MODULE 1: GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL EVENTS IN

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

LESSON 1: INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. discuss how the ideas postulated by different people with great minds contributed to the spark of scientific
revolution; and
2. analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world like in Latin America, East Asia, Middle
East, and Africa.

TIME FRAME
January 17-January 24, 2022

LEARNING EXPERIENCES

I. ENGAGE
This lesson will give light to the development to the development of science and scientific ideas in the heart
of the society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and
technology.
It is a well-established fact that science and technology impacts all aspects of our lives. Science and
technology is associated in all means with modernity and is considered as an essential for rapid development. The
state of science and technology determines the socio-economic progress of a country. A country who is not able to
implement science and technology would not progress and reap the benefits of development.

II. EXPLORE
Science and Technology: Definitions and Assumptions
- Science and technology are dynamic processes
- Science and technology satisfies two (2) basic needs:
1. Thirst for knowledge
2. The material requirements for human survival and prosperity

Science
- It is the description, understanding, and prediction of physical phenomena through the use and generation of
variable theories, laws, and principles.
- It came from the Latin word scientia meaning “knowledge”
- It is based on research, which is commonly conducted in academic and research institutions as well as in the
government agencies and companies
- The practical impact of scientific research has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the
scientific enterprise by prioritizing the development of commercial products, armaments, health care,
and environmental protection.

Technology
- It is the use of scientific knowledge and/or empirical know-how for the production, improvement, and
distribution of goods and services, as well as the satisfaction of other material needs.
- It is more related to economic activity.
- Outputs of technological activity are necessarily composed of both “software” and “hardware.” Software
refers to methods, techniques, organization, and management. Hardware pertains to tools, equipment, machines
and materials.

Core Activities of Technology

1. Technological innovations of Research and Development into a commercial product or process
2. Utilization of technology itself
3. The actual use of technology in the production process points out the potentials as well as the problems
associated with a particular technology

Society
- It is a group of persons joined together for a common purpose or by a common interest.
- They come to learn and learn behavior expected of them

Interrelationship between Science, Technology and Society

- The society makes use of science to come up with better technology in order for its people to live in accordance
with their necessities.
- Human successes and failures revolve around military, economic, and medical significance.
- Science and technology can either yield a positive or a negative result to human survival.

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- Ethical dilemmas and social conflict will build up in light of abounding beliefs and culture that are slowly
disintegrating or vice versa, vis-à-vis the changes made by science and technology in our society.
III. EXPLAIN
Scientific Revolution
Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly identify when and where science
began. From the genesis of time, science has existed. It is always interwoven with the society. So, how can science
be defined in the point of view of STS aside from the traditional definition given above?
1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic explanations and observations about
the natural and physical world.
2. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical study of the natural and physical
world. This process of study involves systematic observation and experimentation.
3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a body of knowledge that
deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical world. This is what we refer to as school
science.
4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both knowledge and activities done by
human beings to develop better understanding of the world around them. It is a means to improve life and to
survive in life. It is interwoven with people’s lives.

Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and understand everything around
them. They have persistently observed and studied the natural and physical world in order to find meanings and to
seek answers to many questions. They have developed noble ideas, later known as philosophy, to provide
alternative or possible explanations to certain phenomena. Humans also used religion to rationalize the origins of life
and all lifeless forms.
The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16th century up to the 18th century in
Europe. Why in Europe? The probable answer is the invention of the printing machine and the blooming intellectual
activities done in various places of learning, and the growing number of scholars in various fields of human interest.
This does not mean, however, that science is a foreign idea transported from other areas of the globe. Anyone who
can examine the history of science, technology, medicine, and mathematics is aware that all great civilizations of the
ancient world had their own sophisticated traditions and activities related to these disciplines.
Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of mathematics,
physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature. It explained the
emergence of birth of modern science as a result of these developments from the discipline mentioned. The ideas
generated during this period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine their beliefs and their way of life.
There is no doubt that it ignited vast human interest to rethink how they do science and view scientific processes.
Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in science but it was also a
deep trying moment to some scientific individuals that lead to their painful death of condemnation from the religious
institutions who tried to preserve their faith, religion, and theological views. Some rulers and religious leaders did
not accept many of the early works of scientists. But these did not stop people especially scientist to satisfy their
curiosity of the natural and physical world.

Fig.1. Influences to Scientific Revolution

Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings, transformation of the society,
and in the formation of scientific ideas. It significantly improved the conduct of scientific investigations,
experiments, and observations. The scientific revolution also led to the creation of new research fields in science and

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prompted the establishment of a strong foundation for modern science. In many ways, scientific revolution
transformed the natural world and the world of ideas.

Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas

To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is important to examine the
different individuals whose ideas have shaken and contested the dominant theories and ideas during this period—the
truth of their time. Scientists in all periods of time are driven by their curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to
explore the physical and natural world. Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to know and to
discover.

Fig. 2. Variables that Influence the Development of Science Ideas, Science Discoveries, and Technology

Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. They are ordinary people doing extraordinary
things. Some scientists were never appreciated during their times, some were sentenced to death, while others were
condemned by the Church during their time. In spite of all the predicaments and challenges they experienced, they
never stopped experimenting, theorizing, and discovering new knowledge and ideas.
In this part of the lesson, ten (10) notable scientists are discussed. For sure, there were many scientist who
worked before and after these individuals. However, it is important to note that these scientists, particularly through
their ideas, had shaken the world!

1. Albert Einstein: The Whole Package

A crowd barged past dioramas, glass displays and wide-eyed security guards in the American Museum of
Natural History. Screams rang out as some runners fell and were trampled. Upon arriving at a lecture hall, the mob
broke down the door.
The date was Jan. 8, 1930, and the New York museum was showing a film about Albert Einstein and his
general theory of relativity. Einstein was not present, but 4,500 mostly ticketless people still showed up for the
viewing. Museum officials told them “no ticket, no show,” setting the stage for, in the words of the Chicago Tribune,
“the first science riot in history.”
Such was Einstein’s popularity. As a publicist might say, he was the whole package: distinctive look
(untamed hair, rumpled sweater), witty personality (his quips, such as God not playing dice, would live on) and
major scientific cred (his papers upended physics). Time magazine named him Person of the Century.
“Einstein remains the last, and perhaps only, physicist ever to become a household name,” says James
Overduin, a theoretical physicist at Towson University in Maryland.
Born in Ulm, Germany, in 1879, Einstein was a precocious child. As a teenager, he wrote a paper on
magnetic fields. (Einstein never actually failed math, contrary to popular lore.) He married twice, the second time to
his first cousin, Elsa Löwenthal. The marriage lasted until her death in 1936.
As a scientist, Einstein’s watershed year was 1905, when he was working as a clerk in the Swiss Patent
Office, having failed to attain an academic position after earning his doctorate. That year he published his four most
important papers. One of them described the relationship between matter and energy, neatly summarized E = mc2.
Other papers that year were on Brownian motion, suggesting the existence of molecules and atoms, and the
photoelectric effect, showing that light is made of particles later called photons. His fourth paper, about special
relativity, explained that space and time are interwoven, a shocking idea now considered a foundational principle of
astronomy.
Einstein expanded on relativity in 1916 with his theory of gravitation: general relativity. It holds that
anything with mass distorts the fabric of space and time, just as a bowling ball placed on a bed causes the mattress to
sag. During a solar eclipse in 1919, astronomers showed that the sun’s mass did indeed bend the path of starlight.
(The temporary darkness around the sun enabled astronomers to chronicle the bending.) The validation made
Einstein a superstar.
Two years later, Einstein won the Nobel Prize in Physics, not for general relativity, but for his discovery of
the photoelectric effect. By this time, the 42-year-old physicist had made most of his major contributions to science.
In 1933, Einstein accepted a professorship at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, N.J., where for
years he tried (unsuccessfully) to unify the laws of physics. He became a U.S. citizen in 1940, and his fame grew as
a public intellectual, civil rights supporter and pacifist.

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 Many consider Einstein’s theory of general relativity to be his crowning achievement. The theory predicted
both black holes and gravitational waves — and just last year, physicists measured the waves created by the collision
of two black holes over a billion light-years away. During their epic journey across the cosmos, the ripples played
with space and time like a fun-house mirror contorting faces.
General relativity also is the bedrock of gravitational lensing, which uses the gravity of stars and galaxies as
a giant magnifying glass to zoom in on farther cosmic objects. Astronomers may soon take advantage of such
physics to see geographic details of worlds light-years away.
Einstein, who died of heart failure in 1955, would have applauded such bold, imaginative thinking. His
greatest insights came not from careful experimental analysis, but simply considering what would happen under
certain circumstances, and letting his mind play with the possibilities. “I am enough of an artist to draw freely upon
my imagination,” he said in a Saturday Evening Post interview. “Knowledge is limited. Imagination encircles the
world.”

2. Marie Curie: She Went Her Own Way

Despite her French name, Marie Curie’s story didn’t start in France. Her road to Paris and success was a
hard one, as equally worthy of admiration as her scientific accomplishments.
Born Maria Salomea Sklodowska in 1867 in Warsaw, Poland, she faced some daunting hurdles, both
because of her gender and her family’s poverty, which stemmed from the political turmoil at the time. Her parents,
deeply patriotic Poles, lost most of their money supporting their homeland in its struggle for independence from
Russian, Austrian and Prussian regimes. Her father, a math and physics professor, and her mother, headmistress of a
respected boarding school in Russian-occupied Warsaw, instilled in their five kids a love of learning. They also
imbued them with an appreciation of Polish culture, which the Russian government discouraged.
When Curie and her three sisters finished regular schooling, they couldn’t carry on with higher education
like their brother. The local university didn’t let women enroll, and their family didn’t have the money to send them
abroad. Their only options were to marry or become governesses. Curie and her sister Bronislawa found another
way.
The pair took up with a secret organization called Flying University, or sometimes Floating University.
Fittingly, given the English abbreviation, the point of FU was to stick it to the Russian government and provide a
pro-Polish education, in Polish — expressly forbidden in Russian-controlled Poland.
Eventually, the sisters hatched a plan that would help them both get the higher education they so
desperately wanted. Curie would work as a governess and support Bronislawa’s medical school studies. Then,
Bronislawa would return the favor once she was established. Curie endured years of misery as a governess, but the
plan worked. In 1891, she packed her bags and headed to Paris and her bright future.
At the University of Paris, Curie was inspired by French physicist Henri Becquerel. In 1896, he discovered
that uranium emitted something that looked an awful lot like — but not quite the same as — X-rays, which had been
discovered only the year before. Intrigued, Curie decided to explore uranium and its mysterious rays as a Ph.D.
thesis topic.
Eventually, she realized whatever was producing these rays was happening at an atomic level, an important
first step to discovering that atoms weren’t the smallest form of matter. It was a defining moment for what Curie
would eventually call radioactivity.
Around the same time, Curie met and married her French husband, Pierre, an accomplished physicist who
abandoned his own work and joined his wife’s research. The two started examining minerals containing uranium and
pitchblende, a uranium-rich ore, and realized the latter was four times more radioactive than pure uranium. They
reasoned some other element must be in the mix, sending those radioactive levels through the roof. And they were
right: After processing literally tons of pitchblende, they discovered a new element and named it polonium, after
Marie’s native Poland.
They published a paper in July 1898, revealing the find. And just five months later, they announced their
discovery of yet another element, radium, found in trace amounts in uranium ore.
In 1903, Curie, her husband and Becquerel won the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on radioactivity,
making Curie the first woman to win a Nobel.
Tragedy struck just three years later. Pierre, who had recently accepted a professorship at the University of
Paris, died suddenly after a carriage accident. Curie was devastated by his death.
Yet she continued her research, filling Pierre’s position and becoming the first woman professor at the
university. In 1911 Curie won her second Nobel Prize, this time in chemistry, for her work with polonium and
radium. She remains the only person to win Nobel prizes in two different sciences.
Curie racked up several other accomplishments, from founding the Radium Institute in Paris where she
directed her own lab (whose researchers won their own Nobels), to heading up France’s first military radiology
center during World War I and thus becoming the first medical physicist.
She died in 1934 from a type of anemia that very likely stemmed from her exposure to such extreme
radiation during her career. In fact, her original notes and papers are still so radioactive that they’re kept in
lead-lined boxes, and you need protective gear to view them.

3. Isaac Newton: The Man Who Defined Science on a Bet

Isaac Newton was born on Christmas Day, 1642. Never the humble sort, he would have found the date apt:
The gift to humanity and science had arrived. A sickly infant, his mere survival was an achievement. Just 23 years
later, with his alma mater Cambridge University and much of England closed due to plague, Newton discovered the
laws that now bear his name. (He had to invent a new kind of math along the way: calculus.) The introverted English
scholar held off on publishing those findings for decades, though, and it took the Herculean efforts of friend and

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comet discoverer Edmund Halley to get Newton to publish. The only reason Halley knew of Newton’s work? A bet
the former had with other scientists on the nature of planetary orbits. When Halley mentioned the orbital problem to
him, Newton shocked his friend by giving the answer immediately, having long ago worked it out.
Halley persuaded Newton to publish his calculations, and the results were the Philosophiæ Naturalis
Principia Mathematica, or just the Principia, in 1687. Not only did it describe for the first time how the planets
moved through space and how projectiles on Earth traveled through the air; the Principia showed that the same
fundamental force, gravity, governs both. Newton united the heavens and the Earth with his laws. Thanks to him,
scientists believed they had a chance of unlocking the universe’s secrets.
Newton’s academic devotion was absolute. His sometime assistant Humphrey Newton (no relation) wrote,
“I never knew him to take any recreation.” He would only really leave his room to give lectures — even to empty
rooms. “Ofttimes he did in a manner, for want of hearers, read to the walls,” Humphrey wrote in 1727. Newton
never went halfway on anything.
It would take too long to list his other scientific achievements, but the greatest hits might include his
groundbreaking work on light and color; his development and refinement of reflecting telescopes (which now bear
his name); and other fundamental work in math and heat. He also dabbled in biblical prophecies (predicting the
world’s end in A.D. 2060), practiced alchemy and spent years trying, and failing, to produce the fabled philosopher’s
stone. Alas, even Newton’s genius couldn’t create the impossible.
In 1692, this rare failure, along with the unraveling of one of his few close friendships — and possibly
mercury poisoning from his alchemical experiments — resulted in what we’d now call a prolonged nervous
breakdown. Newton’s science-producing days were over, for reasons known only to him, though he would remain
influential in the field.
So how did Newton pass his remaining three decades? Remarkably, by modernizing England’s economy
and catching criminals. After languishing on a professor’s salary at Cambridge University for decades, in 1696
Newton received a cushy royal appointment to be Warden of the Mint in London. It was meant as an easy job with a
nice paycheck: It “has not too much bus’nesse to require more attendance than you may spare,” his friend Charles
Montague wrote after landing him the job. But Newton, focused as ever, threw himself into it.
After a promotion to Master of the Mint, he oversaw the recoinage of English currency, advised on
economics, established the gold standard and replaced all the country’s metal currency with improved, ridged coins
(still in use today), which made it harder to shave off bits of the precious metals.
He also focused his attention on counterfeiters, searching them out as zealously as he sought answers from
the heavens. Newton established information networks among London’s shadiest spots, even going undercover to do
so. Counterfeiting was considered high treason, punishable by death, and Newton relished witnessing his targets’
executions.
Newton was known by his peers as an unpleasant person. He had few close friends and never married.
Astronomer Royal John Flamsteed called him “insidious, ambitious, and excessively covetous of praise, and
impatient of contradiction.” The man could nurse grudges for years, even after his foes had died.
He famously feuded with German scientist Gottfried Leibnitz, mainly over who invented calculus first,
creating a schism in European mathematics that lasted over a century. Newton also made it his life’s work to torment
English scientist Robert Hooke, destroying the legacy of a man once considered London’s Leonardo da Vinci.
How fitting that the unit of force is named after stubborn, persistent, amazing Newton, himself a force of
nature.

4. Charles Darwin: Delivering the Evolutionary Gospel

Charles Darwin would not have been anyone’s first guess for a revolutionary scientist.
As a young man, his main interests were collecting beetles and studying geology in the countryside,
occasionally skipping out on his classes at the University of Edinburgh Medical School to do so. It was a chance
invitation in 1831 to join a journey around the world that would make Darwin, who had once studied to become a
country parson, the father of evolutionary biology.
Aboard the HMS Beagle, between bouts of seasickness, Darwin spent his five-year trip studying and
documenting geological formations and myriad habitats throughout much of the Southern Hemisphere, as well as
the flora and fauna they contained.
Darwin’s observations pushed him to a disturbing realization — the Victorian-era theories of animal origins
were all wrong. Most people in Darwin’s time still adhered to creationism, the idea that a divine being was
responsible for the diversity of life we find on Earth.
Darwin’s observations implied a completely different process. He noticed small differences between
members of the same species that seemed to depend upon where they lived. The finches of the Galapagos are the
best-known example: From island to island, finches of the same species possessed differently shaped beaks, each
adapted to the unique sources of food available on each island.
This suggested not only that species could change — already a divisive concept back then — but also that
the changes were driven purely by environmental factors, instead of divine intervention. Today, we call this natural
selection.
When Darwin returned, he was hesitant to publish his nascent ideas and open them up to criticism, as he
felt that his theory of evolution was still insubstantial. Instead, he threw himself into studying the samples from his
voyage and writing an account of his travels. Through his industrious efforts, Darwin built a reputation as a capable
scientist, publishing works on geology as well as studies of coral reefs and barnacles still considered definitive
today.

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 Darwin also married his first cousin, Emma Wedgwood, during this time. They had 10 children, and by all
accounts Darwin was an engaged and loving father, encouraging his children’s interests and taking time to play with
them. This was a level of attention uncommon among fathers at that time — to say nothing of eminent scientists.
Through it all, the theory of evolution was never far from his mind, and the various areas of research he
pursued only strengthened his convictions. Darwin slowly amassed overwhelming evidence in favor of evolution in
the 20 years after his voyage.
All of his observations and musings eventually coalesced into the tour de force that was On the Origin of
Species, published in 1859 when Darwin was 50 years old. The 500-page book sold out immediately, and Darwin
would go on to produce six editions, each time adding to and refining his arguments.
In non-technical language, the book laid out a simple argument for how the wide array of Earth’s species
came to be. It was based on two ideas: that species can change gradually over time, and that all species face
difficulties brought on by their surroundings. From these basic observations, it stands to reason that those species
best adapted to their environments will survive and those that fall short will die out.
Though Darwin’s theory was logically sound and backed up by reams of evidence, his ideas faced sharp
criticisms from adherents of creationism and the religious establishment around the world — just as he had feared.
Although it wouldn’t become widely accepted until the 1930s, Darwin’s theory of natural selection and his
ideas on evolution have survived largely intact. “I can’t emphasize enough how revolutionary Darwin’s theory was
and how much it changed people’s views in so short a time,” says Jerry Coyne, professor emeritus in the Department
of Ecology and Evolution at the University of Chicago. “On the Origin of Species is absolutely thorough and
meticulously documented, and anticipated virtually all the counterarguments. There’s nothing you can really say to
go after the important aspects of Darwin’s theory.” 

5. Nikola Tesla: Wizard of the Industrial Revolution

Nikola Tesla grips his hat in his hand. He points his cane toward Niagara Falls and beckons bystanders to
turn their gaze to the future. This bronze Tesla — a statue on the Canadian side — stands atop an induction motor,
the type of engine that drove the first hydroelectric power plant.
We owe much of our modern electrified life to the lab experiments of the Serbian-American engineer, born
in 1856 in what’s now Croatia. His designs advanced alternating current at the start of the electric age and allowed
utilities to send current over vast distances, powering American homes across the country. He developed the Tesla
coil — a high-voltage transformer — and techniques to transmit power wirelessly. Cellphone makers (and others)
are just now utilizing the potential of this idea.
Tesla is perhaps best known for his eccentric genius. He once proposed a system of towers that he believed
could pull energy from the environment and transmit signals and electricity around the world, wirelessly. But his
theories were unsound, and the project was never completed. He also claimed he had invented a “death ray.”
In recent years, Tesla’s mystique has begun to eclipse his inventions. San Diego Comic-Con attendees dress
in Tesla costumes. The world’s most famous electric car bears his name. The American Physical Society even has a
Tesla comic book (where, as in real life, he faces off against the dastardly Thomas Edison).
While his work was truly genius, much of his wizardly reputation was of his own making. Tesla claimed to
have accidentally caused an earthquake in New York City using a small steam-powered electric generator he’d
invented — Myth Busters debunked that idea. And Tesla didn’t actually discover alternating current, as everyone
thinks. It was around for decades. But his ceaseless theories, inventions and patents made Tesla a household name,
rare for scientists a century ago. And even today, his legacy still turns the lights on. 

6. Galileo Galilei: Discoverer of the Cosmos

Around Dec. 1, 1609, Italian mathematician Galileo Galilei pointed a telescope at the moon and created
modern astronomy. His subsequent observations turned up four satellites — massive moons — orbiting Jupiter, and
showed that the Milky Way’s murky light shines from many dim stars. Galileo also found sunspots upon the surface
of our star and discovered the phases of Venus, which confirmed that the planet circles the sun inside Earth’s own
orbit.
“I give infinite thanks to God, who has been pleased to make me the first observer of marvelous things,” he
wrote.
The 45-year-old Galileo didn’t invent the telescope, and he wasn’t the first to point one at the sky. But his
conclusions changed history. Galileo knew he’d found proof for the theories of Polish astronomer Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473-1543), who had launched the Scientific Revolution with his sun-centered solar system model.
Galileo’s work wasn’t all staring at the sky, either: His studies of falling bodies showed that objects
dropped at the same time will hit the ground at the same time, barring air resistance — gravity doesn’t depend on
their size. And his law of inertia allowed for Earth itself to rotate.
But all this heavenly motion contradicted Roman Catholic doctrine, which was based on Aristotle’s
incorrect views of the cosmos. The church declared the sun-centered model heretical, and an inquisition in 1616
ordered Galileo to stop promoting these views. The real blow from religious officials came in 1633, after Galileo
published a comparison of the Copernican (sun-centered) and Ptolemaic (Earth-centered) systems that made the
latter’s believers look foolish. They placed him under house arrest until his death in 1642, the same year Isaac
Newton was born.
The English mathematician would build on Galileo’s law of inertia as he compiled a set of laws so
complete that engineers still use them centuries later to navigate spacecraft across the solar system — including
NASA’s Galileo mission to Jupiter.

7. Ada Lovalace: The Enchantress of Numbers

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 To say she was ahead of her time would be an understatement. Ada Lovelace earned her place in history as
the first computer programmer — a full century before today’s computers emerged.
She couldn’t have done it without British mathematician, inventor and engineer Charles Babbage. Their
collaboration started in the early 1830s, when Lovelace was just 17 and still known by her maiden name of Byron.
(She was the only legitimate child of poet Lord Byron.) Babbage had drawn up plans for an elaborate machine he
called the Difference Engine — essentially, a giant mechanical calculator. In the middle of his work on it, the
teenage Lovelace met Babbage at a party.
There, he showed off an incomplete prototype of his machine. According to a family friend who was there:
“While other visitors gazed at the working of this beautiful instrument with the sort of expression. . . that some
savages are said to have shown on first seeing a looking-glass or hearing a gun. . . Miss Byron, young as she was,
understood its working, and saw the great beauty of the invention.”
It was mathematical obsession at first sight. The two struck up a working relationship and eventual close
friendship that would last until Lovelace’s death in 1852, when she was only 36. Babbage abandoned his Difference
Engine to brainstorm a new Analytical Engine — in theory, capable of more complex number crunching — but it
was Lovelace who saw that engine’s true potential.
The Analytical Engine was more than a calculator — its intricate mechanisms and the fact that the user fed
it commands via a punch card meant the engine could perform nearly any mathematical task ordered. Lovelace even
wrote instructions for solving a complex math problem, should the machine ever see the light of day. Many
historians would later deem those instructions the first computer program, and Lovelace the first programmer. While
she led a raucous life of gambling and scandal, it’s her work in “poetical science,” as she called it, which defines her
legacy.
In the words of Babbage himself, Lovelace was an “enchantress who has thrown her magical spell around
the most abstract of Sciences and has grasped it with a force which few masculine intellects . . . could have exerted
over it.”

8. Pythagoras: Math’s Mystery Man

Memories of middle or high school geometry invariably include an instructor drawing right triangles on a
blackboard to explain the Pythagorean Theorem. The lesson was that the square of the hypotenuse, or longest side, is
equal to the sum of the squares of the other sides. Simply put: a2 + b2 = c2. A proof followed, adding a level of
certainty rare in other high school classes, like social studies and English.
Pythagoras, a sixth-century B.C. Greek philosopher and mathematician, is credited with inventing his
namesake theorem and various proofs. But forget about the certainty.
Babylonian and Egyptian mathematicians used the equation centuries before Pythagoras, says Karen Eva
Carr, a retired historian at Portland State University, though many scholars leave open the possibility he developed
the first proof. Moreover, Pythagoras’ students often attributed their own mathematical discoveries to their master,
making it impossible to untangle who invented what.
Even so, we know enough to suspect Pythagoras was one of the great mathematicians of antiquity. His
influence was widespread and lasting. Theoretical physicist James Overduin sees an unbroken chain from
Pythagoras to Albert Einstein, whose work on curving space and time Overduin calls “physics as geometry.”
Even today, the sea of numerical formulas typically on physicists’ blackboards suggests the Pythagorean
maxim “All is number,” an implication that everything can be explained, organized and, in many cases, predicted
through mathematics. The Pythagorean Theorem proof doesn’t just work sometimes, most of the time or when the
stars align — it works all the time. Pythagoras’ legacy includes the scientific hallmarks of pattern, order, replication
and certainty.

9. Carl Linnaeus: Say His Name(s)

It started in Sweden: a functional, user-friendly innovation that took over the world, bringing order to
chaos. No, not an Ikea closet organizer. We’re talking about the binomial nomenclature system, which has given us
clarity and a common language, devised by Carl Linnaeus.
Linnaeus, born in southern Sweden in 1707, was an “intensely practical” man, according to Sandra Knapp,
a botanist and taxonomist at the Natural History Museum in London. He lived at a time when formal scientific
training was scant and there was no system for referring to living things. Plants and animals had common names,
which varied from one location and language to the next, and scientific “phrase names,” cumbersome Latin
descriptions that could run several paragraphs.
The 18th century was also a time when European explorers were fanning out across the globe, finding ever
more plants and animals new to science.
“There got to be more and more things that needed to be described, and the names were becoming more
and more complex,” says Knapp.
Linnaeus, a botanist with a talent for noticing details, first used what he called “trivial names” in the
margins of his 1753 book Species Plantarum. He intended the simple Latin two-word construction for each plant as
a kind of shorthand, an easy way to remember what it was.
“It reflected the adjective-noun structure in languages all over the world,” Knapp says of the trivial names,
which today we know as genus and species. The names moved quickly from the margins of a single book to the
center of botany, and then all of biology. Linnaeus started a revolution, but it was an unintentional one.
Today we regard Linnaeus as the father of taxonomy, which is used to sort the entire living world into
evolutionary hierarchies, or family trees. But the systematic Swede was mostly interested in naming things rather
than ordering them, an emphasis that arrived the next century with Charles Darwin.

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 As evolution became better understood and, more recently, genetic analysis changed how we classify and
organize living things, many of Linnaeus’ other ideas have been supplanted. But his naming system, so simple and
adaptable, remains.
“It doesn’t matter to the tree in the forest if it has a name,” Knapp says. “But by giving it a name, we can
discuss it. Linnaeus gave us a system so we could talk about the natural world.”

10. Rosalind Franklin: The Hero Denied Her Due

In 1962, Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize for describing DNA’s
double-helix structure — arguably the greatest discovery of the 20th century. But no one mentioned Rosalind
Franklin — arguably the greatest snub of the 20th century.
The British-born Franklin was a firebrand, a perfectionist who worked in isolation. “She was prickly, did
not make friends easily, but when she did she was outgoing and loyal,” Jenifer Glynn wrote in My Sister Rosalind
Franklin.
Franklin was also a brilliant chemist and a master of X-ray crystallography, an imaging technique that
reveals the molecular structure of matter based on the pattern of scattered X-ray beams. Her early research into the
microstructures of carbon and graphite are still cited, but her work with DNA was the most significant — and it may
have won three men a Nobel.
While at King’s College London in the early 1950s, Franklin was close to proving the double-helix theory
after capturing “photograph #51,” considered the finest image of a DNA molecule at the time. But then both Watson
and Crick got a peek at Franklin’s work: Her colleague, Wilkins, showed Watson photograph #51, and Max Perutz, a
member of King’s Medical Research Council, handed Crick unpublished data from a report Franklin submitted to
the council. In 1953, Watson and Crick published their iconic paper in Nature, loosely citing Franklin, whose
“supporting” study also appeared in that issue.
“As a scientist, Miss Franklin was distinguished by extreme clarity and perfection in everything she
undertook,” Bernal wrote in her obituary, published in Nature. Though it’s her achievements that close colleagues
admired, most remember Franklin for how she was forgotten. 

IV. ELABORATE
CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE
Meso-American Civilization
∙ consists of four culture namely: Olmec, Maya, Aztec, and Inca
∙ the manufacture of rubber ball in the ball game tlachti
∙ a game played by Meso-American civilizations from earliest times
∙ among the plants originated in Meso-America are corn, papaya, avocado and cocoa
∙ All Meso-American peoples shared the calendric and astronomical information of the heavens as a critical part
of their sculpture, art and architecture
∙ The Mesoamerican contribution to the high civilization of the world was their creation of the calendrical systems
and sophisticated writing as a direct result of their need to be in harmony with the celestial cycles
Mesoamerica
- includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to the border of South America
- It consist of four culture namely: Olmec, Maya, Aztec, and Inca
- All Mesoamerican peoples shared the calendric and astronomical information of the heavens as a critical
part of their sculpture, art and architecture.
- The Mesoamerican contribution to the high civilization of the world was their creation of the calendrical
systems and sophisticated writings as a direct result of their need to be in harmony with the celestial cycles

Four Cultures of Mesoamerican Civilization

1. Olmec civilization – the mysterious Olmec civilization, located in ancient Mexico, prospered in Pre-classical
(Formative) Mesoamerica from c. (approximately) 1200 BCE (Before the Common Era) and is generally
considered the forerunner of all subsequent Mesoamerican culture including the Mayan and Aztecs. Some of
their contributions are:
a. Monumental sacred complexes
b. Massive stone sculptures
c. The drinking of chocolate
d. Animal gods

2. Maya civilization – it is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for c. 2000 years. These people are known
for their works in astronomy. Some of their contributions are:
a. Mayans believe that stars and constellations, the planets and the moon were living beings who interacted
with the cycles, natural and social middle or physical world
b. Mayan architects build large, elaborate places and pyramid shaped temples for astronomical observation
like Chicken Itza in Mexico
c. The Mayans are known for using two complicated calendar systems (260-day calendar and the 365-day
calendar)
d. They build hydraulics system and looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paint

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 e. They are also believed to be the first people to produce rubber products
f. Mayan knew how to make paper and had a pictorial script known as Mayan Hieroglyphics which made
them famous as one of the world’s first civilization to have a writing system
g. Mayan Hieroglyphics – this allowed Maya to record all knowledge on long strips of paper, which they
folded harmonica-style into books
h. Dresden Codex – one of the rescued Maya books, which is believed to be produced in 10th century and
contains predictions of solar eclipses for centuries and a table of predicted positions of Venus and bears
testimony to the advanced knowledge of Mayan civilization of Astronomy
i. They also used advanced numbering system that included the concept of zero which is the greatest
scientific achievement of Maya

3. Inca civilization – it is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific ideas considering
their limitations as an old civilization. Some of their contributions are:
a. Incas are famous for roads paved with stones
b. Incan engineer designed the Temple of the Sun in Cuzco (the capital city) which is a complex structure that
was strong enough to survive for centuries of earthquakes and hard weather
c. They developed improved methods or terracing farming and irrigation system and technique for storing
water for their crops to grow in all types of land
d. They also developed the calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for
planting season
e. They created the first suspension bridge
f. Incan scholars developed a record keeping system that used colored, knotted string known as Quipu which
might have been used for accounting, keeping statistics and to record dates and events
g. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements

4. Aztec civilization – has also made substantial contributions to science and technology and to the society as a
whole. Some of their contributions are:
a. Mandatory education
b. Chocolates
c. Astispasmodic medication
d. Chinampa
e. Aztec calendar
f. Invention of the canoe

Development of Science in Asia

1. India
a. They are known for iron and metallurgical works
b. Ayurveda system – one of the oldest system of medicine, based on the belief that health and wellness
depends on a delicate balance between the mind, body, and spirit
c. Sushruta Samhita’s most well-known contribution to plastic surgery is the reconstruction of the nose,
known also as rhinoplasty; also the use of cheek flaps to reconstruct absent ear lobes, the use of wine as
anesthesia, and the use of leeches to keep wounds free of blood clots
d. Ancient India is notable for developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical
self-supporting Earth and the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each
e. Siddhata Shiromani – covered topics such as mean of longitudes of the planets; rising and setting; the
moon’s crescent; conjunction of the planets with the fixed stars; and the path of the Sun and Moon
f. Indus Valley Civilization tried to standardized measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and
designed a ruler, the Mohenjodaro
g. Aryabhata introduced a number of trigonometric functions, tables and techniques as well as algorithms of
algebra
h. Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction; zero as a place holder and a decimal digit
along with Hindu-Arabic numerical system
i. Madhama of Sangamagrama is also considered as the founder of Mathematical Analysis

2. China
a. Silk road, a great trade route linking China to other Roman Empire where it allowed transport and
exchange of goods in these regions
b. Acupuncture, a family procedure involving stimulation of points in the body using a variety of techniques
that has been most often studied scientifically involves penetrating the skin with thin, solid, metallic
needles that are manipulated by the hands or electrical stimulation
c. Chinese civilization is also known for invention of plough, wheelbarrow and propeller; design for
different model of bridges
d. Invented the firs seismological detector and developed a dry dock facility
e. Chinese also made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses and comets which were
carefully recorded and preserved to understand better heavenly bodies and their effects to out world
∙ He explained that there are many conscious and unconscious factors that can influence behaviour and
emotions
∙ He argued that personality is a product of three conflicting elements

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*The Psyche go*
1) Id: Instincts
2) Ego: Reality
3) Superego: Morality
∙ Psychoanalysis is a method of explaining and treating mental and emotional problems by having the patient
talk about dreams, feelings, memories, etc.
∙ Freud’s method of psychoanalysis focused on human sexuality and the evil nature of man
∙ Freud believed that children are born with a libido – a sexual (pleasure) urge. There are number of stages of
childhood, during which the child seeks pleasure from a different**
o Psychosexual Stages
I. Oral – mouth-sucking, swallowing, etc. (Ego develops)
II. Anal – The anus – withholding or expelling faeces
III. Phallic – The penis or clitoris masturbation (Superego develops)
IV. Latent – Little or no sexual motivation present
V. Genital - The penis or vagina – sexual intercourse

Development of Science in Middle East

1. Muslims
a. Muslim scientists put a greater value on science experiments rather than plain thought experiments which
led to the development of the scientific method in the Muslim world
b. Ibna al-Haytham, is also regarded as the Father of Optics (proofs on Intramission Theory of Light)
c. Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, gave his name to the concept of alhgorith
d. Ibn Sina, pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical
trials. Among his many contributions were the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases and
the instroduction of clinical pharmacology
● Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine were two of the most notable books of Ibn Sina,
these books were used as standard Medical texts

Development of Science in Africa

1. Egyptian
a. Rules of geometry were developed to preserve layout and ownership of Farmlands along Nile River and
build rectilinear structures, the post of lintel architecture of Egypt
b. Egyptian pyramids and early dams to divert water from Nile River
c. Egypt is known to be the Center of Alchemy
d. Ancient Egyptians are good in the four fundamental mathematical operations and other mathematical skills

2. African
a. Used three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar or a combination of the three
b. Metallurgy was also known in the African regions
c. Labombo Bone – oldest known mathematical artifact which may have been a tool for multiplication,
division and simple mathematical computation

The Middle Ages

- During the Middle Ages (450 – 1450 Anno Domini [A.D.]) gave birth to many scientific and technological
development. Also, during the Middle Ages (often called Dark Ages), warfare had improved tremendously.
- The Renaissance Era in Europe that begun in 1450 and lasted until 1600 A.D. was the period known as Rebirth
of Knowledge. In Germany, Gutenberg developed the printing press which resulted in books being printed
instead of huge volume of texts being handwritten. In Italy, Leonardo da Vinci, a great pioneer in Arts,
architecture, engineering and science, stressed the importance of experiment. He produced a vast series of
notebooks with observations on anatomy, cloud formations, plans for sites, military inventions, tanks, flying
machines and submarines.

The Modern Ages

- Galileo was the first to use modern scientific methods based on experiment and testable observations. In 1608,
some spectacle maker came to the Republic of Venice where Galileo was staying with their new invention, a
spyglass for identifying ships well before they enter a harbor. Galileo heard about it and promptly set about
figuring how it worked. He only succeeded in constructing his own spyglass, but wnt on to build a second one
with the magnification stepped up by eight, and finally thirty times which in now known as telescope. He was
able to discover craters and mountains on the moon. He later invented the microscope and the thermometer.
- Isaac Newton was born in 1642. He helped define the laws of gravity and planetary motion, co-founded
calculus, and explained the laws of light and color.
- Albert Einstein became the most famous scientist of the 20th century. His work had profound impact on
everything from quantum theory to nuclear power and the atom bomb, and came up also with the famous
equation e=mc2 used in Calculus.
- In terms of modern technology, the Industrial revolution brought about the beginning of factories being built to
produce goods of massive quantity.
- In the late 1800, the light bulb began to replace candles and oil lamp.

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- The 20th century gave birth to radio, the first car to run with engine power. The first man went to space in a
rocket. It was also the beginning of communication, electronic and computer era.

V. EVALUATION
Activity 1

ESSAY. Answer briefly but concisely what is being asked.

1. Given the 10 greatest scientist of all time in pp. 4 – 10, give a one sentence answer to how their contribution
helps the present time. (30 points)
a. Albert Einstein:_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
b. Marie Curie:____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
c. Isaac Newton: __________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
d. Charles Darwin:_________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
e. Nikola Tesla:___________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

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 f. Galileo Galilei:__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
g. Ada Lovelace:__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
h. Pythagoras:____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
i. Carl Linnaeus:__________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
j. Rosalind Franklin:_______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

2. Do you think thought experiment is still useful in science in the present time? Justify by answering it in 5
sentences only. Use the space provided below. (20 points)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Do you think the Church should intervene in scientific activities? Justify by answering it in 5 sentences only.
Use the space provided below. (20 points)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 2
ILLUSTRATION. In the space provided below, rewrite the Baybayin alphabet, an old writing system that was used
in the Philippines, then write your name using this type of writing. (20 points)

Activity 3
ILLUSTRATION. Review the history of science and technology and make a timeline highlighting the major
discoveries and developments in science. Use the space provided below. (20 points)

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Rubrics for Essay Writing:
TRAITS 4 3 2 1
Focus and There is one clear, There is one clear, There is one topic. The topic and main
Detail well-focused topic. well-focused topic. Main Main ideas are ideas are not clear.
Main ideas are clear ideas are clear but are somewhat clear.
and are well not well supported by
supported by detailed information.
detailed and
accurate
information
Organization The introduction is The introduction states The introduction states There is no clear
inviting, states the the main topic and the main topic. A introduction, structure
main topic, and provides an overview of conclusion is included. or conclusion.
provides an the paper. A conclusion
overview of the is included.
paper. Information
is relevant and
presented in a
logical order. The
conclusion is
strong.
Voice The author’s The author’s purpose of The author’s purpose The author’s purpose
purpose of writing writing is somewhat of writing is somewhat of writing is unclear.
is very clear, and clear, and there is some clear, and there is
there is strong evidence of attention to some evidence of
evidence of audience. The author’s attention to audience.
attention to knowledge and/or The author’s
audience. The experience with the topic knowledge and/or
author’s extensive is/are evident. experience with the
knowledge and/or topic is/are limited.

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 experience with the
topic is/are evident.
Word Choice The author uses The author uses vivid The author uses words The writer uses a
vivid words and words and phrases. The that communicate limited vocabulary.
phrases. The choice choice and placement of clearly, but the writing Jargon and clichés
and placement of words is inaccurate at lacks variety. may be present and
words seems times and/or seems detract from the
accurate, natural, overdone. meaning.
and not forced.
Sentence, All sentences are Most sentences are well Most sentences are Sentences sound
Structure, well constructed constructed and have well constructed, but awkward, are
Grammar, and have varied varied structure and they have a similar destructively
Mechanics, structure and length. The author makes structure and/or length. repetitive, or are
and Spelling length. The author a few errors in grammar, The author makes difficult to
makes no errors in mechanics, and/or several errors in understand. The
grammar, spelling, but they do not grammar, mechanics, author makes
mechanics, and/or interfere with and/or spelling that numerous errors in
spelling. understanding. interfere with grammar, mechanics,
understanding. and/or spelling that
interfere with
understanding.

Rubrics for Illustration:

TRAITS 5 4 3 2
Required There is a drawing, There is a drawing, There is a drawing, Several required
Elements with all the parts with most parts with more than 3 elements were
identified identified parts not identified missing from the
drawing
Labels Student’s needed Student’s needed Student’s needed Student’s needed
information is on the information is on information is on information is on
drawing. All parts are the drawing. Most the drawing. Three the drawing. Parts
clearly labeled and easy parts are clearly or more parts are are not labeled or
to read from a foot labeled and easy to not labeled and are teachers and unable
away. read from a foot hard to read or to read labels
away. understand. easily..
Attractiveness The drawing is The drawing is The drawing is The drawing is
exceptionally attractive attractive in terms acceptably attractive distractingly messy
in terms of design, of design, layout, though it may be a or very poorly
layout, and neatness. and neatness. bit messy. designed.
Relevance to the Strong connection to There is a The connection is Barely makes a
Topic the unit, that goes connection to the weak, but there are connection to the
above material in the unit. Connects with parts of the topic topic. Touches on
book/classroom. the topic. that are connected one point from the
topic

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