic textbooks.
1
𝑃 =𝐹[ ]
(1 + 𝑖)𝑛
Where;
P = Present worth
F = Future worth
n = Number of years
i = Interest rate
According to Figure 7.2, the payback period is roughly 8.8, 9.8, and 11
years for the rates of 5%, 10%, and 15%, respectively, after three years of start-up.
Consequently, even if the acrylonitrile production plant's payback period is greater
than undiscounted (i = 0%) cash flow, the plant is still profitable to build. This is due
to the fact that equipment will be subjected to regular maintenance and services during
the operation time in order to ensure that the plant can operate for more than 15 years
while maintaining a good net profit value.
310
7.11 Conclusion
In conclusion, the summarization of the economic analysis using cash flow

analysis has been made as follows:
1. The return of investment (ROI) of the acrylonitrile production plant is at 875.24%.
2. The total capital investment, CTCI is RM 62,185,593.28.
3. The total capital investment, CTCI for Year 1, 2 and 3 are RM 31,092,796.64, RM
18,655,677.98, and RM 12,437,118.66 respectively.
4. The total operating expenses, OE is RM 1,680,445,093 annually.
5. Revenue, R from the sales of acrylonitrile is RM 442,521,758.60 (Year 3), RM

1,106,304,396 (Year 4), RM 1,991,347,914 (Year 5) and RM 2,212,608,793
starting Year 6 onwards annually.
6. The payback period of acrylonitrile production plant is estimated to be 5 years

after 3 years of start-up period.
311
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
8.1 Conclusion
As for the conclusion, this plant designing project of production of acrylonitrile

from ammonia was completed that include the reaction route analysis, site selection,
comparison of the mass and energy balance with the PRO/II simulation, waste
management analysis, energy integration analysis, designing the P&ID of the
production plant, control system analysis, safety analysis and profitability analysis.
With the site location of production plant at Kerteh, Terengganu, this production plant
will run for 365 days per year and able to produce at least 7000kg of acrylonitrile per
hour. The raw material will consist of 140000 kg per hour of ethyl acrylate and 6000kg
per hour of ammonia. By choosing the nitrilation of ethyl acrylate as the main reaction
route, the reaction produces ethanol as the by-product that can be sell as the side profit.
The plant achieved to save energy in cold utility up to 58.9% while for hot utility, the
energy saving marked up to 96.7%. Lastly, after the economic analysis, it can be
concluded that return of investment (ROI) of the acrylonitrile production plant is at
875.24% with the payback period of acrylonitrile production plant is estimated to be 5
years after 3 years of start-up period
312
REFERENCES
Acrylonitrile Market | 2021 - 26 | Industry Share, Size, Growth - Mordor Intelligence.

(n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2021, from
https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/acrylonitrile-acn-
market
Acrylonitrile MSDS - 800834 - Merck. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2021, from
https://www.merckmillipore.com/MY/en/product/msds/MDA_CHEM-
800834
Afework, B., Hanania, J., Stenhouse, K., & Donev, J. (2022). Dry scrubber - Energy
Education. Energyeducation.ca. Retrieved 29 January 2022, from
https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Dry_scrubber.
Ammonia Uses and Benefits | Chemical Safety Facts. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18,
2021, from https://www.chemicalsafetyfacts.org/ammonia/
And, R. (2016) ‘Method for reducing odoriferous and/or toxic residual monomer in a
latex’.
Andrigo, P., Bagatin, R., & Pagani, G. (1999). Fluidized Bed reactors. In Catalysis
Today (Vol. 52, Issues 2–3). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0920-5861(99)00076-0
Bagheri, S., Muhd Julkapli, N., & Bee Abd Hamid, S. (2014). Titanium dioxide as a
catalyst support in heterogeneous catalysis. Scientific World Journal, 2014.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/727496
Bamufleh, H., Abdelhady, F., Baaqeel, H. M., & El-Halwagi, M. M. (2017).
Optimization of multi-effect distillation with brine treatment via membrane
distillation and process heat integration. Desalination, 408, 110–118.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.DESAL.2017.01.016
Bi, H. T., Ellis, N., Abba, I. A., & Grace, J. R. (2000). A state-of-the-art review of gas-
solid turbulent fluidization. Chemical Engineering Science, 55(21), 4789–
4825. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2509(00)00107-X
313
Busca, G. (2009). Bases and Basic Materials in Industrial and Environmental
Chemistry: A Review of Commercial Processes. Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry Research, 48(14), 6486–6511. https://doi.org/10.1021/IE801878D
Cartsos, G. (n.d.). Nitrile Gloves. Retrieved November 18, 2021, from
https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/2a3dc55f914642779b8508dae93a9980
Centi, G., Grasselli, R. K., & Trifiro, F. (1992). Propane ammoxidation to acrylonitrile
- an overview. Catalysis Today, 13(4), 661–666. https://doi.org/10.1016/0920-
5861(92)80106-W
CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED BED REACTOR - Chemical Engineering World. (2019).
Chemical Engineering World.
https://chemicalengineeringworld.com/circulating-fluidized-bed-reactor/
Cespi, D., Passarini, F., Neri, E., Vassura, I., Ciacci, L., & Cavani, F. (2014). Life
Cycle Assessment comparison of two ways for acrylonitrile production: the
SOHIO process and an alternative route using propane. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 69, 17–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2014.01.057
Department of Statistics Malaysia Official Portal. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18,
2021, from
https://www.dosm.gov.my/v1/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=476&
bul_id=U1ltVWpwNXRNRUR2NlhRSHZmenRMUT09&menu_id=Tm8zcn
RjdVRNWWlpWjRlbmtlaDk1UT09
Dimian, A. C., & Bildea, C. S. (2008). Acrylonitrile by Propene Ammoxidation.
Chemical Process Design, 313–338.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527621583.CH11
Environment and Climate Change Canada - Canada.ca. (n.d.). Retrieved November
19, 2021, from https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change.html
Foutch, G. L., & Johannes, A. H. (2003). Reactors in Process Engineering. In
Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology (Issue December 2003).
https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-12-227410-5/00654-2
Garagounis, I., Kyriakou, V., Skodra, A., Vasileiou, E., & Stoukides, M. (2014).
Electrochemical synthesis of ammonia in solid electrolyte cells. Frontiers in
Energy Research, 2(JAN). https://doi.org/10.3389/FENRG.2014.00001
314
Ghavam, S., Vahdati, M., Wilson, I. A. G., & Styring, P. (2021). Sustainable Ammonia
Production Processes. Frontiers in Energy Research, 9, 34.
https://doi.org/10.3389/FENRG.2021.580808/BIBTEX
Ghosh, P., Westhoff, P., & Debnath, D. (2019). Biofuels, food security, and
sustainability. Biofuels, Bioenergy and Food Security, 211–229.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803954-0.00012-7
Giannakis, E., Kushta, J., Bruggeman, A., & Lelieveld, J. (2019). Costs and benefits
of agricultural ammonia emission abatement options for compliance with
European air quality regulations. Environmental Sciences Europe, 31(1), 1–13.
https://doi.org/10.1186/S12302-019-0275-0/TABLES/6
• Global plastic production 1950-2020 | Statista. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2021,
from https://www.statista.com/statistics/282732/global-production-of-
plastics-since-1950/
Grace, J. R. (2000). Reflections on turbulent fluidization and dense suspension upflow.
Powder Technology, 113(3), 242–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0032-
5910(00)00307-7
Grace, J. R., & Bi, H. (1997). Introduction to Circulating Fluidized Beds. Circulating
Fluidized Beds, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-0095-0_1
Grasselli, R. K. (2011). Chapter 5:Ammoxidation of Propylene and Propane to
Acrylonitrile. 96–140. https://doi.org/10.1039/9781847559876-00096
Green, D. W., & Perry, R. H. (2008). Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 8th
Edition (R. H. Perry (ed.); 8th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
https://doi.org/10.1036/0071422943
Gundersen, T. (2013). Heat Integration: Targets and Heat Exchanger Network Design.
Handbook of Process Integration (PI): Minimisation of Energy and Water Use,
Waste and Emissions, 129–167. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857097255.2.129
Guerrero-Pérez, M. O., Peña, M. A., Fierro, J. L. G., & Bañares, M. A. (2006). A Study
about the Propane Ammoxidation to Acrylonitrile with an Alumina-Supported
Sb−V−O Catalyst. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 45(13),
4537–4543. https://doi.org/10.1021/IE051000G
Gumerov, F., Neindre, B., Bilalov, T., & Sagdeev, A. (2016). Regeneration of Spent
Catalyst and Impregnation of Catalyst by Supercritical Fluid. International
315
Journal Of Analytical Mass Spectrometry And Chromatography, 04(04), 51-
65. https://doi.org/10.4236/ijamsc.2016.44006
Hafeez, S., Pallari, E., Manos, G., & Constantinou, A. (2018). Catalytic conversion
and chemical recovery. In Plastics to Energy: Fuel, Chemicals, and
Sustainability Implications. Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
813140-4.00006-6
Hafizan, A. M., Klemeš, J. J., Alwi, S. R. W., Manan, Z. A., & Hamid, M. K. A.
(2019). Temperature disturbance management in a heat exchanger network for
maximum energy recovery considering economic analysis. Energies, 12(4).
https://doi.org/10.3390/EN12040594
How to Design Net Zero Carbon Buildings - One Click LCA. (n.d.). Retrieved
November 18, 2021, from https://www.oneclicklca.com/designing-net-zero-
carbon-buildings-article/
Ibrahim, N., Zainal, S. F. F. S., & Aziz, H. A. (2019). Application of UV-Based
Advanced Oxidation Processes in Water and Wastewater Treatment. Advances
in Environmental Engineering and Green Technologies, 384–414.
https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-5766-1.ch014
Isabel Segarra Trevino. (2019, May 14). EPA Must Protect Communities from
Hydrogen Cyanide Exposure | Earthjustice. https://earthjustice.org/from-the-
experts/2019-may/epa-must-protect-communities-from-hydrogen-cyanide-
exposure
Jaszczak, E., Polkowska, Ż., Narkowicz, S., & Namieśnik, J. (2017). Cyanides in the
environment—analysis—problems and challenges. Environmental Science
and Pollution Research International, 24(19), 15929.
https://doi.org/10.1007/S11356-017-9081-7
Jers, C., Kalantari, A., Garg, A., & Mijakovic, I. (2019a). Production of 3-
Hydroxypropanoic Acid From Glycerol by Metabolically Engineered Bacteria.
Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 7.
https://doi.org/10.3389/FBIOE.2019.00124
Jers, C., Kalantari, A., Garg, A., & Mijakovic, I. (2019b). Production of 3-
Hydroxypropanoic Acid From Glycerol by Metabolically Engineered Bacteria.
316
Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 7, 124.
https://doi.org/10.3389/FBIOE.2019.00124/BIBTEX
Jusakulvijit, P., Bezama, A., & Thrän, D. (2021). Criteria prioritization for the
sustainable development of second-generation bioethanol in Thailand using the
Delphi-AHP technique. Energy, Sustainability and Society, 11(1), 37.
https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00313-5
Kahane, A., & Squitieri, R. (1987). Electricity Use in Manufacturing. Annual Review
of Energy, 12(1), 223–251.
https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV.EG.12.110187.001255
Karp, E. M., Eaton, T. R., SànchezNogué, V., Vorotnikov, V., Biddy, M. J., Tan, E.
C. D., Brandner, D. G., Cywar, R. M., Liu, R., Manker, L. P., Michener, W.
E., Gilhespy, M., Skoufa, Z., Watson, M. J., Fruchey, O. S., Vardon, D. R.,
Gill, R. T., Bratis, A. D., & Beckham, G. T. (2017). Renewable acrylonitrile
production. Science, 358(6368), 1307–1310.
https://doi.org/10.1126/SCIENCE.AAN1059
Kamel, D., Gadalla, M., & Ashour, F. (2020). New set of Graphical Axes for
Grassroots Design of Heat Exchanger Networks for Chemical Engineering
Applications. Computer Aided Chemical Engineering, 48, 637–642.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-823377-1.50107-5
Klemeš, J. J., & Kravanja, Z. (2013). Forty years of Heat Integration: Pinch Analysis
(PA) and Mathematical Programming (MP). Current Opinion in Chemical
Engineering, 2(4), 461–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COCHE.2013.10.003
Kiang, Y. (2018). Combustion fundamentals and energy systems. Fuel Property
Estimation And Combustion Process Characterization, 313-362.
https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-813473-3.00009-x
Klein, N., Ramos, T. B., & Deutz, P. (2020). Circular economy practices and strategies
in public sector organizations: An integrative review. Sustainability
(Switzerland), 12(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/SU12104181
Levels, N. R. C. (US) C. on A. E. G. (2008). Ammonia Acute Exposure Guideline
Levels. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK207883/
317
Lim, K. S., Zhu, J. X., & Grace, J. R. (1995). Hydrodynamics of gas-solid fluidization.
International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 21, 141–193.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9322(95)00038-Y
Liu, J., & Zhu, J. (2016). Reactor Performances and Hydrodynamics of Various Gas-
Solids Reactor Performances and Hydrodynamics of Various Gas-Solids
Fluidized Beds Fluidized Beds.
https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etdhttps://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/3967
Licht, R. B., Vogt, D., & Bell, A. T. (2016a). The mechanism and kinetics of propene
ammoxidation over α-bismuth molybdate. Journal of Catalysis, 339, 228–241.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCAT.2016.04.012
Licht, R. B., Vogt, D., & Bell, A. T. (2016b). The mechanism and kinetics of propene
ammoxidation over α-bismuth molybdate. Journal of Catalysis, 339, 228–241.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCAT.2016.04.012
Log, T., & Moi, A. L. (2018). Ethanol and Methanol Burn Risks in the Home
Environment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 15(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/IJERPH15112379
Long, G., Meek, M. E., Canada, H., Ottawa, C., Cureton, P., & Canada, E. (2002).
World Health Organization Geneva.
Market Research Future. (2021, October 12). Ammonia Market worth USD 114.73
billion by 2028, registering a CAGR of 6.64% - Report by Market Research
Future (MRFR). GlobeNewswire News Room; Market Research Future.
https://www.globenewswire.com/news-
release/2021/10/12/2312260/0/en/Ammonia-Market-worth-USD-114-73-
billion-by-2028-registering-a-CAGR-of-6-64-Report-by-Market-Research-
Future-MRFR.html
Monitoring by Control Technique - Wet Scrubber For Particulate Matter | US EPA.
(2016, May 25). US EPA. https://www.epa.gov/air-emissions-monitoring-
knowledge-base/monitoring-control-technique-wet-scrubber-particulate-0
Noble, R. D. and Terry, P. A. (2004) ‘Principles of Chemical Separations with
Environmental Applications’, Principles of Chemical Separations with Environmental
Applications. Cambridge University Press.
318
Propane process boost to acrylonitrile production | ICIS. (n.d.). Retrieved November
18, 2021, from
https://www.icis.com/explore/resources/news/1996/09/23/6005/propane-
process-boost-to-acrylonitrile-production/
Reducing chemical manufacturing carbon emissions | nibusinessinfo.co.uk. (n.d.).
Retrieved November 18, 2021, from
https://www.nibusinessinfo.co.uk/content/reducing-chemical-manufacturing-
carbon-emissions
Rikalovic, A., Cosic, I., & Lazarevic, D. (2014). GIS based multi-criteria analysis for
industrial site selection. Procedia Engineering, 69, 1054–1063.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.03.090
Reh, L. (1995). New and efficient high‐temperature processes with circulating fluid
bed reactors. Chemical Engineering & Technology, 18(2), 75–89.
https://doi.org/10.1002/CEAT.270180202
Ryu, J., & Maravelias, C. T. (2019). Simultaneous Process and Heat Exchanger
Network Synthesis Using a Discrete Temperature Grid. Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry Research, 58(15), 6002–6016.
https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.IECR.8B04083/SUPPL_FILE/IE8B04083_SI_0
01.PDF
Sinnott, R., & Towler, G. (2019). Chemical Engineering Design. In Chemical
Engineering Design: SI Edition. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102599-
4.09980-X
Sinnott, R., & Towler, G. (2019). Chemical Engineering Design : SI Edition. Chemical
Engineering Design, 6, 1359.
Sinnott, R., & Towler, G. (2020). General Site Considerations. Chemical Engineering
Design, 1017–1038. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-102599-4.00014-x
Soloveichik, G. (2017). FUTURE OF AMMONIA PRODUCTION: IMPROVEMENT
OF HABER-BOSCH PROCESS OR ELECTROCHEMICAL SYNTHESIS?
Towler, G., & Sinnott, R. K. (2013). Chemical Engineering Design - Principles,
Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design (2nd Edition). In Elsevier.
319
Valera-Medina, A., Xiao, H., Owen-Jones, M., David, W. I. F., & Bowen, P. J. (2018).
Ammonia for power. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 69, 63–102.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PECS.2018.07.001
Venkat, P., & Jim, R. (2016, September). Introduction to Ammonia Production |
AIChE.
https://www.aiche.org/resources/publications/cep/2016/september/introductio
n-ammonia-production
Wang, C., Zhu, J., Barghi, S., & Li, C. (2014). Axial and radial development of solids
holdup in a high flux/density gas-solids circulating fluidized bed. Chemical
Engineering Science, 108, 233–243.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CES.2013.12.042
What is net zero and how can we get there? - Energy Saving Trust. (2021, October
20). https://energysavingtrust.org.uk/what-is-net-zero-and-how-can-we-get-
there/
Wright, C. Y., Godfrey, L., Armiento, G., Haywood, L. K., Inglesi-Lotz, R., Lyne, K.,
& Schwerdtle, P. N. (2019). Circular economy and environmental health in
low- And middle-income countries. Globalization and Health, 15(1), 1–5.
https://doi.org/10.1186/S12992-019-0501-Y/FIGURES/1
Yaws, C. L. (2003). Yaws’ Handbook of Thermodynamic and Physical Properties of
Chemical Compounds. Knovel.
Yong, J. Y., Varbanov, P. S., & Klemeš, J. J. (2015). Matrix representation of the grid
diagram for heat exchanger networks. CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
TRANSACTIONS, 45, 103–108. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET1545018
320
APPENDIX II
1) Pump
PUMP (P-101)
To begin the calculation, the size factor is calculated using the following equation:
𝑆 = 𝑄(𝐻)0.5
𝑆 = 35.73 (196.25)0.5
𝑆 = 500.55
The base purchase cost is then computed using formula depicted below.
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{12.1656 − 1.1448[ln(𝑆)] + 0.0862 𝑙𝑛[(𝑆)2 ]}
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{12.1656 − 1.1448[ln(500.55)] + 0.0862 𝑙𝑛[(500.55)2 ]}
𝐶𝐵 = $ 455.52 × 𝑅𝑀 4.40
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑅𝑀 2004.29
𝐶𝑃 = 1 × 2 × 𝑅𝑀 2004.29
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅𝑀 4008.58
Next, the bare module cost is given by the following equation.
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐹𝐵𝑀 𝐶𝑃
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 3.3 × 𝑅𝑀 4008.58
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 13,228.30
PUMP (P-102)
To begin the calculation, the size factor is calculated using the following
equation:
𝑆 = 𝑄(𝐻)0.5
321
𝑆 = 83.37(144.98)0.5
𝑆 = 1003.89
The base purchase cost is then computed using formula depicted below.
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{12.1656 − 1.1448[ln(𝑆)] + 0.0862 𝑙𝑛[(𝑆)2 ]}
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝{12.1656 − 1.1448[ln(1003.89)] + 0.0862 𝑙𝑛[(1003.89)2 ]}
𝐶𝐵 = $ 231.533 × 𝑅𝑀 4.40
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑅𝑀 1018.74
𝐶𝑃 = 1 × 2 × 𝑅𝑀 1018.74
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅𝑀 2037.49
Next, the bare module cost is given by the following equation.
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 3.3 × 𝑅𝑀 2037.49
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 6723.71
322
2) Heat exchanger
Heat Exchanger (E-101)
First, log mean temperature difference, ΔTLM is calculated by using equation

below;
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
(310°𝐶 − 300°𝐶) − (45°𝐶 − (−40°𝐶))

Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(310°𝐶 − 300°𝐶)
ln
(45°𝐶 − (−40°𝐶))
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 35.05°𝐶
Then, the surface area of the heat exchanger A is a cross sectional area of shell
tube using the equation below,
𝑄
𝐴=
3,276,650
𝐴=
1500 × 35.05
𝐴 = 62.33 𝑚2
To calculate the material factor, FM, the following formula will be utilised:
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
323
62.33 0.13
𝐹𝑀 = 1.75 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 2.7
On the other hand, to calculate the pressure factor for our heat exchanger, the
following formula will be used.
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
58.0151 58.0151 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝐹𝑃 = 0.99
Next, the cost of purchase, the bare cost should also be calculated and it can be
done by using the following formula;
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(𝐴)] + 0.09790 [ln(𝐴)]2 ]
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(62.33)] + 0.09790 [ln(62.33)]2 ]
𝐶𝐵 = $ 16,638.06 × 𝑅𝑀 4.40
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑅𝑀 73,207.47
The cost of purchase, Cp can be done by using the following formula:
𝐶𝑃 = 2.7 × 1.25 × 0.99 × 𝑅𝑀 73,207.47
324
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅𝑀 143,680.90
All in all, the bare-module cost for this heater is calculated as follows:
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 3.17 × 𝑅𝑀 143,680.90
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 455,468.30

below;
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
(183.90°𝐶 − 270.16°𝐶) − (45°𝐶 − (70°𝐶))

Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(183.90°𝐶 − 270.16°𝐶)
ln
(45°𝐶 − (70°𝐶))
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 49.46 °𝐶
𝑄
𝐴=
325
1,654,860
𝐴=
1500 × 49.46
𝐴 = 22.30 𝑚2
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
22.30 0.13
𝐹𝑀 = 1.75 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 2.57
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
58.0151 58.0151 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝐹𝑃 = 0.99
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(𝐴)] + 0.09790 [ln(𝐴)]2 ]
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(22.30 )] + 0.09790 [ln(22.30 )]2 ]
326
𝐶𝐵 = $ 12,799.97 × 𝑅𝑀 4.40
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑅𝑀 56,319.87
𝐶𝑃 = 2.57 × 1.25 × 0.99 × 𝑅𝑀 56,319.87
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅𝑀 171,552.18
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 3.17 × 𝑅𝑀 171,552.18
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 543, 820.42

below;
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
(70°𝐶 − 183.49°𝐶) − (270.16°𝐶 − (310°𝐶))

Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(70°𝐶 − 183.49°𝐶)
ln
(270.16°𝐶 − (310°𝐶))
327
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 70.35 °𝐶
𝑄
𝐴=
1,654,860
𝐴=
1500 × 70.35
𝐴 = 15.68 𝑚2
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
15.68 0.13
𝐹𝑀 = 1.75 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 2.57
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
58.0151 58.0151 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝐹𝑃 = 0.99
328
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(𝐴)] + 0.09790 [ln(𝐴)]2 ]
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(15.68 )] + 0.09790 [ln(15.68 )]2 ]
𝐶𝐵 = $ 12, 269.74 × 𝑅𝑀 4.40
𝐶𝐵 = 𝑅𝑀 53, 986.87
𝐶𝑃 = 2.53 × 1.25 × 0.99 × 𝑅𝑀 53, 986.87
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅𝑀 191, 285.83
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 3.17 × 𝑅𝑀 191, 285.83
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 606, 376.09
3) Reactor
The reactor volume is calculated using the formula below:
329
𝑉 =𝑄×𝑡
Where;
𝑉 : reactor volume (m3)
𝑄 : volumetric flowrate (m3/hr)
𝑡 : residence time (hr)
The volumetric flowrate is calculate using the formula below (Fogler, 2013):
𝐹𝐴 𝑅𝑇
𝑣=
𝑦𝐴 𝑃
Where;
𝑣 : volumetric flowrate (m3/hr)
𝐹𝐴 : molar flow rate of A (kmol/hr)
𝑅 : ideal gas constant (8.314 Pa. m3/mol. K)
𝑇 : temperature (K)
𝑦𝐴 : mole fraction of A
𝑃 : total pressure (Pa)
330
(492.1351)(8.314)(583.15)
𝑣=
(1)(10 × 10)
𝑣 = 23,860.23 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟
The reactor volume calculated is as follow:
𝑉 = 23,860.23 × 0.0317
𝑉 = 755.35 𝑚3
For the fluidized bed reactor, the calculations for the pressure are as follows:
Operating pressure: 4 bar
Design pressure = 1.1 × Operating pressure
= 1.1 × 4 𝑏𝑎𝑟
= 4.4 𝑏𝑎𝑟
= 0.44 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
The design temperature is calculated as below:
Operating temperature: 310℃ / 590℉
Design temperature = Operating temperature + 50℉
= 590 + 50
331
= 640℉
= 337.78℃
Equation below can be used to compute the inside diameter using the stated
ratio.
1⁄3
4𝑉
Internal Diameter, 𝐷𝑖 = [ ]
𝜋 × 𝐿𝐷 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
1⁄3
4(755.35𝑚3
𝐷𝑖 = [ ]
𝜋×3
𝐷𝑖 = 6.848 𝑚
Therefore, the height of the diameter can be calculated as below
Height, 𝐿 = 3 × 𝐷𝑖
𝐿 = 3 × 6.848
𝐿 = 20.532 𝑚
The total weights of the shell (excluding internal fitting) is
𝑊𝑣 = 𝐶𝑤 𝜋𝜌𝑚 𝐷𝑚 𝑔(𝐻𝑣 + 0.8𝐷𝑚 )𝑡 × 10−3
Where;
𝑊𝑣 : total weight of the shell, excluding internal fittings
332
𝐶𝑤 : a factor account for the weight of nozzles, manways, internal supports,
etc; which can be taken as 1.15
𝜌𝑚 : density of vessel material
𝐷𝑚 : mean diameter of vessel = (𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡 × 10−3 ), 𝑚
𝑔 : gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
𝐻𝑣 : height or length, between tangent lines
𝑡 : wall thickness, mm
Taking:
𝐶𝑤 = 1.15, vessel with plates
𝑡 = 23 𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑚 = 6.844 + (23 × 10−3 ) = 6.867 𝑚
𝜌𝑚 = 7840 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝐻𝑣 = 20.532 𝑚
𝑊𝑣 = (1.15)𝜋(7840)(6.867)99.81)[20.532 + (0.8 × 6.867)](23 × 10−3 )
𝑊𝑣 = 1,142,173.87 𝑁
𝑊𝑣 = 1,142.17 𝑘𝑁
333
Therefore, total weights of the shell (excluding internal fitting) are 1,142.17
kN.
For the weight of insulation material, the selected material is stated as below.
Weight of insulation, 𝑊𝑖
Insulating material: Mineral wool
Thickness of the insulating (mineral wool) = 50 𝑚𝑚
Mineral wool density = 130 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Approximate volume of the insulation, 𝑉𝑖 = 𝜋 × 𝐷𝑖 × 𝐻𝑣 × 𝑡𝑤
= 𝜋 × 6.844 × 20.532 × 50 × 10−3
= 22.07 𝑚3
Weight of insulation, 𝑊𝑖 = 𝜌𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑔
= 130 × 22.07 × 9.81
= 28,149.93 𝑁
The weight of insulation is doubled to allow for the fittings. Hence, the actual
weight of the insulation = 28,149.93 × 2 = 56,299.86 𝑁 = 56.30 𝑘𝑁
The weight of the catalyst, 𝑊𝑐 = 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 × 10% × 9.81
334
= 581,617.66 × 0.1 × 9.81
= 570566.92
= 570.57 𝑁
The total weight of the fluidized bed reactor, 𝑊𝑧 = 𝑊𝑣 + 𝑊𝑖 + 𝑊𝑐
𝑊𝑧 = 1,142.17 + 56.30 + 570.57
𝑊𝑧 = 1769.04 kN
To calculate freight (free) on board purchase cost, CV of the empty vessel, the
size factor (Weight, W) needs to be determined using equation below.
𝑊 = 𝜋(𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡𝑠 )(𝐿 + 0.8𝐷𝑖 )𝑡𝑠 𝜌
Where;
𝑊 : total weight of the shell, N
𝑡𝑠 : wall thickness, m
𝐷𝑖 : Inner diameter of the vessel shell, m
𝜌 : Density of the vessel material (Carbon steel A285), kg/m3
𝑊 = 𝜋(6.844 + 0.023)[20.53 + 0.8(6.844)](0.023)(7900)
𝑊 = 21,905.22 𝑁
335
𝑊 = 2232.95 𝑘𝑔
𝑊 = 4922.80 𝑙𝑏
Hence, the F.O.B of the purchase cost can be calculated using the equation
below
𝐶𝑉 = exp [7.1390 + 0.18255(ln 𝑊) + 0.02297 (ln 𝑊) 2 ]
Where;
𝐶𝑉 : F.O.B purchase cost ($)
𝐶𝑉 = exp [7.1390 + 0.18255(ln 4,922.80 ) + 0.02297 (ln 4,922.80 ) 2 ]
𝐶𝑉 = $31,294.36
CPL is the additional cost for platforms and ladders is calculated using the
equation below;
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 410(𝐷𝑖 )0.73950 (𝐿)0.70684
Where;
𝐶𝑃𝐿 : cost of platform and ladder ($)
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 410(6.844)0.73950 (20.53)0.70684
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = $14,393.86
336
The total purchase cost, CP is calculated using the equation as follow:
𝐶𝑃 = (1.0)(31,294.36) + 14,393.86
𝐶𝑃 = $45,688.22
The total bare module factor, CBM is therefore determined using the following
equation.
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐹𝐵𝑀 × 𝐶𝑃
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 4.16 × 45,688.22
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $190,063.01 = 𝑅𝑀 836,277.26
4) Heater (H-103&H-104)
Heater (H 103)
Firstly, the log mean temperature difference is calculated by using following

equation:
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
(300 − 310) − (290 − 300)

Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(300 − 310)
ln
(290 − 300)
337
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 10.124
Then, the surface area of the shell and tube heater is calculated as follows:
𝑄
𝐴=
96400
𝐴=
1500 × 10.124
𝐴 = 68.3255𝑚2
Next, in calculating the base cost, 𝐶𝐵 for this heater, value of A calculated
above is inserted
into the following equation.
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(𝐴)] + 0.09790 [ln(𝐴)]2 ]
= exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(68.3255)] + 0.09790 [ln(68.3255)]2 ]
= $12302.49 × 𝑅𝑀4.4
= 𝑅𝑀54130.95
The value of FP is calculated first as the pressure is in range of between 100-

2000 psig. The FM is material factor for various combinations of tube and shell material
with the constant value and as the material were chosen to be carbon steel/stainless
steel, the value for a and b in the equation below is 1.75 and 0.13, respectively
338
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
58.0151 58.0151 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9913
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
68.325 0.13
𝐹𝑀 = 1.75 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 2.701
After that, the cost of purchase for this heater is calculated as follows
𝐶𝑃 = 2.701 × 1.25 × 0.9913 × 54130.95
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅𝑀 283052.90
6𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑃 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
𝐶𝑃 = 283052.90 × 3.17
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅𝑀 897277.80
339
Calculation of Heater (H 103)

equation:
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
(300 − 310) − (290 − 300)

Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(300 − 310)
ln
(290 − 300)
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 10.124
𝑄
𝐴=
96400
𝐴=
1500 × 10.124
𝐴 = 68.3255𝑚2
above is inserted into the following equation.
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(𝐴)] + 0.09790 [ln(𝐴)]2 ]
= exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(68.3255)] + 0.09790 [ln(68.3255)]2 ]
340
= $12302.49 × 𝑅𝑀4.4
= 𝑅𝑀54130.95

𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
58.0151 58.0151 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9913
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
68.325 0.13
𝐹𝑀 = 1.75 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 2.701
𝐶𝑃 = 2.701 × 1.25 × 0.9913 × 54130.95
341
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅𝑀 283052.90
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 283052.90 × 3.17
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 897277.80
Heater (H 104)

equation:
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
(280 − 310) − (270.16 − 270)

Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(280 − 310)
ln
(270.16 − 270)
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 5.7625
𝑄
𝐴=
72000
𝐴=
1500 × 5.7625
342
𝐴 = 89.6592𝑚2
above is inserted into the following equation.
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(𝐴)] + 0.09790 [ln(𝐴)]2 ]
= exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(89.6592)] + 0.09790 [ln(89.6592)]2 ]
= $12087.49 × 𝑅𝑀4.4
= 𝑅𝑀53184.94

𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
58.015 58.0151 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9913
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
89.6591 0.13
𝐹𝑀 = 1.75 + ( )
100
343
𝐹𝑀 = 2.7359
𝐶𝑃 = 2.7359 × 1.25 × 0.9913 × 53184.94
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅𝑀 247373.80
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 247373.80 × 3.17
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 784174.90
5) Flash Column (F-101 & F-102)
Flash Column (F-101)

• Vapor volumetric flowrate, Vv
M
Vapor volumetric flowrate, Vv = 3600 v× ρ
v
344
3826.338kg/hr
Vv =
3600 × 201.940kg/m3
Vv = 0.026m3 /s
• Column Diameter, Dv
4𝑉𝑣
𝐷𝑣 = √
π × 𝑢𝑡
𝑚3
4(0.263 𝑠 )
𝐷𝑣 = √ 𝑚
3600 × (0.15 × 0.079 𝑠 )
𝐷𝑣 = 1.673 m
Therefore, the minimum internal diameter of the flash separator vessel is 1.673m.
Therefore, the value of internal diameter, Dv 1.673m is used instead for the next
calculation.
• Liquid Volumetric Flowrate, Vl
M
Liquid Volumetric Flowrate, Vl = 3600 l× ρ
l
345
𝑘𝑔
16173.3
𝑉𝑙 = ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔
3600 × 464.936
𝑚3
𝑚3
𝑉𝑙 = 0.048
𝑠
• Hold-up Volume, Vheld

𝑠
:𝑉ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑉𝑙 × 10 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 × 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚3 𝑠
𝑉ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 0.048 × 10 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 × 60
𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 29.007 𝑚3
• Vessel Cross-Sectional Area, A
D2v
Vessel cross − sectional area, A = π ( )
4
1.6732
A = π( )
4
A = 6.245 m2
• Liquid Depth, hL
29.006m3
hL =
1.200m2
346
hL = 13.301m
• Column Height, Hv
Dv
Hv = hL + + Dv + 0.3m
2
1.673 m
𝐻𝑣 = 13.200𝑚 + + 1.673 m + 0.3𝑚
2
𝐻𝑣 = 5.769𝑚
• Design pressure, Pd
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃 × 1.1
𝑃𝑖 = 3.040 × 1.1
𝑁
𝑃𝑖 = 3.344𝑏𝑎𝑟 @0.334
𝑚𝑚2
• Purchase cost, Cp
Cp = FM Cv + CPL
Material factor, FM for carbon steel material is equal to 1.0.
• Cost Of Empty Vessel, Cv

2}
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒 {10.5449−0.4672[𝑙𝑛(𝑊)]+0.05482[𝑙𝑛(𝑊)]
2}
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒 {10.5449−0.4672[𝑙𝑛(10529.07)]+0.05482[𝑙𝑛(10529.072)]
𝐶𝑣 = 49030.011$
• Ladder & Platform Cost, CPL
347
The additional cost CPL for platforms and ladders is computed using the
following formula, which takes into account the vessel's interior diameter, Di (ft), and
the tangent-to-tangent length of the shell, L (ft) for vertical vessels.).
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 341(𝐷𝑖 )0.63316 (𝐿)0.80161
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 341(65.853)0.63316 (131.707)0.80161
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 7853.46$
Therefore, inserting all the information into the purchase cost, Cp formula;
𝐶𝑃 = 1 × 49030 + 7853.463
𝐶𝑃 = 71209.10$
CBM = Cp × FBM
FBM = 4.16
CBM = 71209.10 × 4.16 × 4.4
CBM (RM) = 910961.60
Flash Column (F-102)
• Vapor volumetric flowrate, Vv
348
Mv
Vapor volumetric flowrate, Vv =
3600 × ρv
925.96 kg/hr
Vv =
3600 × 0.73kg/m3
Vv = 0.3516m3 /hr @ 9.7667× 10−5 m3 /s
• Column Diameter, Dv
4V
Dv = √ πuv
t
4 × (9.7667×10−5 )
Dv = √ π×0.0993
Dv = 0.0354 m
Therefore, the minimum internal diameter of the flash separator vessel is

0.0354m or equivalent to 35.4mm. However, since the minimum internal diameter of
the vessel is too small, the standard vessel sizing was used instead to replace the small
diameter value. From the website of Central Fabricators, the smallest standard size for
vessel is 20” or equivalent to 0.508m ("Standard Horizontal & Vertical Pressure
Vessels", 2022). Therefore, the value of internal diameter, Dv 0.508m is used instead
for the next calculation.
• Liquid Volumetric Flowrate, Vl
M
Liquid Volumetric Flowrate, Vl = 3600 l× ρ
l
349
8386.99 kg/hr
Vl =
3600 × 797.42kg/m3
Vl = 0.0029m3 /hr @ 8.1155× 10−7 m3 /s
• Hold-up Volume, Vheld
s
Vheld = Vl × (10 min× 60 )
min
10−7 m3 s
Vheld = (8.1155 × ) × (10 min × 60 min)
s
Vheld = 0.00049m3
• Vessel Cross-Sectional Area ,A
D2v
Vessel cross − sectional area, A = π ( )
4
0.03542
A = π( )
4
A = 9.8423 × 10−4 m2
• Liquid Depth, hL
0.00049m3
hL =
9.8423 × 10−4 m2
hL = 0.4951m
350
• Column Height, Hv
Dv
Hv = hL + + Dv + 0.3m
2
0.0354m
Hv = 0.4951m + + 0.0354m + 0.3m
2
Hv = 0.8481m
• Design pressure, Pd
2
Pd = e[0.60608+0.91615(lnPo )+0.0015655(lnPo) ]
While for pressure exceed 1000psig, it is determined by using the formula;
Pd = Po × 1.1
Since the pressure used in this process is only 1 bar or equivalent to 14.5 psig,
the calculation to obtain the design pressure will be;
2]
Pd = e[0.60608+0.91615(ln 14.5)+0.0015655(ln 14.5)
Pd = 0.1482N/mm2
• Purchase cost, Cp
Cp = FM Cv + CPL
Material factor, FM for carbon steel material is equal to 1.0.
351
• Cost Of Empty Vessel, Cv
2]
Cv = e[7.1390+0.18255(ln W)+0.02297(ln W)
Since the total weight of the vessel is 3.0156kN or equivalent with 677.97 lb,
thus;
2]
Cv = e[7.1390+0.18255(ln 677.97)+0.02297(ln 677.97)
Cv = 10995.67$
• Ladder & Platform Cost, CPL
CPL =410(Di )0.73960 (L)0.70684
Where Di is internal diameter of vessel in ft and L is the height of vessel in ft. Since
the internal diameter of the vessel is equal to 0.508m or equivalent to 0.1548ft and the
height of the vessel is 0.8481m or equivalent to 0.2585ft, thus;
CPL =410(0.1548)0.73960 (0.2585)0.70684
CPL = 39.66$
Therefore, inserting all the information into the purchase cost, Cp formula;
Cp = (1 × 10995.67$) + 39.66$
Cp =11035.33$
352
CBM = Cp × FBM
FBM = 4.16
CBM = 11035.33$ × 4.16
CBM ($) = 45906.97$
CBM (RM) = 202312.02
6) Cooler
Cooler (E-106)
The cost of purchase, Cp
𝐶𝑃 = 2.46 × 1 × 0.9913 × 24284.74
𝐶𝑃 = $56306.022 = 𝑅𝑀 260946.50
The FBM value is constant which is 3.17. Thus, the cost of purchase, CBM
353
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 3.17 × 56306.022
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $188000.09 = 𝑅𝑀 827200.40
The material factor, FM
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
7.45 0.13
𝐹𝑀 = 1.75 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 2.46
The pressure factor, FP
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
58.015 58.015 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝐹𝑃 = 0.99
The bare cost, CB
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(𝐴)] + 0.09790 [ln(𝐴)]2 ]
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(7.45)] + 0.09790 [ln(7.45)]2 ]
𝐶𝐵 = $24284.74 = 𝑅𝑀 106852.80
354
The surface area of the cooler, A
𝑄
𝐴=
18616630
𝐴=
1500 × 162.51
𝐴 = 7.45 𝑓𝑡 2
The log mean temperature difference, ΔTLM
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
−(183.49 − 178.78) − (45 − 40)

Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(183.49 − 178.78)
ln
(45 − 40)
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 162.51
Cooler (E-107)
𝐶𝑃 = 2.61 × 1 × 0.9885 × 13978.64
𝐶𝑃 = $36021.95 = 𝑅𝑀 158496.60
355
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 3.17 × 36021.95
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $114189.59 = 𝑅𝑀 502432.20
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
30.52 0.13
𝐹𝑀 = 1.75 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 2.61
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
43.511 43.511 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9885
The bare cost, CB
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(𝐴)] + 0.09790 [ln(𝐴)]2 ]
356
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(30.52)] + 0.09790 [ln(30.52)]2 ]
𝐶𝐵 = $13978.63 = 𝑅𝑀 61506.00
𝑄
𝐴=
229130
𝐴=
1500 × 5.01
𝐴 = 30.52 𝑓𝑡 2
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
(45 − 39.99) − (25 − 20)

Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(45 − 39.99)
ln
(25 − 20)
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 5.01
Cooler (E-108)
357
𝐶𝑃 = 2.83 × 1 × 0.9829 × 12111.44
𝐶𝑃 = $33741.73 = 𝑅𝑀 148463.60
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 3.17 × 33741.73
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $106961.28 = 𝑅𝑀 470629.60
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
186.34 0.13
𝐹𝑀 = 1.75 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 2.83
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
14.504 14.504 2
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9803 + 0.0018 + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝐹𝑃 = 0.9829
358
The bare cost, CB
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(𝐴)] + 0.09790 [ln(𝐴)]2 ]
𝐶𝐵 = exp[ 11.551 − 0.9186[ln(186.34)] + 0.09790 [ln(186.34)]2 ]
𝐶𝐵 = $12111.44 = 𝑅𝑀 53290.32
𝑄
𝐴=
1396130
𝐴=
1500 × 4.99
𝐴 = 186.34 𝑓𝑡 2
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
−(70 − 74.99) − (25 − 30)

Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
(70 − 74.99)
ln
(25 − 30)
Δ𝑇𝐿𝑀 = 4.99
7) Distillation column
359
Distillation Column (C-101)
Operating temperature, To = 77 F
Operating pressure, Po = 2 bar x 14.5048
Po = 29.01 psig
Design pressure, Pd = 31.91 psig
Assumptions made:
1. Vertical orientation, cylindrical shaped
2. Material is carbon steel
3. Tray type is sieve tray
Internal diameter, Di
4𝐴𝐶 0.5 4 × 0.8771 0.5

𝐷=( ) =( ) = 1.0568 𝑚 = 3.47 𝑓𝑡
𝜋 𝜋
Length of the column, L
𝐿 = 𝑁𝑎𝑐𝑡 × 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 3
𝐿 = 46 × 0.45 𝑚 + 3 = 23.7 𝑚 = 77.7559 𝑓𝑡
Cost of tray, CBT
𝐶𝐵𝑇 = 486 exp(0.1482𝐷𝑖 )
𝐶𝐵𝑇 = 486 exp(0.1482 × 3.47)
𝐶𝐵𝑇 = $782.68 × 4.24 = 𝑅𝑀 3,322.45
Cost of installation, CT
𝐶𝑇 = 𝑁𝑇 𝐹𝑁𝑇 𝐹𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝑇𝑀 𝐶𝐵𝑇
360
𝐶𝑇 = 46 × 1 × 1 × 1 × $782.68
𝐶𝑇 = $45,007.73 × 4.24 = 𝑅𝑀 190,832.79
Cost of Empty Vessel, Cv
𝐶𝑣 = exp{7.1390 + 0.18255[ln(𝑊)] + 0.02297[ln(𝑊)]2 }
𝐶𝑣 = exp{7.1390 + 0.18255[ln(14719.76)] + 0.02297[ln(14719.76)]2 }
𝐶𝑣 = $60264.05 × 4.24
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅𝑀 255,519.59
Cost for Platforms and Ladders, CPL
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 341(𝐷𝑖 )0.63316 (𝐿)0.80161
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 341(3.4777)0.63316 (77.7559)0.80161
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = $24,609.85 × 4.24
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 𝑅𝑀 104,345.75
Purchase Cost, CP
𝐼2021
𝐶𝑝 = (𝐹𝑚 𝐶𝑣 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿 ) ( )
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒,2013
708
𝐶𝑝 = ((1 × 60,264.05) + 24,609.85) × ( )
567
𝐶𝑝 = $105,980.11 × 4.24
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑅𝑀 449,355.66
Bare Module Cost, CBM
361
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑇 𝐶𝑃 × 𝐹𝐵𝑀
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 190832.79 × 𝑅𝑀 449,355.66 × 4.16
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 2,060,152.34
8) Absorption column
Absorption column (C-102)
For vertical vessels, the 𝐶𝑉 is calculated using equation below when the weight is
𝐶𝑉 = exp{7.1390 + 0.18255[𝑙𝑛(2458.895 𝑙𝑏) + 0.02297[ln(2458.895 𝑙𝑏)]2 ]}
𝐶𝑉 = 21,257 $
After that, the added cost, 𝐶𝑃𝐿 for platforms and ladders depends on the inside
diameter and the length of the column, in feet is given by;
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 410(6.240)0.73960 (25.282)0.70684
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 15,577 $
Then, for material of construction factor, 𝐹𝑀 is given in the Appendix II .
As the material of construction used is the low-alloy steel, hence the 𝐹𝑀 = 1.2.
𝐶𝑃 = (1.2)(21,257 $) + 15,577 $
𝐶𝑃 = 41,084 $
362
Thus, the total purchase cost is 41,084 $. After that, the bare-module cost needs
to be calculated. The bare-module cost, 𝐶𝐵𝑀 or installed cost is calculated using the
bare-module factor, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 and the equipment's free-on-board (f.o.b., excluding delivery
costs). The bare-module factor, 𝐹𝐵𝑀 can be obtain from Appendix II.
From the Appendix II, the 𝐹𝐵𝑀 for this vertical pressure vessel is 4.16.
To calculate the 𝐶𝐵𝑀 , the equation below is used;
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 41,084 $ × 4.16
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 170,912 $
Thus, the bare module cost is 170,912 $.
363
APPENDIX III
B. Overall Coefficient for Shell and Tube Exchanger
364
365
B. Material of Construction Factors, FM for Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
C. Bare Module Factors of Guthrie (1974) for Ordinary Materials of

Construction and Low to Moderate Pressure
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
AMMONIA
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
ETHYL ACRYLATE
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
ETHANOL
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
DIMETHYL SULFOXIDE
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
TITANIUM DIOXIDE
415
416
417
418
419
420

Team 04 - Full Report PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Team 04 - Full Report PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PLANT DESIGN PROJECT

NAME MATRIC NUMBER

Acrylonitrile is a colourless, volatile liquid with a pungent, onion-like odour.

CHAPTER 2 PROCESS SYNTHESIS 19

CHAPTER 3 WASTE MANAGEMENT 107

CHAPTER 4 ENERGY INTERGRATION 132

CHAPTER 5 PROCESS CONTROL 149

CHAPTER 6 PROCESS SAFETY 186

CHAPTER 7 PROCESS ECONOMY 241

CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION 312

APPENDIX III 364

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

Table 1.1 Chemical and physical properties for Acrylonitrile from

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

Figure 1.1 Organization chart of company 1

1.1 Company Background

CRYLON SDN. BHD. was established in 2020 by a group of chemical

Figure 1.1 Organization chart of company

Acrylonitrile (ACN), or vinyl cyanide, is a chemical compound with the

ACN can be synthesized in three unique ways: by the ammoxidation of

Molecular Weight 53.1g/mol

Melting Point -82oC

Boiling Point 77.3oC

Specific Heat 110.9 J/mol.K.

Storage Temperature 2-8oC

Appearance Colourless liquid

Odour Pungent odour

Soluble in isopropanol, ethanol, ether, acetone, and

Table 1.2 The Safety Information of Acrylonitrile (Acrylonitrile MSDS-800834

Highly flammable liquid

Prone to strong reactions

Molecular Weight 17.031g/mol

Melting Point -77.73oC

Boiling Point -33.5oC

Specific Density 0.7710 g/cm3 at 25oC

Specific Heat 37.0 J/mol.K. (g)

80.8 kJ/mol. K (liq)

Storage Temperature 13oC

Appearance Colourless gas

Odour Strong and pungent odour

Water Solubility Soluble in water

Figure 1.3 The Safety Information of Ammonia (Ammonia Safety Data

Table 1.4 The Safety Information of Ammonia (Ammonia Safety Data

Health Can result in severe or

Flammability Prior to ignition, the

1.3 Market Survey for Acrylonitrile

1.3.2 The Production of Ammonia

Ammonia can be produced in both sources either renewable or non-renewable

The Haber-Bosch process is used to manufacture ammonia in large plants from

The properties of ammonia derived from renewable sources are it is carbon-

1.3.3 The Availability of Ammonia in Asia

According to Chem Analysts, ammonia supply in ending of September 2020

Overall market sentiments for ammonia in Asia remained positive throughout

1.3.4 World Production of Acrylonitrile

ACN can be produced from many sources such as 3-hydroxypropionic acid,

1.3.5 World Consumption of Acrylonitrile

According to Ajay More, the ACN sale is expected to grow at a Compound

Figure 1.6 Acrylonitrile Market Volume (%) by application globally in 2020

1.4 Site Selection

Industrial site selection is an important phase of establishing, extending, or

1.4.1 Factors Affecting the Site Selection

(a) Raw Material Supply

(b) Transport Facilities