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Literature Review of Online Remedial Education: A European Perspective

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Literature Review on Online Remedial Education: A European Perspective

Lotte Brants, Katrien Struyven

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Dekenstraat 2, 3000 Leuven, Belgium,
Lotte.Brants@ped.kuleuven.be

Abstract:
This article first explores the changing European society and its impact on higher
education. This movement forms the context or background of the first focus of the
article, namely the effectiveness of remedial or developmental education. In
particular, an overview of the core elements of successful remedial or developmental
courses is given. As an introduction of the second paragraph, a general overview of
online education and Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) is drawn.
Next, the added value of IT in remedial education is examined in depth, based on
literature and research concerning this subject area. The second focus of the article
lies on the role of ICT in online remedial education. The connection between the key
components of remedial education and online education is therefore clarified.

Introduction

The globalization, the internationalization and the Europeanization during the last decades
have had serious consequences for the field of (higher) education. The movement leads in this context
to a growing interdependence and interconnectedness of higher education institutions and forms the
background which now frames the mobility of teaching, non-teaching and research staff and students,
as well as the internationalization of research agendas of institutions and students’curricula (Kerklaan,
Moreira, & Boersma, 2008; Verhoeven, Kelchtermans, & Michielsen, 2005). Due to the growing
globalization, internationalization and Europeanization, the population of students entering
postsecondary education is getting more heterogenic. Besides traditional-age students, adult students,
part-time students and immigrant students are pursuing postsecondary education. This implies that the
amount of students who need remedial assistance increases (Adelman, 1996; Cronholm, 1999; Ignash,
1997).

Several institutes in Europe are currently offering remedial education to soften transitional
barriers for students. Researchers (Kozeracki, 2002; McCabe & Day, 1998; Rienties, Tempelaar,
Dijkstra, Rehm, Gijselaers, 2008b) emphasize the importance of remedial or developmental education
in today’s society. According to Kozeracki (2002), “developmental education incorporates human
development theories, is intended to bring together academic and student support services to assist
students in preparing to make choices appropriate to their current stage in development, and is viewed
as being appropriate for all students”(Kozeracki, 2002, p. 84). Developmental courses are considered
as learning improvement programmes or services, like learning assistance for individual students,
course-related services, and comprehensive learning systems, but also freshmen seminars, critical
thinking courses, study strategies courses, orientation courses, and freshmen composition classes
(Kozeracki, 2002). By helping students to strengthen their basic academic skills, like the ability to
read, write, analyze, interpret, and communicate, students’opportunities for success at the labour
market are significantly expanded. Therefore, remedial or developmental education not only improves
students’ abilities to graduate, but also increases students’ job opportunities. Due to the
interchangeable use of remedial and developmental education, these terms are used interchangeably in
this paper as well.

Although remedial programmes are less common in Europe (Rienties, Tempelaar, Dijkstra, Rehm, &
Gijselaers, 2008b), several European higher education institutes have started to offer remedial
education programmes. One of the reasons why European universities are starting to develop remedial
courses are the transitional problems students experience when entering postsecondary education.
These problems are caused by differences among national secondary educational programmes which
are determined on a national level (Rienties et al, 2006; Van der Wende, 2003). Therefore, foreign
students are hindered to effectively start a bachelor or a master programme. Moreover, recent research
on perceptions among master students indicate that seventy-five percent of all students perceive
considerable barriers in lifelong learning (Rienties, Luchoomun, Giesbers, & Virgailaité-
Meckauskaité, 2008a). This finding might indicate additionally why institutions for higher education
spend more effort in helping students to bridge the (knowledge) gap. Remedial or developmental
courses can help to bridge this gap (Rienties et al., 2006).

Although more initiatives concerning remedial education are undertaken in European higher
education, little is known about remedial education in general or about how to establish or implement
effective remedial courses or programmes. Literature claims that due to the scope of remedial
offerings and the variety of students who take remedial courses, the findings on the effects of remedial
programmes can differ as well (Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Rienties et al., 2008b). Therefore, the aim of
this article is to conduct an extensive literature review on the success factors of effective online
education. In particular, the context of online remedial education is explored and the (changing) role
of the teacher.

2. Remedial education in face-to-face settings

The key components of a successful remedial or developmental course can be classified into two
categories, namely contextual and programme components, and course-level components. The first
category consists of contextual and programme components. According to McCabe and Day (1998),
the ideal comprehensive developmental programme combines both individual growth and learning
theories which address cognitive as well as affective development. “[… ] successful development
programmes offer a wide variety of comprehensive instructional support services, including
assessment, placement, orientation, tutoring, advising, counseling, peer support, early alert
programmes, study skills training and support groups.” (McCabe & Day, 1998, p. 21). Jacob and
Lefgren (2004) state that remedial summer courses and retention programmes can improve the
performances of disadvantaged students under favourable circumstances. Programmes implemented in
contexts which incorporate features such as incentives, small class sizes, a highly structured
curriculum, and teachers selected by the principal, might offer some hope for low-achieving students
(Jacob & Lefgren, 2004).

Young (2002) claims that the concept of required testing and placement results in higher
completion and retention rates in remedial education. According to Merisotis and Phipps (2000), some
additional contextual elements are crucial for enhancing the effectiveness and successfulness of
remedial education. They include inter-institutional collaborations and the utilization of technology in
their inventory concerning effective and successful remedial courses or programmes (Merisotis &
Phipps, 2000). Young (2002) distinguishes institutional outreach strategies like promoting
collaboration between high schools and the local community college, as a component of successful
remedial education with high retention rates. Besides partnerships with other educational institutions,
private business and industry are also meaningful. Promoting transitions between remedial instruction
at the community college and high schools, senior colleges, and employers is an added value (Young,
2002).

Most recent studies have focussed in particular on the programme components in order to
improve the status and the effectiveness of remedial education. Based on a review of success factors of
remedial education, Kozeracki (2002) distinguishes seven commonly cited elements concerning
remedial programmes that are associated with student success in such programmes. Kozeracki (2002)
found that offering instructional support services (e.g. orientation, assessment, placement),
counselling, and tutoring, a high degree of structure, clearly specified goals and objectives, social and
emotional support, and adequate staff training and professional development are important elements
for remedial education. Similar elements are found by McCabe and Day (1998) and Merisotis and
Phipps (2000). Moreover, Kozeracki (2002) claims that the programmes should be centralized or
highly coordinated.

Besides the contextual and programme components, according to Levin and Calcagno (2008)
effective remedial education should also address seven specific course components . First, by building
on interests and goals of students and by providing institutional credit towards degrees and certificates,
the motivation of the students can be enhanced. Second, building skills within a substantive or real-
world context motivates students and gives them insight in the relevance of the subject. Third, by
understanding learning as a way of determining what needs to be learned and how to develop a
strategy that will succeed, students’inquiry skills, research skills, and problem solving skills will be
developed. Fourth, the use of multiple approaches, like collaboration and teamwork, technology,
tutoring and independent investigation as suited to student needs, enhances students’interests and
provides variation in the learning process. Fifth, creating a supportive context is essential. It is
important to understand that learning is a social activity that prospers from healthy interaction,
encouragement and support. This way, students will feel connected with others. Sixth, it is important
to emphasize the connections among different subjects and experiences. Besides emphasizing
connection and cooperation, students need to be encouraged to do independent meandering within the
course structure, in order to develop their own ideas, applications and understandings. Finally, setting
high standards and expectations that all students will meet if they exert adequate effort and provide
appropriate resources to support their learning, improves the quality of the remedial or developmental
course. Several research studies (Miglietti & Strange, 2002; Rendón, n.d.; Grubb, 1999) have
confirmed the utility of developmental theory of learning with underprepared students in a community
college setting. In this setting, instructors are intimately involved with helping students to move from
one level of knowledge to another. Classrooms employing developmental theories of learning are
characterized by a supportive, encouraging, validating, active and challenging atmosphere. Learning
communities, group work, and collaboration should be the hallmarks of remedial classrooms (Young,
2002).

It appears that these components align with the success elements defined by Kozeracki (2002).
Both take the student and its social and emotional development into account with respect to a
supporting and encouraging context. These approaches to successful developmental programmes agree
with one another, but they can also be considered complementally. Whereas Levin and Calcagno
(2008) promote the independence and inquiry of students in remedial or developmental courses,
clearly specified goal and objectives, highly structured courses, and highly coordinated programmes,
such as defined by Kozeracki (2002), are required in order to encourage the independence and inquiry
of students in remedial courses.

3. Online education and learning

The increasing attention for online education is attributed to the common assumption that IT
has growing possibilities to provide a rich learning experience by using a variety of learning methods.
According to Curran (2001), online learning is already a substantive activity in universities and other
tertiary teaching institutions, with significant potential future growth. First of all, email and the World
Wide Web supports and supplements regular teaching activities. Moreover, the developments in IT
make it possible to provide programmes for external part-time students or foreign students who want
to start a bachelor or master programme but who are insufficiently prepared. Therefore, students
experience flexible instructional pace and flexible class participation in online education (De Smet,
2008; El Mansour & Mupinga, 2007). In addition, online courses evolve to the development of virtual
universities, where institutions deliver most of their course programmes exclusively online. An
increasing number of universities with extensive experience of innovation in distance education
deliver courses to external students. These courses are supplemented with extensive research
programmes on learning theory, pedagogy, technology and other aspects of online learning (Curran,
2001; Rienties, Tempelaar, Van den Bossche, Gijselaers, Segers, in press).

Delivering online education is particularly beneficial for students not residing at their local
institute. With online education students can study in their home country. This reduces their costs
while at the same time offers students flexibility to develop their knowledge and skills. IT has the
power to support independent learning as well as to learn irrespective of time and geographical
constraints with the wide-spread implementation of internet, which implies a greater flexibility for
both teachers and students (Bromme, Hesse, & Spada, 2005; Curran, 2001; De Smet, 2008; El
Mansour & Mupinga, 2007; Jonassen & Kwon, 2001). Students can access web-based resources and
communicate with specialists and experts in the wider world (Curran, 2001; De Smet, 2008; El
Mansour & Mupinga, 2007). In addition, recent research findings indicate that IT has some powerful
tools for learning in collaborative settings where students work and learn together. Computer-
Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) environments play a successful role in facilitating
knowledge construction or higher-order thinking (Bryant, Khale, & Schafer, 2005; Curran, 2001; De
Smet, 2008). Jonassen, Lee, Yang, and Laffey (2005) claim that Computer-Supported Collaborative
Learning systems enable learners to communicate ideas interactively, access information, and engage
in collaborative problem-solving activities. The easy accessible, fast and low-cost means of
communication allow students to contact their tutors easily and often receive an early response.
Furthermore, students can access materials for directive study, browse the web, search and retrieve
information from online databases, download simulations, interact with case materials, and conduct
virtual experiments (Curran, 2001). Course materials can be presented in different forms, such as text,
sound, graphics, moving images or computer simulations. Audio or video streaming can be used to
deliver presentations by academic staff (Curran, 2001). Finally, the phenomenon of online learning is
labelled as pedagogically effective, cost efficient and socially beneficial (Curran, 2001; De Smet,
2008; El Mansour & Mupinga, 2007).

Despite the inherent merits of online education, there are also several barriers for successful
implementation of online education. Research (De Smet, 2008; El Mansour & Mupinga, 2007) claim
that the online course interface needs to be well-designed in order to make it easy for students to
navigate and find the adequate information. A poorly designed interface makes students feel lost in
seeking information. Furthermore, the new opportunities offered by IT also create new barriers (Mac
Keogh, 2001). Research (El Mansour & Mupinga, 2007; Giesbers, Rienties, Gijselaers, Segers, &
Tempelaar, 2009) claim that some students have negative experiences with online education, which
are caused by delayed feedback from the instructor or lack of technical support from the instructor.
Furthermore, the lack of self-regulation and self-motivation, and a sense of isolation, caused by the
shortage of interpersonal communication and interaction among students or between students and the
instructor might prevent a positive learning experience for online learners.

4. Online remedial education

In this section, the connection between the two core aspects of this article, namely remedial
education and online education, is clarified. This means that the key components of successful
remedial education are linked with the success factors of online education. Online remedial education
is defined as an instruction method using IT to help students to provide the necessary knowledge and
skills to succeed in university (Rienties et al., 2008b). Considering the large number of foreign
students enrolled in European programmes, a reasonable response to facilitate foreign students in their
transitional phase is to offer remedial education in a distance learning format (Rienties et al., in press;
Tempelaar, Rienties, Rehm, Dijkstra, Arts, & Blok, 2006; Wieland, Brouwer, Kaper, Heck,
Tempelaar, Rienties et al., 2006). At a pragmatic level, there is evidence of a substantive degree of
consensus with respect to the adoption of particular pedagogic strategies in online learning, based on
the perception of students as independent learners. By providing facilities for collaborative dialogue
and task completion, with greater emphasis on small group work and exploratory learning, students are
supported in their learning process. Tutor-student interactions, mentoring, promoting student dialogue
and the design and evaluation of virtual seminars are examples of aiming at better quality and
efficiency of online learning (Curran, 2001). Research (Debande, 2004) claim that four strands must
be integrated into a comprehensive policy: infrastructure and equipment, high-quality educational
multimedia services and content (including adequate instructional and delivery media components),
training services and facilities for teachers and for lifelong learning (support and guidance), and
dialogue and cooperation at all levels. Moreover, the implementation of a comprehensive online
learning strategy should incorporate three stages: infrastructure, content and teacher training
(Debande, 2004).

Although research in remedial education in face-to-face settings provide important factors for
success (Kozeracki, 2002; McCabe & Day, 1998; Roueche & Roueche, 1999), based on literature and
research concerning online education and the role of IT in education, the following aspects are to be
taken into consideration when designing or implementing an online remedial or developmental course
(Giesbers et al., 2009; Rienties et al., 2006; Rienties et al., 2008b; Van Gastel, Brouwer-Zupancic, &
Ekimova, 2009). The online remedial course should be 24/7 online available and accessible. The use
of the internet makes it possible for students to work or study wherever and whenever they want to
(i.e. ubiquitous learning). Moreover, adaptiveness is a crucial aspect of an online remedial programme.
Each student should be able to enter the course at the appropriate level (adapted to their personal
luggage of (prior) knowledge, unique learning style, and preferences). Therefore every course should
adapt to the individual needs of every student (Tempelaar et al., 2006). Since remedial courses are
often offered in a distance e-learning format, and the group of students seems to be diverse, the format
of the course should be very flexible. Flexible learning methods and assessments should offer students
a maximum of freedom to schedule their individual learning. Moreover, the learning environment
should not be hindered by the limitations of the technical, organisational and didactical affordances of
the virtual learning environment. Therefore, adequate staff training and professional development are
crucial. In an electronic learning environment, communication and cooperation between teachers and
students should be actively stimulated. Therefore there needs to be an intensive use of the
communication and interaction methods in order to enhance the involvement, the learning profit and
the active and authentic learning of the students. Finally, feedback seems to play an important role in
the interaction of an online course or programme (Rienties et al., 2006). Students seem to have an
interest in quick and direct feedback on their performances. Furthermore, responsive feedback
stimulates interaction in an online course.

Brown and Bradley (2005) encourage a participatory design and implementation approach.
This means that the e-learning system is a two-way street, allowing early and ongoing
communications between designer and users (Brown & Bradley, 2005). The literature and research
(Brown & Bradley, 2005; Giesbers et al., 2009; Rienties et al., 2006; Rienties et al., 2008b; Van Gastel
et al., 2009) suggest some additional elements at the heart of effective e-learning design. These core
elements show great resemblance with the central ingredients for designing and implementing
successful developmental programmes, defined earlier by Levin and Calcagno (2008). An online
remedial course should incorporate rich activity that opens up opportunities for action rather than
directing students down a prescribed pathway. It implies an active involvement of the learner in
making choices about what experiences they will engage in. The action must be considered from the
perspective of the actions and challenges it affords to the student. An activating learning environment
has to pay attention to independent learning and working of students. Besides activity, there needs to
be a reason or motivation to undertake an educational activity if the learning has to be memorable and
considered valuable. A meaningful and authentic context or scenario can assist the activity to have
meaning. Also the broader context to address the learning needs is relevant. Students’profiles need to
be taken into account as well. Additional contextual considerations include the institutional objectives
of the programme, the longevity of the resources and cultural sensitivities, and the role and skills of
the instructor. The latter deserves to be studied in depth.
5. The role of the teacher in online (remedial) education

Learning as an interactive and collaborative activity involves a student-centred approach

where the teacher takes the role of facilitator or coach (Giesbers et al., 2009; Jelfs & Colbourn, 2002;
Maor, 2003; Van Gastel et al., 2009). In order to provide a positive experience and to ensure the
effectiveness of online remedial courses, the tutor’s roles in designing and organizing the learning
experience, providing technical advice and support, encouraging and facilitating discussion,
encouraging participation, using a variety of forms of instruction, and resolving communication
problems are crucial (Anderson, 2008; Brown & Bradley, 2005; Giesbers et al., 2009; Levin &
Calcagno, 2008; Lim & Cheah, 2003; Maor, 2003; Rienties et al., 2006; Rienties et al., 2008b; Van
Gastel et al., 2009). In other words, the tutor fulfils a role as facilitator, manager, community
organizer, moderator, intellectual leader and host (Lim & Cheah, 2003; Maor, 2003), technologist,
designer, content and process facilitator, advisor or counsellor, assessor and researcher (Wilson and
Stacey, 2004).

According to Beck and Ferdig (2008), the role of instructors in an online course changed from
a teacher-centred supplier of knowledge to a student-centred facilitator. This is attributed to the
lessening of control in an online class, and the fact that both instructor and students form a community
of learners. The instructor as facilitator serves as a coach, counsellor and mentor of the students. The
role as facilitator is the most difficult role to fulfil because the instructor needs to evaluate the process
of peer interactions, select and filter information for student consideration, provide thought-provoking
questions, and facilitate well-considered discussion continuously (Beck & Ferdig, 2008; Maor, 2003).
Beck and Ferdig (2008) perceive a second changing role of the tutor in online education. The role of
the instructor changes from a low-level or regulated interactor to a high-level or an accidental and
regular interactor. This movement can be ascribed to the increasing provision of instructional and
emotional support to students and the increasing social interaction and focused communication in
online settings. Constant communication in various forms sustains social interaction whereas focussed
communication would imply providing feedback and instruction, probing, asking questions,
stimulating discussions, synthesizing students’comments, and referring to outside resources or experts
in the field. A third role change is the evolution from low-level initiator to a high-level initiator. A
high-level initiator deals with increased responsibilities in management and administration, like
instructional design, coordinating the unit and overseeing tasks, course structure and requirements
(Beck & Ferdig, 2008).

Although the use of IT in education offers an increased amount of flexibility, the effective online
learning teacher still needs to stimulate, guide and support the learning process. This implies teachers
to design activities in order to encourage independent study and community building that deeply
explore content knowledge and provide various forms of formative assessment (Anderson, 2008). The
teacher also needs to develop a sense of trust and safety within the online community in order to make
students feel comfortable and non-constrained in posting their thoughts and comments. Research
(Anderson, 2008; De Laat, Lally, Lipponen, & Simons, 2007; Vonderwell, 2003) show that timely,
detailed feedback, provided as near in time as possible to the performance of the assessed behaviour, is
most effective in providing motivation and in shaping behaviour and mental constructs. Although
responsive feedback in distance education is very important for both understanding and motivation to
complete courses, it cannot be a life-consuming task. Distant learners can create the unrealistic
expectation that teachers will provide instant feedback and assessment on submitted assignments.
Therefore, the virtual teacher must set and adhere appropriate timelines. Moreover, online teachers
must become ruthless time managers, guarding against the tendency to check online activities
constantly. In sum, Anderson (2008) distinguishes three sets of qualities that define an excellent e-
teacher. Besides being a good teacher, with appropriate generic teaching skills, a good e-teacher must
have the required technical skills to navigate and contribute effectively within the online learning
context, access to necessary hardware, and sufficient internet efficacy. At last, the e-teacher needs to
have the type of resilience, innovativeness, and perseverance typical of all pioneers in unfamiliar
terrain (Anderson, 2008).

6. Conclusion and discussion

One objective of this article is to expound the effectiveness of remedial or developmental

courses. The first success factor includes incentives, support services, and emotional and social
support (Jacob & Lefgren, 2004; Kozeracki, 2002; Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Merisotis & Phipps,
2000). Furthermore, in remedial education there is a need for a highly structured curriculum, with
clearly defined goals and objectives (Jacob & Lefgren, 2004; Kozeracki, 2002; Merisotis & Phipps,
2000). The third key component for implementing a successful remedial course is adequate staff
training and professional development. The fourth core factor consists of using multiple approaches,
such as both individual work and collaboration and teamwork, and alternative technologies (Levin &
Calcagno, 2008; Merisotis & Phipps, 2000). In addition, Levin and Calcagno (2008) define a fifth and
very important factor, namely the use of concrete, real-life applications in the remedial course based
on students’interests and motivation.

The five success factors of remedial education seem well aligned with the potentials offered
by IT in the field of education. This covers the second focus of the article. The lack of temporal and
spatial constraints (24/7 online availability and accessibility) creates a greater flexibility for students
and teachers. The easy access to fast and low-cost means of communication allows students to
communicate and collaborate synchronously and asynchronously with others (like peers, teachers, and
 experts in the field). Furthermore, IT allows students to gather information (concrete applications) and
to approach the content or information through multimedia from different perspectives (Curran, 2001;
Rienties et al., 2006; Rienties et al., 2008b). This means students can meander independently or
collaboratively through the content. Therefore, students feel connected with others. Students’
experiences with online education are positive when quick and direct feedback and adequate
(technical) support is given by teachers and students learn in a highly structured and well-designed
course interface (El Mansour & Mupinga, 2007).

The European challenge nowadays consists of developing efficient and successful online
remedial courses. There seems to be a great resemblance between the potentials of IT in the field of
education and the success factors of a remedial course: concrete applications can be explored,
individually or collaboratively, through multiple approaches (like instructional strategies and
technologies). Moreover, IT offers more flexible ways to provide support and guidance by teachers.
Nevertheless, a well-structured interface and content, with clearly defined goals and perspectives is
required. Therefore, adequate staff training is essential. Nevertheless, this crucial issue seems to be
missing in both the literature and research concerning effective online remedial education. Although
adequate staff training forms the foundation in order to establish a successful online remedial
programme, which is well-designed, clearly structured, with appropriate social and technical support
and timely feedback, very little information can be found on how such training can be developed.
Moreover, the changing role of the teacher in online educational settings is described in a more
abstract way, instead of a clear, practical and feasible manner. The effectiveness of online remedial
education has been proved in many studies and projects. Hopefully, future research will focus on the
essential staff training and its effectiveness.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the EU Lifelong Learning Programme funding the S.T.E.P.
project. This publication reflects the views only of the authors. The Commission can therefore not be
held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

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