Survey Research

In: The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods

By: Heidi Julien

Edited by: Lisa M. Given
Book Title: The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods
Chapter Title: "Survey Research"
Pub. Date: 2012
Access Date: September 13, 2017
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc.
City: Thousand Oaks
Print ISBN: 9781412941631
Online ISBN: 9781412963909
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412963909
Print pages: 846-848
©2008 SAGE Publications, Inc.. All Rights Reserved.
This PDF has been generated from SAGE Research Methods. Please note that the
pagination of the online version will vary from the pagination of the print book.
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Survey research is one of the most commonly used methodologies in the social sciences.
Survey research refers to the set of methods used to gather data in a systematic way from a
range of individuals, organizations, or other units of interest. Specific methods may include
questionnaires (on paper or online), interviews (conducted by any method; e.g., individual
interviews done face to face or via telephone), focus groups, or observation (e.g., structured
observations of people using internet access stations at a public library). This entry focuses on
methods most commonly associated with survey research: questionnaires (often used in
quantitative research designs) and interviews (often used in qualitative research designs).

Many studies using more than one data collection method will include a survey method. For
example, a quantitatively oriented questionnaire could be used to generate general
understanding of a set of related questions, to identify interview questions for deeper qualitative
investigation, and to identify possible interview participants. Alternatively, a questionnaire could
be used to confirm the generalizability of results from a small interview study to a larger, more
statistically representative sample. Timing of survey research is relevant to the data produced.
For example a cross-section approach collects data at one point in time. Longitudinal survey
research can sample data at different periods over a length of time to examine long-term
trends.

Although some researchers believe survey research to be a wholly quantitative approach, this
opinion is not universally shared. Data gathered from any survey method may be entirely
quantitative, may be largely qualitative, or may be a mixture. For example, open-ended
questions on a questionnaire or asked in an interview will produce text that may be analyzed
qualitatively. Qualitative data gathered in survey methods tends to be in text form, such as
narrative responses to open-ended questions posed in an interview or written responses to a
“comments” item on a questionnaire. There are many ways in which open-ended text or
commentary is analyzed, although content analysis (either quantitative or qualitative) would be
a commonly applied analytic method. The value of this qualitative data collected during the
course of a questionnaire can be particularly important to contextualize more quantitative
responses and to add depth and richness to the data set. For example, a questionnaire
seeking data about service delivery in a nonprofit setting may include space for open-ended
comments where respondents can indicate why they responded in certain ways or provide
details not otherwise captured by closed response items. Responses to open-ended questions
can provide detail about perceptions, opinions, personal experiences, and deeply held beliefs.
Of course, written responses assume basic literacy on the part of respondents, as well as
motivation to take the time required to write comments.

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Open-ended questions provide greater freedom to the researcher in terms of how to frame the
question, as well as granting greater freedom to respondents in the ways they choose to
answer. Open-ended questions are often used in qualitative research to explore an issue or
concept, to obtain natural wording, to add variety to a questionnaire, to obtain exact numerical
data, and to provide respondents with opportunities for self-expression or elaboration. Open-
ended questions may challenge respondents because they are more demanding and time-
consuming to answer; however, the data obtained are typically richer than that generated from
closed questions. Researchers often find that responses to open-ended questions require
greater effort to record, code, analyze, and interpret than is the case for responses to closed
questions. However, closed questions are easier and faster for respondents to answer, and
responses to closed questions are easier for researchers to code and analyze, and they provide
consistent response categories. Closed questions have many disadvantages including eliciting
responses where no knowledge or opinion actually exists, oversimplifying issues, and forcing
answers into possibly unnatural categories. It is important to ensure that response categories to
closed questions are inclusive of all reasonably possible responses and are nonoverlapping.

Wording of Survey Questions

Wording of survey questions, whether these are posed on a written questionnaire or posed
during an interview, is challenging and is one of the significant reasons why piloting drafts of
questions is wise. Questions should use language that is meaningful to respondents, with an
emphasis on simple, direct, jargon-free language. Ensuring that language is appropriate for
respondents is critical to obtaining respondent cooperation and interest, as well as key to
obtaining valid research data. Questions should be clear and specific as well as applicable to
all respondents (e.g., asking how old one's spouse is will not be applicable to respondents with
no spouse). A question asking “What is your income?” appears simple, but is open to
interpretation: Does this mean individual or family or household income? What is the time
reference (last week, last month, last year)? And, should “income” include wages only, or tips
and bonuses? Leading or loaded questions and abbreviations should be avoided. Asking “Do
you believe there should be an amendment to the Constitution protecting the life of the unborn
child?” uses loaded language that may bias responses. If questions have been translated from
one language to another, that translation should be double-checked for unintended errors.
Double-barreled questions are also to be avoided: “Do you plan to leave your car at home and
take the bus to work during the coming year?” is asking two separate questions. Questions that
include an implied alternative should be avoided; for example, “Do you think most
manufacturing companies that lay off workers during slack periods could arrange things to
avoid layoffs and give steady work right through the year?” implies the alternative that layoffs

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are unavoidable. Bias is also evident in questions that may entail social responsibility, such as
“Did you vote in the last election?” It is better to start with a more neutral question such as
“Were you able to get to the polls in the last election?” Researchers should be aware of order
bias, since respondents will incline toward the middle in a list of numbers, extremes in a list of
ideas, and the second alternative in a list of two ideas. It is also wise to rotate the order of
questions in case order influences responses.

Question Sequencing

When structuring a survey, question sequencing must be considered. Survey instruments,

whether questionnaires or interview schedules, should open with an introduction that provides
a title or subject of the survey, identify the sponsor or organization conducting the survey,
establish legitimacy of purpose, request cooperation and identify any benefits for respondents,
and indicate the degree of confidentiality. In mail surveys, a return address and date for return
should be provided. Opening questions should be pleasant, easy, interesting, broadly
applicable, and relate to the introduction and study objectives. Sensitive items should be
introduced at a point where respondents are likely to have developed trust and confidence and
should be introduced gradually by warm-up items that are less threatening. All items should be
located in context; that is, a section where they are most meaningful in the context of other
questions. Classificatory data, such as demographic data, is best placed at the end of a
questionnaire. This type of data can be used to stratify respondents, to determine if
respondents represent a cross section of the population, and to analyze the relationships, if
any, between these demographic variables and the other variables. Question sequencing refers
to the flow of items, which should follow the logic of respondents. Group questions similar in
content together, aid respondents' memories with chronological lead-ins, and use transitions for
continuity. For example, Part A: “Let's talk about your work experience. …” Follow this with Part
B: “Now let's talk about your feelings about your job. … Filter questions are used to select
relevant respondents for the survey: for example, “Are you a resident or a visitor?” These
questions will help eliminate a category of respondent not intended to be included in the study.
Funneling questions is done by asking broad questions first, and then proceeding to more
specific questions in the same area, while an inverted funnel sequence asks narrower
questions first, followed by broader ones.

Appearance

Printed or online questionnaires need to consider layout. The general appearance should be
interesting and easy to complete, with consideration for paper quality (if relevant), size, font,
and color. Any front matter should create a positive first impression. Instructions should

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facilitate proper answering of questions, and illustrations, symbols, and mechanical devices
should attract attention and guide respondents. The final section should provide opportunity for
additional comments and include an expression of appreciation.

Online Surveys

Online surveys are increasingly popular because they can be logistically easier to handle for
both the researcher and the respondent. This makes online survey research more cost-effective
when balancing investment against the potential number of respondents who are not bound by
geographical barriers. Online surveys can be more convenient for respondents, although
obviously access to a networked computer is required. Thus, online surveys may be practical
for certain populations but not so for others; that is, those without digital access. Analysis of
data gathered from an online survey may be greatly facilitated by moving electronic responses
directly into analysis software.

Survey Sampling

Regardless of the specific survey method used, sampling (i.e., identifying potential
respondents) is critical. A census refers to sampling an entire population or universe; that is, all
members of a particular group, regardless of the size of the group. Populations do not have to
be people, but may be organizations or pieces of text. The most important thing about samples
is the degree to which they are representative; a sample must reflect the population that it
purports to stand for. A random sample is a probability sample, where each case has an equal
chance of being selected. Random samples are used when the intention is to seek external
validity. A stratified sample is based on studying a certain attribute in a population. For
example, individuals are categorized as to whether or not they possess that attribute, which
may be based on gender, ethnicity, educational level, and so on. Proportional sampling is
based on the proportion or percentage each group contributes to the entire population (e.g., to
look at a group of people in relation to the proportion of their representation in a population).
Cluster sampling usually refers to selection on the basis of geography; in this case, the sample
is usually then structured in other ways, such as stratified, or random, or both. Nonprobability
sampling, which is typical for qualitative research, includes convenience sampling (e.g.,
approach the first x number of people who appear in the grocery store). A quota sample is used
when the researcher wants to be sure that the sample includes individuals with a number of
characteristics. A sequential sampling approach involves choosing every nth item in a group.

Trustworthiness

Validity and reliability are important aspects of survey research. Internal validity is achieved

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when the survey's questions and answers accurately measure or reflect what the investigators
want to know and are not distorted by some other factor. External validity refers to how
representative a sample of the population is. In survey research, it is important to factor in the
return rate as well as the proportion of nonrespondents to know if there is a statistically
significant difference between respondents and nonrespondents with regard to certain
characteristics. Reliability refers to the consistency of data gathering in measuring whatever the
survey purports to measure. To ensure reliability, the researcher looks at question wording to
ask whether the questions really ask for the information in the best possible way or to ask if
people from different groups understand the questions in the same way. Reliability can be
improved by asking the same question twice on a questionnaire or by following up to check on
similarity of response in an interview. Trustworthiness is equally important when using methods
such as observation; for example, recording observations in multiple ways (e.g., using
photography as well as individuals' visual observations) and using more than one observer are
ways to increase trustworthiness.

Survey research is common because it is so flexible, open to researchers taking quantitative as

well as qualitative approaches. Survey methods can answer a wide range of research
questions, from the “who” and “what” to the “how” and “why.” Because of this flexibility, survey
research is appealing to inexperienced researchers and is, therefore, open to careless design
and data collection practices. However, trustworthy survey research requires careful
consideration of design and research conduct.

surveying

HeidiJulien

http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412963909.n441
See also

Content Analysis
Empirical Research
Reliability
Sampling
Validity

Further Readings

Fink, A.(2002). The survey kit (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Glesne, C.(2006). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson

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Education.

Patton, M. Q.(2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.

Sue, V. M., &Ritter, V. A.(2007). Conducting online surveys.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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