IEP341L Ergonomics Laboratory

Tarlac State University

Bachelor of Science in Industrial Engineering
College of Engineering and Technology

SYSTEM OF THE HUMAN BODY

(Laboratory Activity No. 2)

Group No. 5
Giada Magdangal
Angel Mateo
Ello Joyce Mendoza
Jann Paulo Mendoza
Gian Raphael Nonato

Submitted to:
Engr. Anna May Angeles
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Objective
This laboratory activity teaches us to know the description, functions, and operation of human
body.
➢ Cardiovascular System
➢ Skeletal System
➢ Respiratory System
➢ Circulatory System
➢ Nervous System
Methodology
This lab consists of a series of questions having to do with describing the systems of the human
body. The method of research involves using the internet and the textbooks as research tools for
general information.
Discussions
Part A–Cardiovascular System
A. Describe the major segments of the heart
The heart is a muscular organ about the size of a fist, located just behind and slightly left
of the breastbone. The heart pumps blood through the network of arteries and veins called
the cardiovascular system. The heart is made up of four chambers. The upper two
chambers are called atria (singular: atrium) and the lower two are known as ventricles
(singular: ventricle).
• The right atrium receives blood from the veins and pumps it to the right
ventricle.
• The right ventricle receives blood from the right atrium and pumps it to the
lungs, where it is loaded with oxygen.
• The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the
left ventricle.
• The left ventricle (the strongest chamber) pumps oxygen-rich blood to the rest
of the body. The left ventricle’s vigorous contractions create our blood
pressure.
The coronary arteries run along the surface of the heart and provide oxygen-rich blood to the
heart muscle. A web of nerve tissue also runs through the heart, conducting the complex signals
that govern contraction and relaxation. Surrounding the heart is a sac called the pericardium.
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The heart has four valves - one for each chamber of the heart. The valves keep blood moving through
the heart in the right direction.

• The tricuspid valve is between the right atrium and the right ventricle.
• The pulmonary valve is between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.
• The mitral valve is between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
• The aortic valve is located between the left ventricle and the aorta.

These valves open when blood passes through them and then close to keep the blood from flowing
in the wrong direction.
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B. Describe the cardiovascular process.

The circulatory system (cardiovascular system) pumps blood from the heart to the lungs
to get oxygen. The heart then sends oxygenated blood through arteries to the rest of the
body. The veins carry oxygen-poor blood back to the heart to start the circulation process
over. Your circulatory system is critical to healthy organs, muscles and tissues. Your
heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory system. The main function of the
circulatory system is to provide oxygen, nutrients and hormones to muscles, tissues and
organs throughout your body. Another part of the circulatory system is to remove waste
from cells and organs so your body can dispose of it. heart pumps blood to the body
through a network of arteries and veins (blood vessels). Your circulatory system can also
be defined as your cardiovascular system. Cardio means heart, and vascular refers to
blood vessels. The circulatory system provides blood to all the body's tissues so they can
function.
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How does the circulatory system work?

Your circulatory system functions with the help of blood vessels that include arteries, veins and
capillaries. These blood vessels work with your heart and lungs to continuously circulate blood
through your body. Here’s how:
1. The heart’s bottom right pumping chamber (right ventricle) sends blood that’s
low in oxygen (oxygen-poor blood) to the lungs. Blood travels through the
pulmonary trunk (the main pulmonary artery).
2. Blood cells pick up oxygen in the lungs.
3. Pulmonary veins carry the oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart’s left
atrium (upper heart chamber).
4. The left atrium sends the oxygenated blood into the left ventricle (lower
chamber). This muscular part of the heart pumps bloods out to the body
through the arteries.
5. As it moves through your body and organs, blood collects and drops off
nutrients, hormones and waste products.
6. The veins carry deoxygenated blood and carbon dioxide back to the heart,
which sends the blood to the lungs.
7. Your lungs get rid of the carbon dioxide when you exhale.

B. Describe what happens when a rapid increase in cardiovascular activity is required.

Your heart beats faster. You breathe more rapidly and deeply. And you sweat. Well,
that’s probably because you’ve been moving the large muscles in your legs, arms and
hips over a sustained period. When these major muscles are involved in exercise, there is
increased rate of respiration to produce energy. In turn, the need for more oxygen leads to
increased breathing and heart rate. And such a form of activity is called cardiovascular
exercise or cardio in short. during the activity, oxygen is heavily involved in the cellular
reactions that produce the energy necessary to sustain the activity. Your heart rate
increases, and you breathe more deeply to maximize the amount of oxygen in your blood
and help you to use more oxygen efficiently.
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Part B – Skeletal System

a) Describe the natural form of spine by types of vertebrae
The spine is made of 33 individual bones stacked one on top of the other. This spinal column provides the
main support for your body, allowing you to stand upright, bend, and twist, while protecting the spinal
cord from injury. Strong muscles and bones, flexible tendons and ligaments, and sensitive nerves
contribute to a healthy spine. Yet, any of these structures affected by strain, injury, or disease can cause
pain. When viewed from the side, an adult spine has a natural S-shaped curve. The neck (cervical) and
low back (lumbar) regions have a slight concave curve, and the thoracic and sacral regions have a gentle
convex curve. The curves work like a coiled spring to absorb shock, maintain balance, and allow range of
motion throughout the spinal column.

Cervical Spine (Neck)

There are seven cervical vertebrae which start with C1 and
end with C7. C1, also called the “atlas”, holds the globe of the
skull like the god Atlas held up the earth. C2, the “axis”
permits head turning and tilting. The neck has the greatest
range of motion. Because of C1 and C2, we are able to nod
and pivot our heads.

Thoracic Spine (Mid Back)

The twelve thoracic vertebrae, T1 to T12, are connected to
your ribs. If you follow the path of your ribs around from the
front or sides of the back, you can feel where they attach to
the thoracic vertebrae in the back. The main function of the
thoracic spine is to hold the rib cage which protects the heart
and lungs.

Lumbar Spine (Low Back)

The five lumbar vertebrae, L1 to L5, are the most massive
ones. Their main function is to support the cervical and
thoracic spine. The lumbar region also absorbs most of the
stress of lifting and carrying objects. Therefore, many spinal problems occur in the low back because of
the weight the lumbar spine has to carry.

Sacrum
Under the lumbar vertebrae is the sacrum – a triangular shaped bone that connects to the hips on either
side. There are five sacral vertebrae, S1 to S5, which are fused together. Together with the hip bones, they
form a ring called the pelvic girdle.
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Coccyx
A small piece of bone made up of four fused vertebrae and the bottom end of the spinal column. It is
named after the Greek word Kokkyx, or cuckoo because early anatomists thought it resembled a cuckoo’s
beak. Its main function is to provide attachment for ligaments and muscles of the pelvic floor.

b) Discuss the role of spinal disc and types of occupational deterioration that can occur
The intervertebral disc (IVD) is important in the normal functioning of the spine. It is a cushion of
fibrocartilage and the principal joint between two vertebrae in the spinal column. There are 23 discs in the
human spine: 6 in the cervical region (neck), 12 in the thoracic region (middle back), and 5 in the lumbar
region (lower back).
IVDs allow the spine to be flexible without sacrificing a great deal of strength. They also provide a shock-
absorbing effect within the spine and prevent the vertebrae from grinding together. They consist of three
major components: the inner, nucleus pulposus (NP), the outer, annulus (AF) and the cartilaginous
endplates that anchor the discs to adjacent vertebrae.
Occupational factors suspected of accelerating spinal degeneration include accident-related trauma; heavy
physical loading and materials handling, including lifting, bending, and twisting; prolonged sitting; and
sustained nonneutral work postures and vehicular driving. There is evidence to suggest that occupational
exposures have an effect on disc degeneration. However, these factors explain little of the variability in
degeneration found in the adult population. Furthermore, the lack of a clear dose-response relation
between time spent in various occupational loading conditions and degenerative findings adds to doubts
about a strong causal link. The contribution of suspected occupational risk factors appears to be
particularly modest when compared with familial influences, which reflect the combined effects of genes
and early childhood environment.
c) Discuss how aging impacts the health of the intervertebral disc
Degenerative disk disease occurs when the cushioning in your spine begins to wear away. The condition
is most common in older adults. After age 40, most people experience some spinal degeneration. The
right treatment can lead to pain relief and increased mobility. Degenerative disk disease is when your
spinal disks wear down. Spinal disks are rubbery cushions between your vertebrae (bones in your spinal
column). They act as shock absorbers and help you move, bend and twist comfortably. Everyone’s spinal
disks degenerate over time and is a normal part of aging. When the cushions wear away, the bones can
start to rub together. This contact can cause pain and other problems, such as:

• Adult scoliosis, where the spine curves.

• Herniated disk, also called a bulged, slipped, or ruptured disk.
• Spinal stenosis, when the spaces around your spine narrow.
• Spondylolisthesis, when vertebrae move in and out of place.
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d) Discuss the importance of the spinal system in the stability of a worker

Support – our spine holds us up and transfers the weight of the torso to the pelvis, hips and legs. Muscles
attach to it; internal organs hang from it, and the rib cage – with ribs articulating on the spine as well.

Stability – because the spine is a highly articulated structure made strong by immensely strong postural
muscles, it can give stability while the limbs are active – a fixed structure may be strong in one position,
but an articulated one can adapt to allow for throwing a ball or standing on one leg. Stability is also
dependent on coordination and control – stretch sensors around the joints add to information from the eye
and the ear, allowing our bodies to work as a coordinated whole, whatever the action of the limbs or head.

Movement – locomotion would not be possible without good spine function. Any pain or stiffness that
detracts from our ability to move around will trigger anxiety on a primal level.

Shock absorption – the natural curve of the spine in adults, as well as the intervertebral discs create a
spring system which allow us to walk and run without immediately damaging ourselves. As we age and
lose the elasticity of the discs and if we lose our natural spinal curves through poor posture or too much
sitting or suffer degenerative disc disease, we are likely to find ourselves in need of spine care.

References
Association, B. C. (n.d.). What Are The 5 Parts Of The Spine? Spinal Column Anatomy. Retrieved from
British Columbia Chiropractic Association: https://www.bcchiro.com/what-are-the-5-sections-
of-the-spine-spinal-column-anatomy/

Clinic, C. (2021). Degenerative Disk Disease. Retrieved from Cleveland Clinic:

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/16912-degenerative-disk-disease

Hines, T. (2018). Anatomy of the Spine. Retrieved from Mayfield Brain and Spine:
https://mayfieldclinic.com/pe-anatspine.htm
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Part C – Respiratory System

A. Describe the Respiration Process.
Respiratory system allows us to breathe, it brings oxygen into our body and sends
carbon dioxide out. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide is called
respiration. To us humans, we intake oxygen through inspiration/inhalation, and
release the so-called carbon dioxide through expiration/exhalation.
B. Discuss the 3 major parts of Respiratory System.
The respiratory system is made up of organs that helps in exchanging oxygen
and carbon dioxide. These are the organs that are part of the respiratory system, as
we classify them into two parts, the upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory
tract. The upper respiratory tract includes nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, larynx, and
trachea. The lower respiratory tract includes lungs, bronchi and bronchioles, and
air sacs.
The three major parts of respiratory system: the airway, lungs, and the
muscles of respiration. Airway includes nose, larynx, pharynx, trachea, bronchi,
and bronchioles carries air between the lungs and the body's exterior. Lungs pass
the oxygen to the blood stream. The lungs are surrounded by set of muscles that
enables it from inhaling and exhaling.
C. Discuss the 4 types of respiration.

Respiration consists of 4 distinct processes.

1.) Pulmonary Ventilation
- allow the air to move in and out of the lungs.
- mechanical process that depends on volume changes in thoracic cavity.
- Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the flow of gases in and
out of the thoracic cavity to equalize pressure.
- Includes inspiration and expiration.
- Gases move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
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2. External Respiration
Diffusion of gases between the alveoli and the blood of the pulmonary capillaries. Factors
influencing the movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the respiratory
membrane:
• Partial pressure gradients and gas solubilities
• Matching of alveolar ventilation and pulmonary blood perfusion
• Structural characteristics of the respiratory membrane
Please look at illustration 1.1 for external respiration
3. Transport
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and tissues.
Oxygen transport in the blood Carbon Dioxide transport
Methods of transport: 𝑪𝑶𝟐 is transported in three forms
- Dissolved plasma - Dissolved in plasma
- Bound to Hemoglobin for transport in the blood - Chemically bound to hemoglobin
Oxyhemoglobin: 𝑂2 bound to Hb (Hb𝑂2 ) - Bicarbonate ion in plasma
Deoxyhemoglobin: 𝑂2 not bound to (HHb) Transport and Exchange of 𝑪𝑶𝟐
- Carbon dioxide diffuses into RBCs and
combines with water to form carbonic acid
which quickly dissociates into hydrogen ions
and bicarbonate ions.
- In RBCs, carbonic anhydrase reversibly
catalyzes the conversion of 𝑪𝑶𝟐 and water to
carbonic acid.
- Carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer systems
resist blood pH levels.
4.) Internal Respiration
Diffusion of gases between the blood of the systemic capillaries and cells. The factors
promoting gas exchange between systemic capillaries and tissue cells are the same as those acting in
the lungs.
- The partial pressures and diffusion gradients are reversed.
- 𝑃𝑂2 in tissue is always lower than in systemic arterial blood
- 𝑃𝑂2 of venous blood draining tissues is 40 mm Hg and 𝑃𝐶𝑂2 is 45 mm Hg
Please look at illustration 1.1 for internal respiration
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D. Identify respiratory hazards present in workplace and discuss how these can be controlled.
Harmful dusts, fogs, smokes, mists, fumes, gasses, vapors, and sprays are some of the
examples of respiratory hazards in a workplace. It can be controlled by using respirators to cover
the mouth and nose for preventing inhalation of noxious substances.
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References
(n.d.). Retrieved from Austin Community College:
https://www.austincc.edu/apreview/PhysText/Respiratory.html

Rebecca Dezube, M. M. (2021, March). Retrieved from Merck Manual:

https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/lung-and-airway-disorders/biology-of-the-lungs-and-
airways/exchanging-oxygen-and-carbon-dioxide

Taylor, T. (2020, November 23). Retrieved from Innerbody Research:

https://www.innerbody.com/anatomy/respiratory#continued
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Part D – Circulatory System

a) Enumerate the functions of the Circulatory System

• Circulates Oxygen and removes Carbon Dioxide

• Provides cells with nutrients
• Removes the waste products of metabolism to the excretory organs for disposal
• Protects the body against disease and infection
• Clotting stops bleeding after injury
• Transports hormones to target cells and organs
• Helps regulate body temperature
b) Discuss the four main parts of the Circulatory System
In humans, the Circulatory System consists of the following parts:

1. The Vascular System – The system of tubes, or Vascular system, through which
blood flows consists of three types of blood vessels. Those that bring blood from the
heart (arteries), those very fine tubes into which an artery branches (capillaries), and
those that bring blood back to the heart (veins). The relationship between those three
types of blood vessels is illustrated in the figure below. The diagram shows how
blood travels in the body of a vertebrate - it leaves the heart by way of an artery,
enters an organ through a network of capillaries, and returns to the heart by way of a
vein.
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Substances dissolved in blood simply diffuse from thin-walled capillaries to the nearby
cells. Similarly, substances such as waste materials from the cells diffuse through the
capillary walls and into the bloodstream. This type of circulatory system is described as a
closed transport system.

2. The pumping organ or The Heart – The power that propels the blood through the
blood vessels comes from the heart. Man’s heat is about the size of the fist. Is located
at the center of the chest cavity, with the lower tip slightly pointed toward the left. It
is protected by a tough sac of connective tissue, the pericardium. It is also protected
from external injury by the rib cage. Below is the flow of blood in the heart.

The atria receive blood from various parts of the body. Hence, they are referred to as
the receiving chambers of the heart. The ventricles pump blood to the different parts
of the body. They are referred to as the pumping chambers of the heart. The chambers
are labeled right atrium (RA), left atrium (LA), right ventricle (RV), and left ventricle
(LV). A thick wall, or septum, separates the left and right chambers of the heart. The
right atrium leads to the right ventricle, the right ventricle leads to an artery. The left
atrium leads to the left ventricle, the left ventricle leads to an artery.
Blood flows in this direction and not backward because of the presence of the flaps of
muscles (valves), which allow blood to flow in one direction only.
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3. Blood
Composition of Blood
The table below shows the average composition of human blood. It shows that the
whole blood consists of blood cells, which is about 45%, and a liquid portion called
plasma of about 55%.

The table also shows that plasma is mostly water, containing about 92%. You can see
how valuable water is to the body. The plasma also contains in solution about 7%
proteins, about 1% inorganic salts, and some organic substances. The organic
substances dissolved in the plasma consists of digested food from the food tube,
gases, waste materials from the cells, enzymes, and hormones.
Component Amount
1. Blood Cells About 45% of whole blood
A) Red blood cells 4,500,00 to 5,000,000 per
cubic milliliter of blood
B) White blood cells 5,000 to 10,000 per cubic
milliliter of blood
C) Blood platelets About 250,000 per cubic
milliliter of blood
2. Blood Plasma About 55% of whole blood
a) Water About 92% of the plasma
b) Proteins About 7% of plasma
c) Inorganic salts About 1% of plasma
and some
organic
substances

4. Lymph, Lymph Vessels and Tissue Fluid

As blood passes through the capillaries, water, and dissolved substances (oxygen,
amino acids, and simple sugars) filter through the capillary walls, forming what is
known as tissue fluid. Blood proteins and most blood cells remain in the blood and do
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not pass through the capillary walls. This tissue fluid is in direct contact with the
cells.

Since the concentration of oxygen and other needed materials in the tissue fluid is
greater than that inside the cells, these substances diffuse into the cells. Similarly,
waste materials including carbon dioxide diffuse out of the cells into the tissue fluid
and then into the blood where their concentration is least.
Two things happen to tissue fluid. Some of it enters capillaries. Some of it enters a
system of vessels called lymph vessels. Inside these vessels, the fluid is known as
lymph.
The very fine lymph vessels are comparable to capillaries. They lead to larger lymph
vessels, in turn, lead to two large ducts: the right lymphatic duct, which received
lymph from the head and right arm, and the left lymphatic duct, or thoracic duct,
which receives lymph from all other parts of the body.
The two lymphatic ducts are joined to the large veins at the region of the shoulders
below the neck. The ducts empty the lymph into the bloodstream in this region. Thus,
the lymph becomes part of the blood again. From there the blood enters the right
atrium of the heart.
Located along the lymph vessels are enlargements called lymph nodes or glands. In
the lymph nodes, foreign materials like bacteria are removed. White blood cells in
these nodes engulfs the bacteria. You can see and feel the lymph nodes near the skin
when they become swollen due to infection.

d) Discuss how static posture affect the Circulatory System

Maintaining a steady upright body position, while sitting further decreases blood
circulation. An insufficient blood flow, specifically blood that is returning to the
heart from the lower legs, causes blood to pool. Pressure on the underside of the
thighs from a seat that is too high can further aggravate this. The result can be
swollen or numb legs and eventually varicose veins. Also, a reduced blood supply
to the muscles accelerates fatigue. This lower blood supply is why an employee
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who sits all day long doing little physical work often feels tired at the end of a
work shift.

Part E--Nervous System

a) Enumerate the functions of the nervous system.

Central Nervous System
• Brain - The brain is divided into the cerebrum, diencephalons, brain stem, and
cerebellum.
➢ Cerebrum - The largest and most obvious portion of the brain is the
cerebrum, which is divided by a deep longitudinal fissure into two cerebral
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hemispheres. The two hemispheres are two separate entities but are
connected by a marching band of white fibers, called the corpus callosum
that provides a communication pathway between the two halves. Each
cerebral hemisphere is divided into five lobes, four of which have the
same name as the bone over them: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the
occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe. A fifth lobe, the insula or Island of
Reil, lies deep within the lateral sulcus.
➢ Diencephalon - The diencephalons is centrally located and is nearly
surrounded by the cerebral hemispheres. It includes the thalamus,
hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The thalamus, about 80 percent of the
diencephalons, consists of two oval masses of gray matter that serve as
relay stations for sensory impulses, except for the sense of smell, going to
the cerebral cortex. The hypothalamus is a small region below the
thalamus, which plays a key role in maintaining homeostasis because it
regulates many visceral activities. The epithalamus is the most dorsal
portion of the diencephalons. This small gland is involved with the onset
of puberty and rhythmic cycles in the body. It is like a biological clock.
➢ Brain Stem - The brain stem is the region between the diencephalons and
the spinal cord. It consists of three parts: midbrain, pons, and medulla
oblongata. The midbrain is the most superior portion of the brain stem.
The pons is the bulging middle portion of the brain stem. This region
primarily consists of nerve fibers that form conduction tracts between the
higher brain centers and spinal cord. The medulla oblongata, or simply
medulla, extends inferiorly from the pons. It is continuous with the spinal
cord at the foramen magnum. All the ascending (sensory) and descending
(motor) nerve fibers connecting the brain and spinal cord pass through the
medulla.
➢ Cerebellum - The cerebellum, the second largest portion of the brain, is
located below the occipital lobes of the cerebrum. Three paired bundles of
myelinated nerve fibers, called cerebellar peduncles, form communication
pathways between the cerebellum and other parts of the central nervous
system.
➢ Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid - A series of interconnected, fluid-
filled cavities are found within the brain. These cavities are the ventricles
of the brain, and the fluid is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

• Spinal Cord - The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum at the base of
the skull to the level of the first lumbar vertebra. The cord is continuous with the
medulla oblongata at the foramen magnum. Like the brain, the spinal cord is
surrounded by bone, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid.
The spinal cord is divided into 31 segments with each segment giving rise to a
pair of spinal nerves. At the distal end of the cord, many spinal nerves extend
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beyond the conus medullaris to form a collection that resembles a horse's tail.
This is the cauda equina. In cross section, the spinal cord appears oval in shape.
The spinal cord has two main functions:
➢ Serving as a conduction pathway for impulses going to and from the brain.
Sensory impulses travel to the brain on ascending tracts in the cord. Motor
impulses travel on descending tracts.
➢ Serving as a reflex center. The reflex arc is the functional unit of the
nervous system. Reflexes are responses to stimuli that do not require
conscious thought and consequently, they occur more quickly than
reactions that require thought processes. For example, with the withdrawal
reflex, the reflex action withdraws the affected part before you are aware
of the pain. Many reflexes are mediated in the spinal cord without going to
the higher brain centers.
• Brain Tumor - Glioma refers to tumors that arise from the support cells of the
brain. These cells are called glial cells. These tumors include the astrocytomas,
ependymomas and oligodendrogliomas. These tumors are the most common
primary brain tumors.

Peripheral Nervous System

• The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that branch out from the
brain and spinal cord. These nerves form the communication network between the
CNS and the body parts. The peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into
the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic
nervous system consists of nerves that go to the skin and muscles and is involved
in conscious activities. The autonomic nervous system consists of nerves that
connect the CNS to the visceral organs such as the heart, stomach, and intestines.
It mediates unconscious activities.
➢ Structure of a Nerve
A nerve contains bundles of nerve fibers, either axons or dendrites,
surrounded by connective tissue. Sensory nerves contain only afferent
fibers, long dendrites of sensory neurons. Motor nerves have only efferent
fibers, long axons of motor neurons. Mixed nerves contain both types of
fibers.
A connective tissue sheath called the epineurium surrounds each nerve.
Each bundle of nerve fibers is called a fasciculus and is surrounded by a
layer of connective tissue called the perineurium. Within the fasciculus,
each individual nerve fiber, with its myelin and neurilemma, is surrounded
by connective tissue called the endoneurium. A nerve may also have blood
vessels enclosed in its connective tissue wrappings.
➢ Cranial Nerves
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge from the inferior surface of the
brain. All of these nerves, except the vagus nerve, pass through foramina
of the skull to innervate structures in the head, neck, and facial region.
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The cranial nerves are designated both by name and by Roman numerals,
according to the order in which they appear on the inferior surface of the
brain. Most of the nerves have both sensory and motor components. Three
of the nerves are associated with the special senses of smell, vision,
hearing, and equilibrium and have only sensory fibers. Five other nerves
are primarily motor in function but do have some sensory fibers for
proprioception. The remaining four nerves consist of significant amounts
of both sensory and motor fibers.
Acoustic neuromas are benign fibrous growths that arise from the balance
nerve, also called the eighth cranial nerve or vestibulocochlear nerve.
These tumors are non-malignant, meaning that they do not spread or
metastasize to other parts of the body. The location of these tumors is deep
inside the skull, adjacent to vital brain centers in the brain stem. As the
tumors enlarge, they involve surrounding structures which have to do with
vital functions. In the majority of cases, these tumors grow slowly over a
period of years. In other cases, the growth rate is more rapid and patients
develop symptoms at a faster pace. Usually, the symptoms are mild and
many patients are not diagnosed until some time after their tumor has
developed. Many patients also exhibit no tumor growth over a number of
years when followed by yearly MRI scans.
➢ Spinal Nerves
Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves emerge laterally from the spinal cord.
Each pair of nerves corresponds to a segment of the cord and they are
named accordingly. This means there are 8 cervical nerves, 12 thoracic
nerves, 5 lumbar nerves, 5 sacral nerves, and 1 coccygeal nerve.
Each spinal nerve is connected to the spinal cord by a dorsal root and a
ventral root. The cell bodies of the sensory neurons are in the dorsal root
ganglion, but the motor neuron cell bodies are in the gray matter. The two
roots join to form the spinal nerve just before the nerve leaves the
vertebral column. Because all spinal nerves have both sensory and motor
components, they are all mixed nerves.
➢ Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system is a visceral efferent system, which means
it sends motor impulses to the visceral organs. It functions automatically
and continuously, without conscious effort, to innervate smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands. It is concerned with heart rate, breathing rate,
blood pressure, body temperature, and other visceral activities that work
together to maintain homeostasis.
The autonomic nervous system has two parts, the sympathetic division and
the parasympathetic division. Many visceral organs are supplied with
fibers from both divisions. In this case, one stimulates and the other
inhibits. This antagonistic functional relationship serves as a balance to
help maintain homeostasis.
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https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/nervous/organization/pns.html
b) Discuss how the nervous system works.
The nervous system is made up of all the nerve cells in your body. It is through the
nervous system that we communicate with the outside world and, at the same time, many
mechanisms inside our body are controlled. The nervous system takes in information
through our senses, processes the information and triggers reactions, such as making your
muscles move or causing you to feel pain.
For example, if you touch a hot plate, you reflexively pull back your hand and your
nerves simultaneously send pain signals to your brain. Metabolic processes are also
controlled by the nervous system.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279390/
c) Discuss how nerve damage affect the nervous system.
At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one
part of the body to another. This is accomplished by transmitting from one cell to
another. There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells. One is by
releasing chemicals called hormones into the internal circulation, so that they can
"broadcast" or be carried to distant parts of the body. In contrast to the "broadcast" mode
of signaling, the nervous system provides "point-to-point" signals in which neurons
project their axons to specific target areas and make synaptic connections with specific
target cells. The "point-to-point" neural signaling is capable of a much higher level of
specificity than hormonal signaling. It can also travel much faster, with the fastest nerve
signals traveling at speeds that exceed 100 meters per second.
https://my-ms.org/anatomy_nerve_damage.htm