GLOBAL MIGRATION: BASIC CONCEPTS

Global migration is a complex phenomenon that tackles on a multiplicity of economic, social,

security, and several aspects affecting our daily lives in a rapidly interconnecting world. On the
other hand, migration encompasses a large variety of movements and situations involving
people. Migration is embroiled with geopolitics, trade, and cultural exchange and provides
opportunities for several countries, business, communities, and cultures to benefit in a grand
manner.  

Since the earliest times, humanity has been on the move. Some people move in search of labor
or economic opportunities, to join family or to study. However, not all migration happens in
positive circumstances. Others move to escape conflict, persecution, terrorism, or human rights
violations. Similarly, others move in response to the adverse effects of climate change, natural
disasters, or other environmental factors.

Today, more people than ever before live in a country other than the one in which they were
born. In 2017, the number of migrants reached 258 million, compared to about 173 million in
2000. However, the proportion of international migrants in the world population is only slightly
higher than that recorded over the past decades, equaling 3.4 percent in 2017, compared to
2.8 percent in 2000 and 2.3 percent in 1980. While many individuals migrate out of choice,
many others migrate out of necessity. There are approximately 68 million forcibly displaced
persons, including over 25 million refugees, 3 million asylum seekers and over 40 million
internally displaced persons.

Migration and the Sustainable Development  Goals

Migration is one of the defining features of the 21st century. It contributes significantly to all
aspects of economic and social development everywhere, and, as such, will be key to achieving
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

The 2030 Agenda is well placed to reflect and exploit the links between migration and
development for three reasons. First, the 2030 Agenda is the first international development
framework to include and recognize migration as a dimension of development. The Agenda
includes migration related targets and recognizes its important contribution to sustainable
development while acknowledging the specific vulnerabilities migrants may face.

Second, migration interacts with all dimensions of development. The multidisciplinary and cross-
sectoral nature of the 2030 Agenda is a useful platform to assess the impact of migration and
human mobility on a range of development issues. The SDGs and its relation to migration are
as follows:

Goal 3: Health

Migrants can be vulnerable to health risks. Migrants on their respective destinations may not
have access to health care. For the well-being of the migrants, it is vital that access to safe,
effective, and affordable health services shall be strengthened.

Goal 4: Education
Student mobility opens more opportunities for youth in developing countries to learn and study
abroad.

Goal 5: Gender Equality                   

Migrant women and girls are vulnerable to human trafficking and gender-based violence.
Increasing participation and leadership of women reduces the risk of gender-based violence and
inequalities.

Goal 8: Decent Work                        

The importance of migrants in the global economy continues to flourish. Humane and safe
working conditions help enhance the impact of migrants in development.

Goal 11: Sustainable Cities             

Migrants enable cities to thrive and become more vibrant, successful centers of economy and
life. National and local governments are encouraged to include migration and migrants in their
urban development planning and implementation.

Goal 13: Climate Action                   

Migrants are affected by climate-related disasters. To better protect migrants, responses to

disaster and climate change must be strengthened.

Goal 16: Peaceful Societies             

Preventing trafficking in persons and providing support to trafficking survivors should be done
while affording sustainable reintegration support efforts to eliminate all forms of violence
against women and girls.

Goal 17: Partnerships                      

Expanding of networks among countries can help increase the capacity to deliver migrant
services.

Goal 10: Reduce Inequalities          

Migration brings about a conglomeration of people, ideas, knowledge, practices, and culture
and it is very integral that all countries involved avoid discrimination, inequality, and injustice
due to these differences.

Migrants
According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), a migrant is: “any person who
is moving or has moved across an international border or within a state away from his/her
habitual place of residence, regardless of (1) the person’s legal status; (2) whether the
movement is voluntary or involuntary; (3) what the causes for the movement are; or (4) what
the length of the stay is”.

From this definition, two categories of migrants can be identified:

1.    Labor (economic) migrants (and family reunification)

2.    Forced migrants (asylum seekers and refugees)

Forced migrants are those who are compelled to migrate due to adverse circumstances beyond
their control (like war, persecution, etc.).

An asylum seeker is a person who seeks safety from persecution or serious harm in a country
other than his or her own and awaits a decision on the application for refugee status relevant
international and national instruments. In case of a negative decision, the person must leave
the country and may be expelled, unless permission to stay is provided on humanitarian
grounds.

A refugee is a person who, owing to a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race,
religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinions, is outside the
country of his/her nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail
himself/herself of the protection of that country.

Drivers of Migration
Drivers of migration are forces which lead to the inception of migration and to the perpetuation
of movement.

Drivers of migration include economic, demographic factors and environmental factors, and
social and political dynamics. People may migrate to access better economic employment and
educational opportunities for themselves and their families. Some migrate due to lack of access
to fundamental human rights such as health, food, or basic education, and due to
discrimination, poverty, or separation from family. They may move in response to crisis-both
natural and human-made and, increasingly, in response to environmental change. How drivers
interact in different dimensions (scale, location, distance, and duration) affects how
governments and the international community can respond in order to effectively protect
migrants, govern migration, and harness its benefits.

Some of the drivers of migration are as follows:

1.    Economic and demographic drivers

Economic opportunities, demographics, and poverty/food insecurity are prime influencers in the
migration decision-making process and interact to greater or lesser degrees, depending on the
specific context, to drive migration.

In developing countries, lack of job opportunities, wage differentials, and aspirations propel
young people away from home in search of employment and income opportunities. The
informal economy accounts for 33-90% of total employment, which often means low pay,
hazardous working conditions, and limited access to legal and social protection and resources,
and this drives people toward opportunities abroad.

2.    Environmental drivers

A great number of countries identified as climate vulnerable tend to experience high rates of
emigration, so it is critical to consider existing environment and climate-related evidence when
analyzing current migration patterns and estimating future flows.

Environmental factors, including those related to climate change and natural disasters, directly
and indirectly impact the resilience and vulnerability of individuals, households, and
communities, and may lead to migration. How climate change drives migration depends heavily
on its interaction with other factors, including the perception of risk by affected communities,
and varies among and within communities.

3.    Human-made crises

Human-made crises are among the primary root causes of migration and have an important
impact on population movements more generally.

The lack of respect for international human rights and humanitarian law has compounded
growing displacement of many as a consequence of their deteriorating living conditions.

Countries where there is a high perception of corruption tend to be net-emigration countries,

while countries where there are lower perceptions of corruption tend to be net-immigration
countries. While corruption does not necessarily cause migration; it is more accurately seen as a
contributing factor.

GLOBAL MIGRATION: OVERSEAS FILIPINO EMPLOYMENT

Organized labor migration from the Philippines has been in existence for at least 400 years
based on historical accounts dating as far back as the Spanish colonial period (1521-898),
during which natives manned ships in the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade.

Thereafter, there were several notable movements mostly to the United States, facilitated by
the special colonial relationship between the two countries. However, it was not until the 1970s
when the number increased rapidly, coinciding with the construction boom in the Middle East as
a result of the rise in oil prices in 1973-1974. From a low of around 50,000 migrant workers in
1975, the Philippines has been deploying more than a million Filipino workers throughout the
world annually since 2005.
It then became a tradition that the Middle East, followed by the rest of Asia, has been the
destination of migrant workers. The flow of migrant workers to the rest of Asia, especially East
and Southeast Asia, in the late 1980s and early 1990s was conditioned primarily by the labor
demand of newly industrialized countries in the region which resorted to labor importation to
sustain their economic growth.

At present, the number of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) who worked abroad at any time
during the period April to September 2018 was estimated at 2.3 million. One out of four OFWs
worked in Saudi Arabia, which remained to be the top destination of OFWs in April to
September 2018. OFWs who worked in United Arab Emirates comprised 15.7 percent. Hong
Kong, Kuwait, Taiwan and Qatar were the other popular destinations of OFWS. Among
occupation groups, elementary occupation was the biggest group of OFWs. Other large
occupation groups were the service and sales workers, and plant and machine operators and
assemblers. More than half of the female OFWs were in elementary occupations. Among the
male OFWs, the largest groups were plant and machine operators and assembler workers.

Common Reasons Why Filipinos Work Abroad

1.    Poverty

Poverty is an issue for a country like the Philippines. Its effects drive many Filipinos to find
opportunities for employment abroad. Ordinarily, if someone could not find a suitable source of
employment in his/her own country, then there will be no other choice but to seek "greener
pastures" abroad. Because of these ill conditions, Filipinos were left with no choice but to go
abroad, leaving their families the hopes of having better situations. It can also be observed by
this reality that Filipinos see hope in other countries, which kind of hope is absent in their own
country.

2.    Unemployment and Low Wages

Unemployment and low wages are prevalent in the Philippines. This predicament is being
carried even by a college graduate in the country, more so, by those who failed to finish their
education. As a result, the Filipino worker will be compelled to search for income opportunities
abroad.

In-demand jobs that normally should have a fair compensation, such as nurses, engineers,
accountants, and other professionals, are inadequately paid, as compared with the
compensation that are waiting for these professionals abroad. Even non-skilled workers, such
as housemaids and other laborers, are well compensated abroad than the professionals in the
Philippines.

New graduates face the problems of high unemployment rate and less job opportunities as well
as low average salary and benefits offered by local employers in the country. This is not to
mention that job competition increases in the country. Given these, Filipino applicants became
desperate to have jobs for lower salaries and not enjoy benefits as long as there is security of
tenure. In effect, most of the employers and businessmen exploit such situation that keeps
their businesses earn more profit at the lowest possible costs.

3.    Enhancement of Professional Skills

Filipinos also go abroad for their professional development. This is due to the reality that having
a global experience gives them a career edge among any other Filipino professionals left
working in the country.

Abroad, Filipinos deal with different people from different religions, races, and cultures, and this
gives them a unique advantage. Plus, the kinds of opportunities for professional growth abroad
are aplenty as compared to the Philippines.

This reinforces the findings of Natividad (2012) that Filipinos go abroad because of the
enhancement of career and professional marketability globally wherein it is stated that
nowadays, the world is very competitive that having international experience gives Filipinos
bigger career advantage among other professionals.

4.    Curiosity

According to Natividad (2012), one of the reasons why Filipinos work abroad is to have the
experience to travel and experience abroad. Working abroad gives the perfect opportunity for
the working Filipino to travel and experience life overseas.

Filipinos’ personal ambitions or goals since childhood can be also drawn out as a reason why did
they choose to work abroad. It gives them the opportunity and the confidence to pursue and
realize their own ambitions. It may not seem to be a valid reason but the same should be
counted as in reality, working abroad gives Filipinos the edge to earn more and afford them
more possibilities of advancement than what they can find in the Philippines.

Common Risks/Costs of Overseas Filipino Employment

1.    Abuse and Violence

Both male and female OFWs are at risk of the possibility of violence, abuse, trafficking, and
false accusations. Further, the possibility for OFWs to be terminated because of failure to meet
the standard for proper work set by their employers is more likely to occur.

The tendency of foreigners to treat Filipinos as lowly contributes to the set of fears of the
OFWs. When OFWs suffer discrimination, the lack of motivation to complete their tasks occurs.
The loss of morale and the loss of productivity also take place. Also, the lack of protection for
OFWs contributes to the said lingering fear.

The most common work fears of Overseas Filipino Workers are the possibilities of abuse and
violence that can lead to severe physical injuries and even death.
2.    Weakened Family Ties

Children who are left behind are usually not guided properly. Oftentimes, both parents are
working abroad and the children would only be left under the guidance of their grandparents
and relatives. Long separation creates a huge gap between the parents and children. The effect
of parents' departures on toddlers and pre-teens are worse.

In addition, the marital relationship between the parents is put at risk. Abroad, several extra -
marital relations can result due to the distance brought about by overseas employment. As a
result, the marital bond breaks leading to the destruction of the family, again leading to the
detriment of the children.

Relevant Laws Covering Overseas Filipino Workers

1.    Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995 (Republic Act No. 8042)

2.    Omnibus Implementing Rules of the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995
(Republic Act No. 8042)

3.    Overseas Workers' Investment (OWI) Fund Act (Republic Act No. 7111)

4.    Welfare Fund for Overseas Workers (Amending Certain Provisions of Presidential Decree
1694, Creating the “Welfare Fund for Overseas Workers” Presidential Decree No.1890

5.    Welfare Fund for Overseas Workers (Organization and Administration of the Welfare Fund
for Overseas Workers) Presidential Decree No. 1694

6.    An Act Creating the Commission on Filipinos Overseas and for Other Purposes. (Batas
Pambansa Bilang 79)

7.    Law Creating the POEA Executive Order No. 797

8.    POEA Rules & Regulations Governing the Recruitment and Employment of Land-Based
Overseas Workers (February 4, 2002)

9.    POEA Rules & Regulations Governing the Recruitment and Employment of Seafarers (May
23, 2003)

10.  Reorganizing the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration and for Other Purposes
Executive Order No. 247

11.  Medical Care Program for OFWs and Dependents DOLE Department Order No. 4, Series of
2001

12.  Revised Guidelines on the Training, Testing, Certification and Deployment of Overseas

Performing Artists
13.   DOLE Department Order No. 10, Series of 2001, Amending the Rules Implementing Books
III and VI of The Labor Code, As Amended.