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Reconnaissance Geology in Upper Chitral, Baroghil and Karambar districts

(northern Karakorum, Pakistan)

Article  in  Geologische Rundschau · December 1996

DOI: 10.1007/BF02440105

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Geol Rundsch (1996) 85 : 683–704
ORIGINAL PAPER
M. Gaetani 7 P. Le Fort 7 S. Tanoli 7 L. Angiolini
A. Nicora 7 D. Sciunnach 7 A. Khan
Reconnaissance geology in Upper Chitral, Baroghil
and Karambar districts (northern Karakorum, Pakistan)
Received: 28 August 1995 / Accepted: 1 July 1996
Abstract During the summer of 1992 a geological ex-
pedition crossed the northern Karakorum range in
northern Pakistan, from the Chitral to Karambar val-
leys, from the villages of Mastuj to Imit. Some of the
areas visited were geologically unknown. A number of
structural units were crossed, belonging to the Karako-
rum block or to other crustal blocks north of it. They
are: (a) the axial batholith, in which three plutonic bod-
ies have been identified, and (b) the northern sedimen-
tary belt (NSB), in which three major tectonostrati-
graphic units form thrust stacks dipping to the north.
Their internal stratigraphy and structural style are part-
ly different. The most complete contains a crystalline
basement, transgressed by a marine succession during
the Early Ordovician. The youngest strata are repre-
sented by the Reshun conglomerate, of inferred Creta-
ceous age. The northernmost unit of the NSB is tightly
folded, whereas the central one forms a monocline.
Vertical faults, mainly strike-slip, dissect the thrusted
slabs. Metamorphic deformation is absent or reaches
only the anchizone in the studied sector of the Karako-
rum NSB. To the north of the Karakorum proper there
are several other tectonic units, separated by vertical
faults. They are, from south to north: (a) the Taš Ku-
pruk zone, with metavolcanics of basaltic to latibasaltic
composition; (b) the Atark unit, mostly consisting of
massive carbonate rocks of Mesozoic age; and (c) the
Wakhan slates which consist of a thick widespread suc-
Maurizio Gaetani (Y) 7 Lucia Angiolini
Alda Nicora 7 Dario Sciunnach
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università di Milano,
Via Mangiagalli 34, I-20133 Milan, Italy
Fax: c39 2 706 38261
e-mail: gae6imiucca.csi.unimi.it
Patrick Le Fort
LGCA-UPRES-A No. 5025 CNRS, Université Fourier,
Grenoble, France
Seifnullah Tanoli 7 Asif Khan
Centre of Excellence in Geology and University of Peshawar,
Peshawar, Pakistan.
Q Springer-Verlag 1996
cession of dark slates, metasiltites and sandstones. The
fine-grained clastic rocks are supposed to be Palaeozoic
to Early Triassic in age. The Wakhan slates are in-
truded by plutons belonging to the East Hindu Kush
batholith, from which a single K/Ar age on muscovite
gave a Jurassic age.
Key words General geology 7 Stratigraphy 7
Magmatism 7 Volcanism 7 Structure 7 Karakorum 7
Central Asia 7 Pakistan
Introduction
The Karakorum range is a crustal block which belongs
to the orogenic geopuzzle of Central Asia, lying be-
tween the Himalayan range and the Pamirs (Fig. 1). Its
northwestern part is geologically poorly known, be-
cause of the remoteness of the area and especially be-
cause it lies in a politically very sensitive region, along
the Afghan border. Thanks to the permissions granted
by the Government of Pakistan, we had the opportuni-
ty to carry out a geological reconnaissance to the upper
reaches of the Yarkhun and Karambar rivers, during
September and October 1992 (Fig. 2). This report pro-
vides general geological data on this poorly known
area. Other more specific papers have been published
elsewhere (Le Fort et al. 1994; Tongiorgi et al. 1994;
Gaetani et al. 1995; Flügel 1995; Angiolini 1995; An-
giolini and Rettori 1995).
Previous knowledge
Geological research in the upper Chitral area started
with the pioneering reconnaissance of Hayden (1915),
who walked up the Yarkhun valley from Mastuj to the
Baroghil pass, then south to Darkot through the Dark-
ot pass. He depicted the main structural elements as
well as some of the major stratigraphic features. Tipper
in 1923 made a long journey in the area, but only a pre-
684
Fig. 1 A The mosaic of crus-
tal blocks of Central Asia
around the Karakorum. B The
main tectonostratigraphic sub-
divisions of the Karakorum
liminary report was published (Pascoe 1924). After this
initial exploration by the Geological Survey of India,
geological activity resumed only after the India–Pakis-
tan partition. Australian and Pakistani geologists,
through the project Columbus, worked in Chitral and
also briefly visited the Baroghil area (Talent and Maw-
son 1979; Talent et al. 1981). Buchroithner (1978) and
Gamerith (1982), who worked mainly in Chitral, pro-
duced a geological map at 1 : 250 000 scale, largely based
on interpretation of satellite imagery, which covers also
the investigated area. However, especially in the east-
ernmost part, this map is largely interpretative.
The upper Karambar reaches have never been the
subject of a geological report. Only Casnedi (1980,
1984) tried to interpret what he saw in the distance
from Pekhin towards Chillinji.
Geological setting of the western Karakorum
The Karakorum range is a very complex range which
was formed by repeated collisions of continental blocks
and plates, from Jurassic to Present (Fig. 1b).
The Karakorum may be roughly subdivided into
three main belts, from south to north:
1. The southern metamorphic belt, which consists of a
wide variety of rocks, from low-pressure andalusite
facies to intermediate-pressure kyaniteBsillimanite
facies. To the west it also includes non-metamorphic
sedimentary rocks (Ivanac et al. 1956; Matzushita
and Huzita 1965). The metamorphic deformation
was polyphase, possibly involving three or four
phases. The deepest metamorphic levels are now ex-

Fig. 2 Index map with the itinerary of the visited area and posi-
tion of geological maps
humed in the eastern part. The less metamorphosed
rocks appear to be around Darkot.
2. The Karakorum axial batholith covers approximate-
ly 30% of the range and at least three major intru-
sive episodes may be identified. A mid-Cretaceous
episode consists of widely exposed sub-alkaline to
calc-alkaline intrusions. A minor Eocene episode of
biotite, amphiboles granites and adamellites follows.
The third major episode is represented by the Bal-
toro sub-alkaline granite, of Miocene age (Le Fort et
al. 1983; Debon et al. 1987; Crawford and Searle
1992; Debon 1995).
3. The NSB, which is subdivided into several thrust
sheets both in the west (Fig. 3) and in the Hunza val-
ley to the east (Zanchi and Gaetani 1994). The most
complete sequence consists of a 5- to 7-km-thick se-
dimentary succession, which is transgressive on a
pre-Ordovician crystalline basement, and remained
mostly under marine conditions up to the earliest
Cretaceous. Upper Cretaceous marine rocks with
discontinuous continental deposits at the base are
only locally preserved (Gaetani et al. 1993). A few
granitoid intrusions were detected within this belt.
Thrust sheets are only in part laterally continuous.
Units external to the Karakorum range
The northern boundary of the NSB also defines the
northern margin of the Karakorum range, which geo-
logically does not coincide with the geographic subdivi-
sions (Mason 1938; Desio 1992). The problem has been
already briefly reviewed by Gaetani and Leven (1993),
and additional evidence is given in Discussion. We
685
draw the northwest geological boundary of the Karako-
rum at the Tirich Mir fault, excluding the following
units:
1. The Taš Kupruk zone which consists of marine sedi-
mentary rocks, mostly dolostones of ? Palaeozoic
age, and seems to be associated with peralkaline bas-
alts or latibasalts, commonly metamorphosed. This
zone is also present on the Wakhan side of E Hindu
Kush (Kafarskyi and Abdullah 1976; Kafarskyi et
al., unpublished data).
2. The Atark unit which consists of sedimentary rocks
of Permian to ? Cretaceous age (Gaetani and Leven
1993). It is mainly exposed in Chitral, but it disap-
pears northeast of Lasht.
3. The Wakhan and Misgar slates which consist of a
thick sequence of black slates, siltites and subordi-
nate sandstones, mostly of Palaeozoic age, but also
containing some evidence of a Triassic age (Buch-
roithner 1980; Kafarskyi and Abdullah 1976). They
form a continuous belt from Chitral, through Wak-
han to the Shimshal pass area to the east.
4. The East Hindu Kush granitoids are a belt of grani-
toid plutons which intrude the last two units. They
form a continuous belt on the Chitral/Wakhan wa-
tershed, whereas they occur as isolated plutons to
the east.
The contacts between the major tectonostratigraphic
sedimentary units are invariably marked by thrusts or
strike-slip faults, whereas the plutonic bodies may pre-
serve their original intrusive contacts.
The previously listed tectonostratigraphic units are
described from south to north.
The southern metamorphic belt
The southern metamorphic belt was briefly studied
around Gazin (Figs. 2, 4 and 5). At this locality thick
686

Fig. 3 The Upper Yarkhun valley and Karambar An, drawn on

the field observations, the satellite SPOT II imagery and the geo-
logical map of Afghanistan (Abdullah and Chmyriov 1980)

Fig. 4 The contact between the southern sedimentary belt and

the Axial batholith near Gazin. (Sketch from a photo, as viewed
from SW). KAB Karakorum axial batholith

vertical beds of grey marbles are thrust, with small

throw, over black slates and dark brown sandstones
with thin marble intercalations. The grey marbles con-
tain ghosts of thick-shelled large molluscs, resembling
Mesozoic species. These fossils would suggest that not
only Permian or older rocks are preserved in the so-
called Darkot group as previously reported, but Meso-
zoic rocks as well (Ivanac et al. 1956; Matzushita and
Hushita 1965; Pudsey 1986).
Fig. 5 Map of the northern branch of the Axial batholith along
the Yarkun river gorges. The three plutonic units (GS, GM and
GN, see text) are tentatively delimited. Magmatic foliation and
subsolidus foliation (arrows) are synthetically shown. Topogra-
phy based on the enlarged 1 : 250 000 Army service map of Mastuj
(NJ 43–13)

The Karakorum axial batholith
The road along the Yarkhun river follows the trend of
the Karakorum axial batholith up to Shulkuch (Fig. 5),
then the trail crosses the northern branch of the bathol-
ith along the gorges between Gazin and Lasht. We have
sampled some plutons of the southern branch of the
batholith between Mastuj and Gazin, and those of the
northern branch along the gorges and farther eastward
from boulders.
The southern contact of the northern branch of the
batholith is not visible in the gorge section; it lies under
the scree of the Yarkhun river bed. On the right bank
of the Gazin valley, the granitoids seem to be in contact
with a horizon of marbles belonging to the southern
metamorphic belt (Fig. 5). At the beginning of the
gorges, the granitoid is deformed by shear planes re-
sulting in a network of ultramylonitic veinlets and, lo-
cally, in the orthogneissification of the granitoid mass.
The shear planes strike FN 50bE, dip 60 to 85bNW,
and show striae with a dominant sinistral strike-slip
movement and a small normal component.
The three granitoid bodies
In the F9-km-long NS section along the gorges, three
types of granitoid are present (Fig. 5), possibly corre-
sponding to three different plutons: (a) to the south, a
dark biotite- and amphibole-bearing monzodiorite with
a microgranular texture and generally foliated, is called
GS granitoid; (b) in the middle, a biotite-amphibole
porphyritic granodiorite which begins as dikes intrud-
ing the monzodiorite and then forms a homogeneous
mass, is called GM granitoid; (c) to the north, an am-
phibole- and biotite-bearing granodiorite, medium to
coarse-grained, with euhedral amphiboles, commonly
mylonitized, is called GN granitoid.
The dark GS granitoid is quite heterogeneous. K-
feldspar crystals are irregularly and usually lie in the
foliation. At the scale of the outcrop, the unit looks like
an irregular mixture of clear-coloured porphyritic gran-
ite forming puffs or flames of K-feldspar-rich material
in dark-coloured micaceous material. It sometimes re-
sults into imbibition-like banding of the granitoid. In
some places the clear-coloured veinlets show a contin-
uous film of micas at the contact with the dark-coloured
granitoid, forming a sort of restitic selvage, as if partial
melting had occurred at the contact. In other cases
small pegmatitic veins develop. In general, the contact
between the two different coloured granitoids is diffuse
and it is difficult to tell which granitoid is younger. The
granitoid presents both “metasedimentary” and “mi-
crogranular” enclaves. Foliation is quite conspicuous
everywhere. To the south it is sometimes also refolded
into tight crenulations, and elsewhere it is sheared
along tiny NE–SW shear zones, which are occasionally
chloritized. The most mafic rock, a diorite, bears a mag-
687
matic quartz-plagioclase–biotite–amphibole–pyroxene
paragenesis (Tables 1 and 2). The strongly zoned plag-
ioclase varies from An82 in the core to An42 at the rim.
Magnesium-rich biotite (XFe 0.35–0.36) and amphibole
(XFe 0.17–0.18) are sometimes associated with pyrox-
ene (XFe 0.25).
On the west bank of the Yarkhun river, the massive
GM porphyritic granitoid seems to be in contact with
the GS granitoid through a screen of highly faulted rus-
ty metasedimentary rocks. On the east bank the contact
seems to continue in a narrow rusty-coloured gully.
South of the screen the dikes and pods of porphyritic
granite become progressively more abundant and volu-
minous in the GS granitoid. The northern contact of
GM has not been observed. It seems to correspond to
the valley of the Unawich Gol and eastward, to a zone
of WSW–ENE nearly vertical ultramylonites. Shear cri-
teria in the mylonite (c-s relationships) show that the
rocks to the north (GN) have moved relatively up-
wards, with no obvious transcurrent component. The
massive granitoid is amphibole- and biotite-bearing
(often chloritized) and lighter-coloured towards the
centre of the body. The megacrysts of K-feldspar are a
few centimetres long and often zoned. The granodiorite
bears abundant microgranular enclaves usually 1 cm to
0.5 m in length. Foliation is always present, generally
marked by biotite, but sometimes also by the alignment
of feldspar megacrysts. In addition to this magmatic fol-
iation, most outcrops present a pervasive schistosity,
generally more extensive towards E–W, and linked to
the advanced chloritization of the granodiorite.
The medium-grained GN granodiorite is extremely
heterogeneous and appears to be shattered at all scales.
The granodiorite, when fresh, contains nests of euhe-
dral green hornblende and biotite, and abundant mi-
crogranular enclaves. It contains numerous magmatic
and tectonic sedimentary inclusions, including a large
pinched refolded syncline of marbles and quartzitic ma-
terial (Fig. 5). At the outcrop scale the granodiorite
contains abundant xenoliths of fine-grained psammitic
banded quartzites and minor amphibolite intercalations
cut by dikes and veins of clear-coloured granitic materi-
al. The most mafic rocks include a magmatic quartz–
plagioclase–biotite–amphibole–pyroxene paragenesis.
Zoned plagioclase varies from An46 to An42. Relative-
ly iron-rich biotite has an XFe between 0.54 and 0.57,
whereas that of amphibole in the same sample varies
between 0.26 and 0.38. Very strong tectonization has
transformed most of the body in 1-m-thick alternations
of mylonitized orthogneiss and metasedimentary quart-
zites. Innumerable faults accompanied by quartz and
calcite veins crosscut the granodiorite, causing wide-
spread schistosity, and greenschist facies retrogressions.
In several places a late-folding episode with N 50bE
trend is present and accompanied by a small crenula-
tion cleavage.
The northern contact of the batholith has been ob-
served on the east bank of the Yarkhun river, north of
Sakirmul. It occurs amidst tectonic slicing of laminated
688

Table 1 Average chemical analyses of some of the main magmatic are given. N number of samples analysed. Analysis by ICP and
bodies. In addition to major and trace element contents with their ICPMS, by K. Govindaraju (CRPG, Nancy, France)
standard deviations, from Debon and Le Fort (1988), parameters

Axial batholith

GS GM GN Shushar Ishkarwaz Chhateboi Volcanics of Inkip

N 6 4 5 5 9 4 7

SiO2 54.36B 3.92 67.08B 4.47 59.72B 6.13 72.14B 0.81 65.27B 0.93 69.18B 1.09 40.95B 1.67
Al2O3 17.34B 1.27 15.31B 1.44 16.19B 0.72 14.17B 0.51 14.07B 0.32 14.97B 0.19 12.50B 2.36
Fe2O3t 7.74B 1.48 3.55B 1.18 5.90B 1.38 2.25B 0.23 5.90B 0.44 2.91B 0.62 14.49B 2.96
MnO 0.12B 0.02 0.06B 0.02 0.09B 0.03 0.05B 0.01 0.08B 0.02 0.04B 0.01 0.16B 0.04
MgO 3.92B 1.54 1.06B 0.54 3.53B 3.01 0.59B 0.10 1.16B 0.19 0.83B 0.21 8.37B 2.95
CaO 6.77B 0.82 2.90B 1.10 5.65B 3.05 1.25B 0.25 2.19B 0.88 2.45B 0.11 8.49B 3.50
Na2O 3.65B 0.50 3.98B 0.46 3.22B 0.52 3.22B 0.13 3.26B 0.22 3.97B 0.18 3.20B 1.30
K2O 2.81B 0.56 4.22B 0.51 3.06B 1.36 4.37B 0.13 4.07B 0.39 3.97B 0.19 0.92B 1.20
TiO2 1.37B 0.46 0.47B 0.20 0.71B 0.28 0.28B 0.03 0.78B 0.05 0.45B 0.11 3.11B 1.00
P2O5 0.41B 0.16 0.19B 0.09 0.25B 0.07 0.23B 0.02 0.21B 0.02 0.16B 0.04 0.84B 0.17
IL 1.11B 0.22 0.82B 0.24 1.28B 0.45 1.22B 0.16 2.30B 1.07 0.59B 0.06 5.88B 2.52
Total 99.61B 0.29 99.63B 0.45 99.61B 0.53 99.77B 0.03 99.29B 0.52 99.51B 0.48 98.91B 0.50
P P80 P77 P72 P33 P58 P88 P235
Q 105 120 123 189 145 143 3
A P19 P28 P26 36 7 P 6 428
B 81 139 130 47 113 63 P181
Ba 534 B137 487 B160 517 B213 360 B81 1006 B150 476 B64 359 B356
Be 1.86B 0.24 1.94B 0.24 1.85B 0.51 3.5 B 0.7 1.9 B 0.4 4.3 B 0.5 2.0 B 0.5
Cr 73 B108 16 B 2 128 B200 14 B 2.6 26 B 7 16 B 4 511 B178
Cu 33 B 8 8 B 1 27 B 17 15 B13 16 B 5 6 B 1 65 B 55
Ga 11 B 4 14 B 6 ~5 16 B 7 18 B 9 25 B11 32 B 17
Nb 22 B 8 10 B 3 7 B 2 10 B 3 10 B 5 10 B 4 70 B 30
Ni 36 B 42 11 B 3 37 B 54 8 B 2 15 B 7 13 B 5 250 B 76
Rb 97 B 28 136 B 80 116 B 69 225 B72 141 B 33 163 B 5 33 B 45
Sc 18 B 2 5 B 2 17 B 7 4.4 B 0.6 13 B 1 5.3 B 1.1 29 B 4
Sr 505 B 79 331 B152 416 B 79 134 B39 147 B 37 264 B10 506 B251
Th 12 B 6 22 B 9 22 B 14 14 B 6 16 B 8 20 B 3 17 B 16
U 3.1 B 0.3 4.7 B 1.6 2.0 B 0.2
V 137 B 15 32 B 17 108 B 53 21 B 5 56 B 10 31 B 7 224 B 40
Y 22 B 3 13 B 3 19 B 2 11 B 1 40 B 5 13 B 1 28 B 4
Zn 75 B 14 114 B137 195 B297 64 B28 86 B 16 40 B 11 98 B 28
Zr 218 B 48 188 B 46 179 B 48 100 B12 370 B 22 156 B25 272 B 61

granodiorite and sheared metaquartzites. After the last

occurrence of granodiorite, a few decimetre-thick gran-
The northern sedimentary belt
itic dikes occur, soon replaced by boudinaged dikes of
The NSB is arranged in several large sheets, bounded
quartz. There is little doubt that the northern boundary
by thrust planes commonly steepened by strike-slip
of the axial batholith corresponds to a zone of shearing;
faults. From south to north we recognize the following
however, the amount of movement which has occurred
units (Fig. 3), whose characteristics are summarized in
along it is difficult to determine.
the Fig. 7.

Geochemistry Axial unit

In the nomenclature and QBF diagrams (Fig. 6), grani-
toids GS and GM could form a magmatic series of sub-
alkaline (monzonitic) association, whereas granitoid
GN seems to form an independent association, more
quartz-rich although still with a sub-alkaline affinity.
The GS–GM association is reminiscent of the “Darkot
pass granite” described and dated as mid-Cretaceous
by Debon et al. (1987).
The name Axial unit is here introduced to stress its po-
sition near the Karakorum axial batholith (KAB). It
crops out on the southern side of the Yarkhun valley,
between Sakirmul and south of Rukut (Fig. 8), and in
front of Gharil-Lashkargaz, where it is largely con-
cealed by glaciers (Fig. 9). Near the snout of the Chian-
tar glacier (Fig. 3), the granite of the KAB seems to be
in direct contact with the Baroghil unit, where appar-
ently the Axial unit is missing. The Axial unit consists
of three sedimentary units. From the bottom to the top,
they are:
Table 2 Average chemical composition and structural formula of some major minerals of the Baroghil area. BAX Axial batholith; GS southern granitoid; GN northern granitoid; D
diorite; GD granodiorite

Formation BAX GS BAX GN Ishkarwaz Chhateboi Chhateboi Chhateboi Chhateboi BAX GS BAX GN Ishkarwaz Inkip BAX GS BAX GN
Nature D GD ABi GD Schist Schist Schist Schist D GD ABi GD Volcanite D GD ABi
Sample KK629 KK644 KK701 KK828 KK828 KK823 KK828 KK629 KK644 KK701 KK677 KK629 KK644
Mineral Bi Bi Bi Bi Mu Cord Cord Amph Amph Amph Amph Px Px
Number 3 3 4 3 3 2 3 4 4 4 1 2 2

SiO2 37.93 36.65 35.22 35.23 36.60 48.85 48.15 50.39 48.02 45.17 54.04 53.59 53.68
Al2O3 15.31 13.65 13.42 20.46 14.13 32.63 32.36 5.81 7.05 6.07 1.33 0.48 0.79
FeO 14.34 21.54 27.68 20.92 21.19 21.19 23.38 10.92 13.62 24.94 12.68 8.04 6.99
MgO 14.49 9.64 5.73 7.70 9.95 8.23 11.82 15.02 12.91 6.30 15.07 13.83 13.84
MnO 0.06 0.17 0.28 0.09 0.17 0.44 0.24 0.22 0.31 0.49 0.20 0.26 0.25
Cr2O3 0.13 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.11 0.14 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.02
TiO2 2.89 4.06 4.04 2.08 3.66 0.00 0.00 1.14 1.19 1.13 0.00 0.05 0.11
NiO 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02
CaO 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.05 11.58 12.02 10.43 11.92 22.58 23.57
Na2O 0.15 0.05 0.07 0.17 0.09 0.34 0.21 0.88 1.04 1.22 0.62 0.21 0.19
K2O 9.22 9.43 9.12 8.75 9.26 0.00 0.01 0.40 0.65 0.58 0.08 0.00 0.00
Total 94.55 95.24 95.55 95.44 95.11 98.27 98.87 96.49 96.97 96.35 95.94 99.08 99.46
Cations per formula unit
Si 5.67 5.67 5.61 5.36 5.65 5.04 5.01 7.28 7.04 6.99 7.85 2.01 2.00
Al iv 2.33 2.33 2.39 2.64 2.35 0.96 0.99 0.72 0.96 1.01 0.15 0.00 0.00
Z total 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 6.00 6.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 2.01 2.00
Al vi 0.37 0.16 0.13 1.03 0.22 3.00 2.99 0.27 0.26 0.10 0.08 0.02 0.03
Fe 1.79 2.79 3.69 2.66 2.76 0.71 1.03 1.47 1.86 3.59 1.71 0.25 0.22
Mg 3.23 2.22 1.36 1.75 2.27 1.19 0.93 3.24 2.82 1.45 3.26 0.77 0.77
Mn 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.01 0.01
Cr 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ti 0.32 0.47 0.48 0.24 0.43 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ni 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Y total 5.74 5.67 5.70 5.69 5.71 5.14 5.12 5.35 5.08
Ca 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 1.79 1.89 1.73 1.85 0.91 0.94
Na 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.07 0.04 0.25 0.30 0.37 0.17 0.02 0.01
K 1.76 1.86 1.85 1.70 1.82 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.12 0.12 0.02 0.00 0.00
X or (XcY) total 1.80 1.88 1.87 1.75 1.85 2.01 2.04 2.11 2.30 2.21 2.04 3.99 3.99
XFe 0.36 0.56 0.73 0.61 0.37 0.52 0.17 0.21 0.39 0.20 0.25 0.22
Norm factor 22 22 22 22 22 18 18 23 23 23 23 6 6
689
690
Fig. 6 QBF (Quartz–mafic minerals–feldspars) chemical minera-
logical diagram of Debon and Le Fort (1983, 1988) for the three
bodies distinguished in the field for the KAB through the Yark-
hun gorges. Parameters in weight percent, calculated from the
chemical analysis. Diamonds GS; open triangles GM; filled trian-
gles GN
Fig. 7 Main stratigraphic subdivisions of the five tectonostrati-
graphic units or successions identified in the northern sedimenta-
ry belt of the western Karakorum
1. A unit of dark-grey slates which become greenish
when altered. Their relationships with the KAB
were poorly observed, but near Sakirmul the contact
zone is sheared. At the top of this unit are a few tens
of metres of non-metamorphosed quartzarenites
(Qp99–100; Fp0–1; Lp0–1). The unit has a total
thickness of at least 1000 m, but isoclinal folding
may be present. This unit was mapped by Gamerith
(1982) as metavolcanic rocks.
2. The middle unit consists of a mostly carbonate, cliff-
forming unit, several hundred metres thick. It con-
sists of massive grey dolomites and dolomitic limes-
tones in the Shost-Aliabad area. In the Upper Yark-
hun valley and near Shost, dark-grey thick-bedded
limestones contain a very rich fauna of small foram-
inifers, Late Permian in age (Chapursan group; Gae-
tani et al. 1995).
3. The uppermost unit consists of conglomerates, con-
sidered to be the lateral equivalent of the Reshun
conglomerate of Chitral (Hayden 1915). At the base
there is an erosion surface. However, no spectacular
angular unconformity (max 10–157) is observed
around Shost, where the best outcrops are found. In
the basal part coarse reddish sandstones and red
shales prevail, whereas upwards also conglomeratic
layers are present. The clast-supported Reshun con-
glomerate consists of moderately rounded pebbles
of sedimentary rocks, with average clast size be-
tween 5 and 15 cm. Carbonate pebbles commonly
prevail over sandstone pebbles. The matrix is mostly
red. The unit is usually tectonically thinned, but it
may reach several hundred metres thickness like
west of Shost and to the south of Lashkargaz. More-
over, on the moraines of the tributary glaciers of the
south side of the upper Karambar valley, cobbles
with Reshun conglomerate, including pebbles with
orbitolinids, have been observed. In conclusion, the
Reshun conglomerate seems to form a belt from
Chitral to Karambar valleys. No direct age assign-
ment could be made, but we consider the conglom-
erate to be Cretaceous in age, younger than the Or-
bitolina limestones, because clasts containing those
foraminifers have been observed. In addition, this
unit is similar to the Tupop conglomerate of Hunza,
which is overlain by a Late Cretaceous unit (Gaetani
et al. 1993).
Baroghil unit
The name Baroghil unit is here introduced to name the
tectonostratigraphic unit with the most complete upper
crustal section in the Karakorum. The succession starts
with a crystalline basement intruded by a granite, and
both are transgressed by sedimentary rocks, more than
4 km thick, ranging in age from Ordovician to Jurassic.
Structurally, the unit forms a north-dipping monocline
which is thrusted to the south onto the Axial unit. To
the north the Baroghil unit is separated from the Ka-
rambar unit by a complex thrust system.
Crystalline basement
One of the main results of this expedition was the dis-
covery of a crystalline basement in the Upper Yarkhun
valley (Le Fort et al. 1994; Tongiorgi et al. 1994). It

Fig. 8 Map of the Lasht area, drawn on field observation and sa-
tellite SPOT II imagery. Topography on SPOT II imagery
consists of low-grade quartzites and migmatites, which
are in turn intruded by a granite (Figs. 3 and 8):
1. Quartzites consist of dark-grey siltstones and quart-
zites, in beds 30–60 cm thick, largely derived from
greenschist-facies metamorphism of poorly sorted
subarkoses. This metaterrigenous unit forms 1-km-
wide open folds, and is transformed into hard spot-
ted schists and massive hornfels-like rocks close to
the contact with the granite. Granitic dikes, prefer-
entially dipping at 407 to the SE, intrude the metase-
diments.
2. Migmatites occur to the SE of Chikar, and up the
right bank of the Darkot pass glacier, where the me-
tasediments become increasingly intruded by granit-
ic dikes. In a few kilometres the injected metasedi-
ments seem to gradually give way to migmatites, and
into anatectic granite engulfing masses of nebulitic
gneisses and agmatitic amphibolites.
3. Granite occurring in the 4- to 5-km-wide aphophysis
around Ishkarwaz is shattered and cut by numerous
fault planes which are predominantly dextral- and
WNW-dipping, and contain veinlets of quartz and
691
carbonates. The granite bears biotite and frequent
amphibole almost totally altered. According to the
Debon and Le Fort classification (1988), the grani-
toid is a dark-coloured adamellite, alumino-cafemic
with a calc-alkaline affinity (Le Fort et al. 1994). At
least two other small granitic bodies, most probably
related to the Ishkarwaz granite, have been found
along the Yarkhun valley, SE of Kan Khun and W
of Kishmanja, where they form apophyses of 1–4 km
in width, which intrude the same formation of meta-
quartzites and micaschists (Figs. 2 and 3). The plu-
ton to the west of Kishmanja resembles very much
that of Ishkarwaz. In particular, the chemical com-
position, including rare earth element (REE) pat-
terns, is exactly the same for the two plutons. Minor
differences include: (a) a steady more melanocratic
character for the Kishmanja pluton, (b) it is more
Mg- and Ca-rich, (c) it contains more than double
amounts of Cr, Sr and V, and (d) it is depleted in Ba,
Zn and Zr (approximately half).
The sedimentary succession
Nine formations have been identified within the sedi-
mentary succession. Two of them are introduced here
for the first time (Fig. 10). The Permian units are exten-
692
Fig. 9 Map of the Baroghil area, drawn on field observation and
satellite SPOT II imagery. Topography on SPOT II imagery
sively described in Gaetani et al. (1995). From the bot-
tom to the top, the nine units are described below.
Yarkhun formation. The name Yarkhun formation is
introduced from the Yarkhun valley, to define the suc-
cession of mostly terrigenous sediments between the
crystalline basement and the continuous dolomitic slab
of the Chilmarabad formation. The lithology of the bas-
al part of the formation has been observed on the trail
from the Ishkarwaz bridge to the Baroghil pass, where-
as the main section was measured along the southern
tip of the Baroghil ridge (Fig. 9). The total thickness is
inferred to slightly exceed 1000 m.
The basal contact and the lowermost sedimentary
set were extensively described in Le Fort et al. (1994)
and Tongiorgi et al. (1994). The bulk of the formation
consists of fine-grained slates and siltites. However, the
lower half of the Yarkhun formation contains a consid-
erable amount of quartzarenites, usually making sepa-
rate bodies 10–35 m thick. They are generally compos-
ite beds, passing laterally to finer-grained sediments.
Individual beds are mostly between 10–70 cm thick and
many appear to pinch out laterally. Internally, both ho-
rizontal and cross-laminations are present. Generally,
slates pass into mixed zones of interbedded thin quart-
zarenites and/or siltites and slates to amalgamated zone
of quartzarenites. Sandstones from the Yarkhun forma-
tion are fine- to medium-grained, moderately to well-
sorted quartzarenites containing rock fragments of vol-
canic and subordinately sedimentary origin
(Qp96v98, Fp0v1, Lp2v3; np2).
The middle and lower portion of the formation is re-
latively finer grained. Upwards the quartzarenites be-
come more calcareous and are replaced by arenaceous
limestone. Dolomitized shells and echinoderm plates
represent up to 25% of the sandstone framework. The
succession becomes coarser grained and calcareous to-
wards the top. The topmost 60 m of the formation con-
sists of thin-bedded calcarenites with very thin clay
partings. Carbonate beds are locally abundant and are
rich in crinoids and bryozoans. A variety of horizontal
and vertical tube burrows and Teichechnus are present
in some horizons.
The basal shaly succession yielded abundant, but
poorly preserved, acritarchs. Two different assemblages
were recognized (Tongiorgi et al. 1994). Both assem-
blages are considered Arenigian in age (Early Ordovi-
cian, 480–465 Ma, according to Odin 1994), probably
referable to the late Early Arenig–early Late Arenig in-
terval. Approximately 70–80 m above the base lies the
dolomitic horizon which yielded conodonts, possibly
Middle Ordovician in age (Talent and Mawson 1979;
Talent et al. 1981). Higher up we found only fragments
of bryozoans and orthocones in the dolomitic intercala-

Fig. 10 Comprehensive stratigraphic scheme of the sedimentary
succession of the Baroghil unit
tions for which we may tentatively suggest an Ordovi-
cian–Silurian age.
Chilmarabad formation. The name Chilmarabad forma-
tion is introduced from the locality of Chilmarabad,
near the Baroghil village. The terrigenous Yarkhun for-
mation is gradually replaced by a grey calcareous-do-
lostone unit (yellow-brown when altered), which forms
a characteristic protruding ridge approximately 200 m
thick. It contains in the lowermost part siltites and
shales, but even microconglomerates with grey-green
chert clasts are present, which testify to the renewed
erosion of the Cambrian–Precambrian basement. The
lower 100 m of the formation consists of 40- to 80-cm-
thick beds, with thin shaly partings. Broad symmetrical
and asymmetrical wave ripple marks are present at the
top of a few beds. The rest of the formation is similar,
but contains rarer shaly partings and common amalga-
mated beds. A few quartzarenitic horizons, 1.5 to 0.5 m
thick, have been observed. Parallel laminations and
stromatolitic laminations occur especially in the upper
part.
No fossils have been found to date this unit. Its age
is considered Early and Middle Devonian according to
stratigraphic position.
Shogram formation. The name Shogram formation was
introduced by Desio (1966) for the carbonatic–terrige-
693
nous succession with abundant Devonian fossils, crop-
ping out in Chitral near Shogram.
The Chilmarabad formation is followed with a sharp
contact by the Shogram formation. It consists of at least
five fining-upward cyclothems approximately 20–30 m
thick, and is 170 m thick on the south bank of the Yark-
hun river in front of Gharil. The internal sequence of
cyclothems consists, from bottom to top, of coarse
sandstones (lithic quartzarenites), shales, arenitic limes-
tones and bioclastic limestones. Occasionally, coral
patch reefs are present. In its calcareous parts, corals
(Alveolites hudlestoni Reed; M. Hubmann, pers. com-
mun.), brachiopods (Cyrtospirifer sp., atrypids and
rhynchonelloids) and bryozoans are fairly abundant.
They are of Frasnian (Late Devonian) age.
Lower Carboniferous crinoidal limestones. A few tens
of metres of grey-blue crinoidal limestone, with occa-
sional shaly intercalations, were observed along the
right bank of the Yarkhun river south of Gharil
(Fig. 9). Thin sections failed to reveal any diagnostic
microfossils and also the few isolated corals and spiri-
ferid brachiopods collected are too poorly preserved to
be identified. According to its stratigraphic position, we
tentatively attribute this unit to the Early Carbonife-
rous.
Gircha formation. The name Gircha formation was in-
troduced by Desio (1963) in Upper Hunza valley, to de-
signate the terrigenous succession lying at the base of
the marine Permian sequence. This term is extended to
the Baroghil unit and has been described by Gaetani et
al. (1995).
The thickness of the Gircha formation has not been
measured directly, but it has been inferred to be ap-
proximately 500 m, according to stratimetric evalua-
tion. This unit is fairly homogeneous, consisting basical-
ly of siltites and shales alternating with quartzarenitic
sandstones. Dark grey splintery siltstones and shales
form sets up to 10–20 m thick, often poorly exposed,
alternating with grey quartzarenites. They occasionally
form beds of a few centimetres up to 1-m-thick fes-
tooned lenticular bodies with high-angle cross-lamina-
tion. Composition is consistently quartzarenitic in the
upper part of the unit as well as at the base.
The basal contact with the crinoidal limestones is
gradual and conformable. Because no fossils have been
found, there is the problem of defining the post-Visean
and pre-Late Asselian rocks in Karakorum, as well as
in most of the Peri-Gondwana blocks. Does the Gircha
formation represent only the earliest Permian or also
part of the Carboniferous? If so, how much of the Car-
boniferous? Does the Gircha formation represent all
the 30–35 Ma interval not documented by fossils? We
do not think so, but where are the discontinuities? We
are not able at present to answer these questions.
Lashkargaz formation. The name Lashkargaz forma-
tion, introduced by Gaetani et al. (1995), has been mea-
694
sured in its type-section SW of Lashkargaz (Fig. 9).
Gradually, shales and marls with small crinoidal lenses
aggrade over the Gircha formation, testifying to a gen-
eral marine ingression. Accumulation rates and deposi-
tional water depths increased eastwards. Stratigraphy
and paleontological content of this unit are extensively
illustrated in Gaetani et al. (1995) and Angiolini (1995).
The succession, 700 to over 1000 m thick, is subdivided
into four members.
Member 1, approximately 300 m thick, is constituted
by an alternation of calcareous siltites and a few quart-
zarenites yelding fragments of foraminifers. In the up-
per part they are replaced by calcareous siltites with
well-washed crinoidal lenses and marls with calcareous
nodules, containing brachiopods and bryozoans.
Member 2 is dominated by calcareous sediments,
more washed and coarser westwards and richer in clay
eastwards. It reaches 368 m thick in the Lashkargaz sec-
tion. In the lower part packstones dominate, rich in fu-
sulinids.
Member 3 is characterized by a reappearance of ter-
rigenous detritus supply. In Baroghil there are two ma-
jor arenitic horizons separated by oncoidal packstones
and marly limestones. Here the member has a total
thickness of 144 m.
The base of member 4 characterized by the appear-
ance of well-bedded grey wackestone/packstones, local-
ly extremely rich in fusulinids and with dark chert no-
dules. Corals and brachiopods, as well as crinoids and
bivalves, may be abundant in the lower part. The top-
most part of member 4 is largely dolomitized in the Ba-
roghil section, where it is 224 m thick. In contrast,
wackestones with dark cherts, as well as packstones
rich in Tubiphytes, are largely developed at Lashkar-
gaz, where the member reaches 450 m in thickness.
The age of the Lashkargaz formation is fairly well
constrained using the Tethyan scale for the Permian
(Gaetani et al. 1995). The first member contains a bra-
chiopod assemblage of Sakmarian age. The second
member yields an abundant fusulinid and brachiopod
fauna of Artinskian–Bolorian age (roughly Kungurian
on the Ural scale). The arenaceous spillover of mem-
ber 3 should have occurred during the late Bolorian–
early Kubergandian, and the fourth member is defined
by the fusulinids as Kubergandian (Ufimian). Exten-
sion into the Murgabian (Kazanian) could be possible
for the Lashkargaz area.
Gharil formation. The Gharil formation was introduced
by Gaetani et al. (1995) to identify a thin, but very con-
tinuous, terrigenous horizon. It corresponds to the
Ironstone Horizon of Hayden (1915).
This unit consists of two fining-upward cycles, each
approximately 12–17 m thick. The basal cycle may con-
tain basal channels up to 7 m deep. They consist of red
microconglomerates and hematitic quartzarenitic sand-
stones, with clay chips and cross-laminations. Very sig-
nificant for the paleoclimatic interpretation is the pres-
ence of chamositic/illitic ooids or goethitic/hematitic
peloids nodules and small sphaeric concretions. No fos-
sils have been found in this unit, which should be
bracketed between the Kubergandian/? Early Murga-
bian and the ? Midian (Tatarian) by stratigraphic posi-
tion.
Ailak formation. The term Ailak formation was intro-
duced in Gaetani et al. (1995) to designate the massive
dolostones, at least 1000 m thick, which forms the ridge
of the continental divide between the Indus basin and
the Central Asia (Aral Lake) endoreic basin.
The Ailak formation consists chiefly of thick-bedded
dolostones. They may be stromatolitic dolostones, with
planar to wavy stromatolites and either grey or dark-
grey dolomitized wackestones. More rarely, there are
dolomitized packstones with high-angle cross-lamina-
tion. Small breccia lenses, made by dolostone clasts, are
present but rare. Striking evidence of well-developed
palaeokarst from the east side of the Chitral/Wakhan
boundary area to the Baroghil pass (cavities, up to
100 m deep and 70–80 m wide with polyphasic infill-
ings) suggests the presence of internal discontinuities
within the Ailak formation.
Heavy dolomitization destroyed most of the micro-
facies. At 160 m above the base we found a small fo-
raminifer assemblage of Late Permian, probably Mid-
ian age (Gaetani et al. 1995). Only towards the top,
some ghosts of foraminifers could suggest a Late Trias-
sic age. Surprisingly, if these rocks were deposited dur-
ing the Late Triassic, we did not find megalodontid re-
mains, which should be fairly common in such an envi-
ronment.
Dark limestones with large bivalves. Just east of the
Darwaz An, above the main body of the Ailak forma-
tion, there is an outcrop approximately 2 km wide of
dark-grey massive to thin-bedded limestones, usually
mudstones to wackestones. Their thickness probably
does not exceed 150 m. They contain in the lower part,
approximately 30 m of dark-grey wackestone to pack-
stone rich in turriculate big gastropods, and foraminif-
ers such as Amijiella amiji (Henson) and Pseudocy-
clammina liasica Hottinger. Their age is Pliensbachian.
The middle part of this unit contains a few beds
crowded by large bivalves (Fig. 11). Some of them may
be similar to Mytiloperna sp., a form very common in
the Lower Jurassic Calcari Grigi formation of Southern
Alps, NE Italy (identified by R. Posenato). The micro-
facies is fairly rich with Thaumatoporella parvivesiculi-
fera (Reiner), Siphovalvulina variabilis Septfontaine,
Planinvoluta carinata Leischner. They indicate a gener-
ic Jurassic age (microfacies by R. Rettori). Such high
faunal densities with low diversity are paradigmatic for
restricted environments. A confined lagoon within the
wider carbonate platform should be represented by this
isolated outcrop.
Upwards the succession of the Baroghil unit is trun-
cated by a thrust system. Consequently, we have no in-

Fig. 11 Large bivalves patches in the Lower Jurassic limestones.
Some of them are similar to Mytiloperna sp
formation on the younger Jurassic and Cretaceous evo-
lution of the Baroghil unit.
The Lasht unit
Around Lasht (Fig. 8) there are isolated outcrops of
rocks of Early Permian and possibly also Early Carbon-
iferous age. Southwestward of Aliabad-Shost they are
tightly folded verging to southeast. On the map all
these outcrops are provisionally grouped into a Lasht
unit, because the correlation to the Baroghil unit or the
Karambar unit remains doubtful.
Most interesting is the section measured along the
west base of the ridge northwest of Rukut, on the south
bank of the Yarkhun river, because this part of the suc-
cession is poorly represented in the Baroghil unit
(Fig. 12). The lack of good fossil evidence prevents any
firm age assignment. The crinoidal limestone unit is
tentatively ascribed to the Lower Carboniferous,
whereas the shale unit with arenaceous intercalations
could represent the base of the terrigenous prism of ?
Carboniferous–Early Permian age, which is usually rep-
resented by the Gircha formation.
695
Fig. 12 The succession of Rukut, near Lasht, which is supposed
to be of Carboniferous age; at present, the best example of possi-
ble Carboniferous rocks in Karakorum
Karambar unit
The Baroghil unit is truncated, east of Darwaz An, by a
thrust bringing it into contact with light-grey highly ca-
taclastic dolostones. A fan of minor thrusts may make
up this complex contact, which is also complicated by
vertical dextral strike-slip faults oriented N30 (Fig. 9).
This thrust sheet markedly differs in tectonic style from
the Baroghil unit, because folding here dominates. We
are introducing here the name Karambar unit from the
Karambar An (ppass; see Fig. 3), which is carved into
this tectonostratigraphic unit.
696

The lowest part of the succession crops out in the

upper reaches of the Darya-i-Baroghil, in Afghan terri-
tory. According to Kafarskyi et al. (unpublished data),
who measured a section in the “Broghil Anticline”, the
succession starts with slates and siltites of possibly Late
Ordovician and Silurian age; however, dating is poor. A
thick stack of carbonates follows, which were sampled
in the big syncline to the NE of Darwaz An. Dark-grey
massive dolomites are locally crowded with bryzoans,
stromatoporoid and Tabulata, possibly of Silurian–De-
vonian age, but not younger than Middle Devonian (H.
Flügel, pers. commun.).
This carbonate succession is eroded and unconform-
ably covered by polymictic conglomerates and reddish
sandstones, with Late Devonian brachiopods in thin
carbonatic intercalations. Apparently, the succession
continues upwards with terrigenous rocks, which crop
out along the main valley leading from the Yarkhun
river to the Karambar An. In the main gulley northwest
of Showar Shur, repeatedly folded Permian rocks crop
out, with Gircha formation and the basal part of a car-
bonate unit, rich in fusulinids which is attributed to the
Chapursan group (Gaetani et al. 1995). This carbonate
unit differs from the Lashkargaz formation of the Ba- Fig. 13 Map of the Chillinji area
roghil unit, by its much richer bioclastic content, testify-
ing to a carbonate ramp much more swept by bottom
currents than the Lashkargaz formation. This carbonat- clear metamorphic aureole with cordierite dotted
ic, cliff-forming unit is followed by a more thin-bedded, schists and quartzites. Analysis of the cordierite is given
shaly unit. We have no information higher in the suc- in Table 2.
cession; however, we note that the huge dolostone slab The granite is porphyritic. The K-felspar, up to
of the Ailak formation cannot be seen at a distance. 7!2.5 cm, is usually twinned and zoned, and often
rounded. The granite has a mild foliation usually out-
lined by the K-feldspar megacrysts and sometimes dis-
From the Karambar An to the Chillinji area cordant on the foliation of the biotites. Enclaves are
mainly microgranular, 1 cm to 1 dm long. In addition,
The Upper Karambar drainage area was cursorily stud- biotite schlieren occur along the foliation. The chemical
ied at the end of the 1992 expedition (Figs. 3 and 13); composition of the granite (Table 1) is that of a slightly
before, it was geologically totally unknown. Unfortu- peraluminous adamellite to granodiorite, dark col-
nately, heavy snowfalls prevented more extensive ob- oured, having a normal iron to magnesium ratio, and
servations. From the Karambar An down to the Chha- with a steady sub-alkaline flavour. It is chemically more
teboi glacier, the bottom of the valley invariably con- similar to the Cretaceous Darkot pass porphyritic gran-
sists of well-bedded terrigenous layers, largely quart- itoids than to the lower Cenozoic Batura group of gran-
zarenites. The few fossils found in the debris were in- itoids (Debon et al. 1987).
variably fusulinid limestones of Permian age.
Two geological units are described herein, the Chha-
teboi pluton and the Chillinji sedimentary succession. Chillinji succession

Around the summer meadows of Chillinji a faulted

Chhateboi pluton
The pluton of Chhateboi is a rounded body, approxi-
mately 5 km in diameter, carved out by the Karambar
river and the Chhateboi glacier between Shuinji and
Chillinji (Figs. 3 and 13). It is intrusive into the folded
series of fine-grained dark quartzarenites, siltites, and a
few horizons of dolomitic limestones (as on the right
bank of the Chhateboi glacier), possibly Permian/and
or Triassic in age. Close to the discordant contact, the
surrounding rocks show a hornfels facies and present a
core of an anticline crops out (Fig. 13). The sedimenta-
ry succession may be summarized as follows, from the
bottom to the top:
1. Basal sandstones. Dark-grey silty shales and sand-
stones, locally microconglomeratic, especially in the
upper part, with frequent grey chert clasts approxi-
mately 100 m thick. The sandstones could be tenta-
tively correlated with the topmost part of the Yark-
hun formation.
2. Chilmarabad formation. Gradually, the terrigenous
unit is replaced by peritidal grey dolostones. In the

Fig. 14 Synsedimentary microfaults in the Chilmarabad forma-
tion, Upper Karambar valley (hammer for scale)
first 20 m thin microconglomeratic layers persist, and
upwards an arenitic base of the dolomitic horizons
may be observed. Significant synsedimentary exten-
sional faults with up to 50 cm throw occurs (Fig. 14).
The Chilmarabad formation is more than 150 m in
thickness.
3. A thick terrigenous unit, can be subdivided in three
parts. In the basal part there are fine terrigenous
beds which alternate with more arenaceous limes-
tones or dolostones. A layer full of compound corals
has been found, not younger than the Middle De-
vonian (H. Flügel, pers. commun.). This unit, up to
200 m thick, could be tentatively correlated to the
Shogram formation of the Baroghil transect. It is fol-
lowed by a very thick unit of dark-grey splintery
slates and siltites, with subordinate quartzarenitic
sandstones. The shales occasionally contain plant
fragments. This unit could reach 500 m thickness.
The upper part of the terrigenous unit is mostly
composed of quartzarenites, with subordinate shales
and siltites. Sandstone layers may be up to 20 m
thick, they are planar and continuous to the outcrop
scale. Thickness in this upper part does not exceed
150 m. This part has been tentatively correlated with
the Gircha formation (Gaetani et al. 1995).
4. Stromatolitic and massive dolostones. Most of the
mountain dominating Chillinji is constituted by mas-
sive dolostones. Only in the basal part are bedded
dolostones and dolomitic limestones, with some sha-
ly interbeds, present. The microfacies of the basal
dolostones are devoid of diagnostic fossils. The paly-
nological content of a single shale interbed, rich in
bisaccates, suggests a Permian age (S. Cirilli, pers.
commun.). We tentatively correlate this dolomitic
unit with the Ailak formation.
5. At the top of the dolostones, a large volcanic body
may be seen at a distance. Analysis of two samples
collected at the base of the gulley originating from
the volcanic mass indicates a basaltic composition
with a clear alkaline imprint.
697
Noted also is the abundance of quartzo-andesitic
and andesitic dykes (some up to several metres wide)
which more or less vertically cut the sedimentary suc-
cession.
Taš Kupruk unit
This unit includes the metabasites cropping out along
the Morich valley in Chitral (Buchroithner 1978, 1980;
Gamerith 1982; Gaetani and Leven 1993), and the Taš
Kupruk zone (Kafarskyi and Abdullah 1976; Abdullah
and Chmyriov 1980; Kafarskyi et al., unpublished data).
It is bounded on both sides by regional vertical faults
(Fig. 3).
From the Morich valley to Lasht the main compo-
nents are massive metabasites and green/grey tuffs and
fine-grained volcaniclastics up to several hundred
metres thick. The metamorphic grade decreases from
Morich to Lasht. Near Inkip the volcanic rocks are as-
sociated with whitish, poorly bedded and coarsely re-
crystallized limestones and dolomitic limestones. Fen-
estral structures and ooids are present, testifying to a
shallow-water environment. Poorly preserved corals
and porifers are present near Inkip.
The Taš Kupruk zone was defined by Kafarskyi et
al. (unpublished data) to include all the sedimentary
succession, but the Wakhan slates, cropping out be-
tween Sarhad and the Baroghil pass on the Wakhan
side. This is an oversimplification, because there are
different sedimentary sequences in the area. We main-
tain that the name Taš Kupruk should be used only for
the unit characterized by green volcanics and brown-
yellow dolomites which form a squeezed syncline from
Kan Khun to Darya-i-Baroghil and thereafter seems to
build up a north-dipping stack of sedimentary rocks till
Kupruk (according to satellite imagery). According to
Kafarskyi et al. (unpublished data) the volcanites
(mainly porfiritic basalts and tuffs) are interbedded
with marine limestones containing Early Carboniferous
(Tournaisian) foraminifers. These volcanic rocks cover
the arenaceous limestones of Late Devonian (Frasnian)
age with an angular unconformity of approximately
157.
The volcanics of Inkip
We have collected for analysis a series of seven samples
of volcanic rocks from around Lasht (Inkip and Zirch;
Fig. 8). Petrographically, the rocks are extremely al-
tered to a dirty assemblage of quartz–albite–chlorite–
amphibole–epidote–sphene and opaques, due to thor-
ough greenschist-facies recrystallization. The variability
of abundance of the low-field strength elements
(LFSE): K, Rb, Ba (Sr) and Th, reflects the deep alter-
ation (Table 2).
The less mobile major elements during low-grade
metamorphism point to an association of alkali basalts.
698
Fig. 15 QP or nomenclature diagram of Debon and Le Fort
(1988) for the volcanics of Inkip. The two parameters are in gram-
atoms!10 3 in 100 g of rock. Each field corresponds to a petro-
graphic type, with its mean composition shown by an X. The six
analyses of volcanics are represented by black triangles. They de-
fine a trend close to the P-axis, typical of alkaline rocks
In the nomenclature diagram of Debon and Le Fort
(1988) all samples plot in an alkaline to peralkaline
field of basalts to latibasalts, although mobilization of
K and also Na have probably shifted the points
(Fig. 15). These alkaline characteristics are supported
by the high content of TiO2 (1.32–4.44 wt%) and P205
(0.7–1.8 wt%), both very much in the alkaline field of
Mullen (1983). They resemble basanites. However, the
Mg/(MgcFe) ratio is low compared with the average
of Debon and Le Fort (1988) or to the alkali basalts of
Hawaii, probably reflecting a very low percentage of
melting in the source. The colour index of the rocks (or
the B parameter of Debon and Le Fort 1988) is that of
very melanocratic rocks.
Trace elements and REE enforce these alkaline fea-
tures. The high Zr, Nb and La (Table 2) compare well
with the oceanic island basalts (OIB; e.g. Pearce and
Norry 1979) and other alkali basalts from continental
rifting settings (e.g. Barbieri et al. 1975). Very high Cr
and Ni contents are evidence of a mantle source. Simi-
larly, Th is correlated to Nb with no steady enrichment
in Th, which would characterize a continental crust
component. Two samples have been analysed for REE.
They are abundant, another characteristic of alkali bas-
alts, but particularly enriched in LREE with a La/Yb
ratio of 35 and 38, and with no Eu anomaly. The deple-
tion in HREE can be explained by garnet remaining in
the source, and thus implying a deep origin.
The Atark unit
The term Atark was introduced by Buchroithner (1978)
and redefined by Gaetani and Leven (1993). This tec-
tonostratigraphic unit consists mostly of carbonatic
rocks, forming a rugged stack, bounded by vertical
faults. In the studied area, between Shost and Lasht,
whitish massive dolostones and limestones, incipiently
transformed into marbles, are tightly folded in a com-
plex antiform. Poorly preserved remnants of megalo-
donts and dasycladacean algae observed in the debris
near Aliabad suggest a Triassic age. Further to the
southwest in the Chitral, Rosh Gol area, Gaetani and
Leven (1993) described a Permian section and illus-
trated megalodonts and possibly rudists. These findings
suggest an age span from the Permian to the Creta-
ceous for the Atark unit. The unit occurs between the
Tirich Mir fault and an unnamed fault to the north and
disappears to the east of Lasht (Figs. 3 and 8).
The Wakhan slates
The term Wakhan slates was introduced by Hayden
(1915) to designate the huge succession of black slates
and subordinate siltites and sandstones, which forms a
continuous belt from Tirich Mir in the west to the
Chapursan valley, where they seem to continue as the
Misgar slates (Desio 1963). Future work could demon-
strate the latter to be a younger synonim of the Wak-
han slates. Near Lasht, along the Shushar gulley, we
observed dark, sometimes carbonaceous, quartzitic
slates alternating with minor levels of greenish sand-
stones with ripple marks, and white quartzites.
The Wakhan slates are mainly Palaeozoic, with fossil
evidence for Permian (Kafarskyi et al., unpublished
data) and Early Triassic age (Buchroithner 1980; Ab-
dullah and Chmyriov 1980). The petrographic signature
of the Misgar arenites falls in the continental block
provenance field of Dickinson (1985; Garzanti, pers.
commun.).
The Shushar pluton (East Hindu Kush granitoids)
We had the opportunity to reach the large granitic
body intrusive in the Wakhan zone south of the Ab-i
Wakhan river, by ascending the Shushar glacial valley
north of Lasht. The granite is intrusive into the Wak-
han slates. The grade of metamorphism and deforma-
tion in the slates increase towards the contact, especial-
ly in the last 200–300 m, where they acquire a mica-
ceous luster and present a crenulation cleavage in addi-
tion to the usual cleavage of the Wakhan slates.
The contact is exposed on the left bank of the valley
at approximately 3600 m. It is sharp, slightly discordant
on the almost vertical bedding and open folds of the
Wakhan slates. The granite intrudes the slates and
sends dikes of undeformed aplites and granites, some
of them tourmaline-bearing, preferentially interfol-
iated. This can be observed in the first 50 m from the
contact; further from the contact, the dikes are only
made up of quartz. At the contact, studies of the fault
surfaces indicate that some differential brittle move-
ment has occurred with surrounding rocks down to the
SSE.

The granite is homogeneous, coarse grained, por-
phyritic, clear coloured, bearing slightly chloritized
nests of biotite. The very elongated K-feldspar mega-
crysts (up to 10!1.2 cm) are zoned with frequent cores
dotted by biotite. A few of them have been deformed
and bent at high temperature. In the moraines blocks of
a bluish facies of the granite resembling a coarse-
grained microgranite occur. In microgranular inclusions
up to 8 cm in length, megacrysts of K-feldspar some-
times lie across their boundary with figures indicating
intrusion into a viscous medium. Boulders of the same
granite have been observed west and east of Lasht, in
the Khushrao valley, and at the mouth of the 2–3 fol-
lowing valleys, up to Kan Khun, respectively.
From the five samples analysed chemically (Ta-
ble 1), the homogeneous Shushar pluton is a subleuco-
cratic aluminous sodi-potassic association of two-mica
granite to adamellite, according to the Debon and Le
Fort classification (1988), with biotite more abundant
than muscovite, quartz rich, with a normal Mg ratio.
Compared with typical granite–adamellite (Debon and
Le Fort 1988), some trace elements show particular
abundances, such as Ba and Sr being slightly low, and
Rb being high.
The muscovite of a very coarse-grained undeformed
granite sample has been dated by the K/Ar method
(Table 3). The Jurassic age obtained differs from the
Cretaceous age of the Tirich Mir pluton (115B4; Desio
et al. 1968), only 100 km southwestward along the
structure (Fig. 1b), and quite similar petrographically
and structurally to Shushar pluton (Desio et al. 1968;
Buchroithner and Gamerith 1986).
Table 3 Analytical results for muscovite sample KK658 from the
Shushar pluton (by A. Cheilletz and J. L. Zimmermann, CRPG,
Nancy, France)
K% 40 Ar rad 40 Ar atm% AgeB1s
10-6CC/g
8.36 58.27 7.7 171.1B3.4 Ma
Structural pattern
The long arcuate shape of the Yarkhun corridor links a
bundle of mainly sedimentary units bordering the so-
called axial batholith. Most units have a well-defined
stratigraphic position which allows preliminary unrav-
elling of the tectonic evolution of the area. The general
architecture of the investigated area is shown in two
cross sections (Fig. 16).
The oldest deformational structures of the region
are those which affect the country rocks of the Ishkar-
waz granite, which forms the basement to the Palaeozo-
ic–Mesozoic series. They are isoclinal folds of meta-
morphic foliations, and are older than Early Ordovi-
cian.
699
The cover series are strongly affected by folds,
thrusts and faults. The two fundamental elements of
their architecture are a general thrust sheet develop-
ment and slicing by systems of wrench faults.
The relationships of the northern series with the
batholith are not entirely clear. To the west of the area,
at Sakirmul, the contact with the metasediments, origi-
nally intrusive as shown by the granitic dikes ejected
from the batholith, has been highly sheared. To the
north of this contact, the narrow synclinorium with Re-
shun conglomerate marks a strong tectonic boundary
between the batholith zone, including its mildly meta-
morphosed sedimentary border, and the strip of the
northern sedimentary belt (NSB), which is barely meta-
morphosed. In the middle of the area, in the region of
the Darkot pass glacier, the granitoids of the batholith
appear to be intrusive into the strongly metamorphosed
basement rocks and have no relationship with the cover
series. Further to the east, the synclinorium of the Re-
shun conglomerate reappears, and the batholith contact
is very difficult to reach. The contact looks similar to
that of Sakirmul, until the whole contact zone disap-
pears under the wide unexplored Chiantar glacier
(Fig. 3). Altogether, the tectonized contact of the bath-
olith is probably very similar to the one described by
Zanchi (1993) in Chapursan, approximately 40 km fur-
ther to the east.
Thrust faults
The NSB is made up of three main slices juxtaposed
along two main thrusts. The two lower slices are little
deformed and homoclinally dip to the north, whereas
the upper one (Karambar unit) is recumbently folded.
Contacts, seldom observable, show up as discrete layers
of crushed rocks, typical of very high-level thrust
sheets. In fact, almost no cleavage is associated with the
thrusts, and there is no indication of any metamorphic
imprint besides veinlets of recrystallized carbonates. In
detail, smaller thrust faults are often repeated in the
rock unit.
Folds
We have found evidence of three different phases of
folding: (a) pre-Ordovician, (b) post Palaeozoic and
pre-Reshun (Late Cretaceous–? earliest Tertiary) and
(c) post-Reshun (Tertiary).
The pre-early Ordovician phase is characterized by
isoclinal folds of the metamorphic foliation of the crys-
talline basement intruded by the solitary granite.
The Mesozoic phase (or phases ?) is represented by
the folds of the southern sedimentary belt which have
been intruded by the granitoids of the KAB (Fig. 4)
and can even remain as large country rock enclave in
the GN granitoid (Fig. 5). This folding phase is also in-
ferred by the discordance of Reshun conglomerate on
the folded series. The recumbent folds of the Palaeozo-
700
Fig. 16 Cross sections through the western Karakorum. Their po-
sition is reported in Fig. 3
ic succession from the Karambar unit (Figs. 3 and 9)
are spectacularly exposed at the mouth of the Chiantar
glacier. They may belong to this phase, although they
may have been reworked later.
The post-Reshun phase is represented by pinched
synclinoria with an almost vertical axial plane, which
we have observed discontinuously in three localities
(around Shost, south of Lashkargaz and near Kan
Khun). The connection between these three localities
remains uncertain.
Faults
First-order faults, predominantly striking ENE–WSW
and steeply dipping, are very conspicuous because they
bound the major units (Figs. 1b and 3). They often jux-
tapose formations of different origin and different
grade of metamorphism. The units that they limit gen-
erally have a lenticular shape on the map, denoting the
important strike-slip component of these faults. The
sense of movement, however, is not obvious: The dis-
tance separating the western end of the Karambar unit
from the corresponding eastern end of the Lasht unit
(Fig. 3) would imply a sinistral strike-slip movement of
at least 10 km and possibly 30 km. However, the S
shape of the faults bounding the Taš Kupruk unit, and
the stress tensor determinations on faults of the Ba-
roghil area (see below), suggest that right-lateral strike-
slip movement may also be present. These observations
are not totally contradictory because the strike-slip
sense of movement may have changed through time.
Second-order faults are abundant and easier to ob-
serve in the field. They include a whole set of NW–SE
right-lateral strike-slip faults which slice the entire area,
but seem to have little, if any, influence on the first or-
der faults, and thus they may be older (??). Among
them, the Lashkargaz fault in the Baroghil unit (Fig. 9)
seems to have a limited movement, whereas the Darkot
pass fault (Fig. 3) could well join, east of Darkot, the
faulted and elongated zone on the map by Gamerith
(1982).
In two areas, the gorges of the Yarkhun between
Shulkuch and Sakirmul, and the zone between the Ba-
roghil and Darkot passes (Fig. 3), we have been able to
make enough measurements of outcrop scale faults and
striations in order to preliminarily interpret the prevail-
ing tectonic regime at the time of their formation. In
the second area there is predominance of right-lateral
strike-slip faults striking in a roughly NW–SE direction
(Fig. 17). Analysis by the P- and T-diehedra method
(Angelier and Mechler 1977) indicates a shortening
axis trending 357E. But what is more remarkable is the
existence of a superposed set of normal faults having
the same direction, but a different sense of movement,
with no clear chronology detected in the field. This dis-
position could probably best be explained by a constant
pattern of the main components of the stress field, but
with variable intensities, inducing discontinuous or
even different sense of movement on the same faults.

Fig. 17 Stereogram of poles for 35 fault planes in the Baroghil–
Chikar–Darkot glacier area (Wulff lower hemisphere, in density
contours), showing the clear dominant orientation, roughly NW–
SE. These faults can be either right- or left lateral
When the P-axis is NE–SW, the Baroghil region de-
forms by right-lateral strike-slip; when the P-axis is
NW–SE, perhaps by a temporary decrease in the NE
stress, normal movements predominate and the whole
area is in extension. At the limits of the area, along the
Taš Kupruk unit and the axial batholith, these changes
are likely to produce strike-slip movements of alternat-
ing direction, successively left- and right lateral. Such
alternating strike-slip movement accompanying the
shift of P-axis from NE to NW, is limited to the part of
the North Karakorum arc lying between N1257E and
N1457W, and is likely to be strongest in the apex of
those lying E–W to N1007W. This is the area where the
topographically low and geologically less metamor-
phosed zone of the whole Karakorum range is pre-
served.
In the gorges of the Yarkhun, we have fewer meas-
urements. There is a pattern similar to the one de-
scribed above, but with perpendicular directions.
Again, an opposite sense of movement is observed on
parallel fault planes. The area, of course, belongs to a
different tectonic unit, but it is remarkable that just to
the NW of it lies the biggest synclinorium of Reshun
conglomerate in the whole zone (Fig. 3), as if again the
right-lateral movements along the Taš Kupruk had
created a graben.
Age of the deformations
The deformation in the basement rocks is clearly pre-
Ordovician. Deformation affecting the Reshun con-
glomerate is obviously Cretaceous or younger. Folded
Upper Palaeozoic rocks discordantly overlain by Creta-
ceous ? conglomerate indicate a Mesozoic phase of de-
formation. The whole area must have been quite unsta-
ble as shown by the numerous observations of intrafor-
mational deformation (Fig. 14) and by the occurrence
of volcanic episodes.
701
At least for the NSB, the structural chronology of
Zanchi (1993) in the neighbouring area to the east is
most useful: He describes north to northeastward tec-
tonic transport of thrust sheets (Cretaceous?), followed
by south-vergent movements (Eocene?), ending with
large-scale strike-slip faulting. Nevertheless, the exact
dating of the structural sequence remains to be estab-
lished in his case as well as in ours, where north-vergent
thrusting has not yet been established.
Discussion and conclusions
We are aware of the numerous unresolved problems
which exist in the area. However, we consider it worth-
while to describe the facts we observed during our ex-
pedition, because the area was largely unknown, as
blank areas left on several palaeogeographic maps re-
ported in Wolfart and Wettekind (1980) testify.
The Crystalline basement
The discovery of a crystalline basement to the sedimen-
tary succession of the northern belt opens a first clue
into the Karakorum protolith. This pre-Ordovician
basement has suffered all the phenomena of orogeny
with strong deformation, metamorphism and migmati-
zation, and intrusion of a late-orogenic granitoid. Its
composition and behaviour certainly had a fundamen-
tal influence on the genesis and characteristics of the
abundant Cretaceous and younger magmatism em-
placed through it to form the Karakorum axial bathol-
ith.
Sedimentary evolution of the NSB
The Upper Yarkhun–Baroghil–Chillinji areas record
the evolution of a continental crust setting, often under
marine conditions, with a time span of no less than
370 Ma. In no case have deep-water facies been found,
suggesting that the area remained for most of the time
under subaerial to shallow water conditions. The dee-
pest water conditions was reached probably during mid
Permian times (Kubergandian) in the area of Lashkar-
gaz.
We recognize three major tectonosedimentary cy-
cles, Ordovician to Late Devonian, Late Devonian to
earliest Permian and then earliest Permian to Jurassic,
according to the accumulation rate, subsidence rate and
major discontinuities.
Ordovician to Late Devonian
The transgression on the crystalline basement was from
the beginning under marine conditions, remaining for
the whole of the Ordovician and Silurian in terrigenous
702
shelf environment. Supermature sands were deposed as
small to medium-sized coastal bars, with little lateral
continuity, within a general framework of muddy or sil-
titic sedimentation. Overall grain size fined upwards,
with some notable exceptions, such as at Chillinji. The
sedimentation rate was low, usually not exceeding
10 m/Ma. Carbonate sedimentation was episodic, both,
because of the terrigenous influx and the palaeoposi-
tion in the southern hemisphere, producing cold marine
currents originating from the polar regions (Tongiorgi
et al. 1995; Golonka et al. 1994). Carbonate sedimenta-
tion gradually became more common upwards. The
Devonian was characterized by a general climatic
warming and by a migration of the area towards more
tropical latitudes. Consequently, carbonate productivity
was higher, and patch reefs with compound corals, stro-
matoporoids and bryozoans developed. However, acco-
modation rate never exceeds 10–15 m/Ma. The ubiqui-
tous carbonate platform ended by an erosional event,
which is well developed in the Karambar unit with
quartzite conglomerates and coarse sandstones. Its age
should lie around the Middle/Upper Devonian bound-
ary. If the relationship between the volcanics of the Ku-
pruk zone and the Devonian carbonates is correct, we
suggest that an important extensional event occurred
between Middle Devonian and earliest Carboniferous
time (Kafarskyi et al., unpublished data), rifting and
tilting this part of the Peri-Gondwana fringe.
From Late Devonian to the earliest Permian
This time interval is characterized mostly by arena-
ceous deposition with low subsidence rate and episodic
carbonate intercalations, such as in the Frasnian Sho-
gram formation and in the inferred Lower Carbonife-
rous crinoidal limestones. Volcanism was episodic and
still not well constrained. Subsidence rate was very low,
with probable internal gaps which are difficult to recog-
nize. The renewal of erosion on emerged lands, with
input of very mature detritus in the sedimentary basin,
could be ascribed to two factors: (a) a lowering of the
sea level linked to the Antarctic Carboniferous glacia-
tion, and (b) the onset of the rifting along the Peri-
Gondwana fringe, which eventually led to the opening
of the Neo-Tethys during the Permian. No glacigenic
sediments have been observed.
From Early Permian to Jurassic
Accomodation rates increased up to 50 m/Ma during
the Early Permian, and decreased to around 20 m/Ma
later. However, we suppose that there was also emer-
sion and local erosion. The Early Permian evolution is
interpreted as that of an area marginal to an emergent
land with very mature relief, feeding the sedimentary
basin mostly with quartz and stable mineral grains. Rise
of sea level, linked to the Early Permian Gondwana de-
glaciation, stopped the terrigenous input from the
emerging lands. The Artinskian/Bolorian episode of
emersion, linked to an episode of the Peri-Gondwana
fringe break-up (Leven 1993), was not very significant
in the Baroghil area. Instead, the emersion and erosion
recorded by the post-Kubergandian Gharil formation
were significant, with evidence of palaeosoils linked to
tropical/equatorial climates. This fact indicates a low
palaeolatitude reached by this part of the Karakorum
block during the Late Permian. After the Gharil emer-
sion, a huge carbonate flat and platform developed
over the area for at least 60–70 Ma. More or less ex-
tended emersions caused locally impressive karstic dis-
solutions. Tentatively, the succession at Chillinji, thus
far unique in the northern Karakorum, should account
for longer emersions and terrigenous deposition, from
Middle Devonian to the Late Permian. Instead, we can
say nothing of the Middle Jurassic to earliest Creta-
ceous history in this part of the Karakorum range.
The occurrence of the Reshun conglomerate at the
top of the Axial unit succession is evidence of the mid-
Cretaceous deformational event, which is very well
known and widespread in Chitral (see Pudsey et al.
1985 for a review) and in Upper Hunza (Gaetani et al.
1993).
Plutonism
In the upper Yarkhun–Baroghil–Chillinji area, we have
identified four different granitoid masses: a large body
belonging to the axial batholith, an old pluton in the
basement, an isolated pluton intrusive into the sedi-
mentary series of the northern belt (NSB) and the
southern fringe of the east Hindu Kush granitoids, in-
trusive into the Wakhan slates. The composite axial
batholith resembles very much the Cretaceous pluton-
ism which has been described in the adjacent regions
(Yasin, Karambar and Hunza valleys; Debon et al.
1987; Debon and Naseer 1996). In particular, it pres-
ents the association of porphyritic granite, reminiscent
of the Darkot group granitoids, with a variety of gabbro
to granodiorite types, quite similar to the Hunza gra-
nodiorite group.
The basement granite of Ishkarwaz type has very lit-
tle chemical-mineralogical resemblance to the 500 Ma
plutonic event quite widespread in the former Gondwa-
na crust, so that there is very little evidence concerning
the age of these intrusions. The porphyritic granitic
bodies of Chhateboi and Shushar are intrusive into
folded sedimentary belts, the Jurassic age of the latter
suggesting that at least part of the deformation had al-
ready occurred in the Wakhan slates by the time of em-
placement. But these two plutons cannot be put togeth-
er in a single granitic belt because they belong to differ-
ent units, have singular compositional characteristics
and are probably different in age.

The volcanism
Volcanic rocks are almost absent on the Karakorum
proper part of the range we crossed, except for the an-
desitic dikes which cut the already structured tectonic
edifice in the Showar Shur and Chillinji areas.
Much more significant are the metabasaltic to lati-
basalt rocks in the Taš Kupruk unit. The geodynamical
setting of these rocks is clear: They represent alkali bas-
alts related to a rifting in a continental domain, with a
deep mantle source, with garnet remaining in the
source, and fractionation of the magma limited to oliv-
ine and possibly clinopyroxene (for the low Mg ratio),
but not plagioclase (due to Eu). Although the rocks are
limited to a very narrow outcrop in the field, they are
likely to represent the trace of rifting, oceanization and
further suturing. The northern boundary of Karakorum
may well lie along this unit.
The geochemical signature of the volcanic rocks and
the presence of an earliest Carboniferous unconformi-
ty, which is not too far in time from the erosional sur-
face recognized in Karambar and Baroghil units, record
a major extensional event which occurred in this part of
the Peri-Gondwana fringe.
Structural pattern
Despite the fact that the studied area lies in the centre
of the Karakorum-E Hindu Kush arc, the Baroghil pass
is the lowest in the whole range and none of the sur-
roundings mountain peaks reaches 7000 m. The sedi-
mentary succession of NSB is also the best preserved in
the range. These facts contrast with the major compres-
sion which should be expected to occur at the centre of
the arc.
The earliest deformations occurred in the pre-Ordo-
vician time inside the Gondwana crystalline basement,
resulting in folding, migmatization and granite intru-
sions. The Mesozoic/?earliest Cenozoic deformation,
classically interpreted as due to the collision of the Ko-
histan arc against the Eurasian margin, caused stacking
of the upper crust in thrust sheets and the emplacement
of the Karakorum axial batholith. Significant topograp-
hic relief emerged at that time, feeding the Reshun con-
glomerate with coarse and poorly sorted material.
However, erosion rarely reached the crystalline base-
ment and mostly carved into the sedimentary cover. In
the Axial unit of the NSB, several kilometres of sedi-
mentary rocks were probably eroded. Subsequent com-
pression linked to the collision of India against Eurasia,
led to the present range with a significant amount of
strike-slip and wrench faulting and further tightening of
older folds.
Acknowledgments The Government of Pakistan is acknowl-
edged for granting permisssion to work in restricted areas. H. Ab-
basi of the Centre of Excellence in Geology and University of
Peshawar, and M. Abroo from the University of Sind, partici-
703
pated in the field expedition on the Chitral side. F. Debon and A.
Pecher, Grenoble, are heartily thanked for their fruitful com-
ments and help with the magmatic and structural parts, respec-
tively. R. Rettori and S. Cirilli, Perugia, gave precious help in
identifying fossils in crucial points, as well as Prof. R. Posenato,
Ferrara, Prof. H. Flügel and Dr. B. Hubmann, Graz. Drawings are
by M. Minoli, Milan, and thin sections were made by C. Malinver-
no, Milan. A previous version of this paper greatly benefited from
reviews by C. Burchfiel, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Boston, and an anonymous reviewer. Grant CEE 90 CT I * 0852
“Geology of the Karakorum range” was awarded to project lead-
er M. Gaetani.
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