Title Page Evaluation of Limestone Textu PDF

TITLE PAGE
EVALUATION OF LIMESTONE TEXTURAL AND GEOCHEMICAL
COMPOSITION IN ONIGBEDU, OGUN STATE, IN RELATION TO ITS
INDUSTRIAL USAGE AND DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT
BY
BOLUWATIFE MOSES AREWA
(AGY/11/4479)
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED GEOLOGY,
SCHOOL OF EARTH AND MINERAL SCIENCES,
THE FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AKURE,
ONDO STATE.
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B. TECH.) IN APPLIED
GEOLOGY.
AUGUST 2016.
ii
CERTIFICATION
I hereby certify that this work was carried out by BOLUWATIFE MOSES AREWA with the
matriculation number AGY/11/4479, of the Department of Applied Geology, School of Earth
and Mineral Sciences (SEMS), Federal University of Technology Akure, and that to the best
of my knowledge, it has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of any degree.
STUDENT …….….……………………
Signature and Date
Dr. S.A OPELOYE ………………..……….……
(Supervisor) Signature and Date
PROF. Y.A. ASIWAJU BELLO …...………….…………..….
(H.O.D Applied Geology) Signature and Date

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DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to my dear and intimate friend, the Holy Spirit, the central subject of my
living and my craving affection, I am indeed grateful for drawing me closer day by day, even
when it seems I am straying off. Thank you for continuously revealing Christ to me.
Also to my loving mother, Mrs. Arewa Abosede, thank you for believe and trust in me, and to
my daring father, Eng. Arewa Olayinka, you are indeed a father.

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ABSTRACT
Field relationship, petrographical studies and geochemical analysis were combined in
investigating the depositional environment and industrial viability of limestone beds in
Purechem’s quarry at Onigbedu. Field observation indicates a homogenous lithology of the
beds with variation in textural and clastic composition. Petrographic study revealed that the
limestone falls under the Biospamicrite and Wackestone classification based on the works of
Folks, (1959) and Dunham, (1962) respectively. The geochemical analysis which involves the
use Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) to determine the major and minor oxides
and the LOI constituent of the six (6) limestone beds reveals that; the CaO concentrations
ranges between 48.75 and 54.24% with a mean value of 52.63%. The silica SiO2 contents range
between 1.26 – 8.33 % with a mean value of 2.98% and Fe2O3 between 0.55 – 1.11% with
mean of 0.74%, MgO and Al2O3 contents vary between 0.58 – 1.11% and 0.52 – 1.25% with
equal mean values of 0.79%. The limestone is highly fossiliferous with the identified fossils
indicating deposition in an open shelf environment. Moreover, the limestone deposit was
equally observed to be principally mud supported which is indicative of rocks deposited in
quiet water and a low energy environment, therefore from all indication, the limestone was
deposited under low to high energy condition. Interpretation of these results suggest a shallow
marine environment. The observed compositional features of the limestone makes it a very
viable industrial raw material because it certifies the specifications of the Morroccan Standard
NM 10.1.004, and the American Construction Code, in the use of limestone for various
industrial purposes.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Contents Page
Title page .................................................................................................................................... i

Certification ............................................................................................................................... ii
Dedication .................................................................................................................................iii
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... iv
Table of Content ........................................................................................................................ v
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures .........................................................................................................................viii
Acknowledgement ..................................................................................................................... x
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1
1.1 General Statement ............................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Aim and Objectives.......................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Location of the Study Area .............................................................................................. 2
1.4 Climate, Relief and Vegetation ........................................................................................ 5
1.5 Literature Review........................................................................................................... 10
1.6 Geology of Dahomey Basin ........................................................................................... 11
1.6.1 Tectonic Evolution of Dahomey Basin ................................................................... 11
1.6.2 Stratigraphy of Dahomey Basin .............................................................................. 14
1.7 Classification of Limestone ........................................................................................... 20
1.7.1 Folk Limestone Classification ................................................................................ 20
1.7.2 Dunham limestone classification ............................................................................ 21
1.8 Economic Importance of Limestone ............................................................................ 22
CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 26
2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS .............................................................................. 26
2.1 Field Studies................................................................................................................... 28
2.1.1 Outcrop Description ................................................................................................ 28
2.1.2 Sample and Hand Specimen Description ................................................................ 28
2.2 Laboratory Studies ......................................................................................................... 28
2.2.1 Thin Section Preparation......................................................................................... 28
vi
2.2.2 Geochemical Analysis ............................................................................................ 31

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 33
3.0 PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA ........................................... 33
3.1 Lithostratigraphy of the Strata Exposed in Field Location ............................................ 33
3.2 Geochemical Analysis of Limestone Samples ............................................................... 35
3.2.1 Interpretation of data ............................................................................................... 35
3.3 Petrographic Analysis of the Limestone ........................................................................ 40
CHAPTER FOUR.................................................................................................................... 50
4.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ........................................................................... 50
4.1 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 50
4.1.1 Field Occurrence and Composition of Limestone at Onigbedu.............................. 50
4.1.2 Industrial usage ....................................................................................................... 51
4.2 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 52
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 54
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Simplified Cretaceous and Tertiary stratigraphy of Nigeria part of Dahomey
Basin………...……...………………………………………………...……….………….....19
Table 1.2: Folk’s Classification of limestone …………….…................................................23
Table 3.1: A Composite Lithostratigraphic Section Showing the various beds as exposed at
PURECHEM Quarry Onigbedu……………………………..…………………………..…...34
Table 3.2: Geochemical elemental Composition of Onigbedu’s Limestone……………...….37
Table 3.3: Percentage ratio composition of CaO to SiO2 of Onigbedu’s Limestone...………37
Table 3.4: Estimated modal analysis of different component of the various beds of Onigbedu
limestone…………………………..…………………………………………………………40
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Geological Map of the Dahomey (Benin) Basin with an inset map of Nigeria
showing the location of Dahomey Basin. The stratigraphy is composed both of Cretaceous and
tertiary sediments as shown. ………………………………...…………………………………3
Figure 1.2: East -West geological section showing position, extent and sediment thickness
variations in the onshore Dahomey Basin and the upper part of the Niger Delta
…………………………………………………...…….………………………………………4
Figure 1.3: Base map showing the study area………………………………………………….6
Figure 1.4: Google satellite map showing the study area………………………………………7
Figure 1.5: Figure showing the drainage pattern of the study area……………………………..8
Figure 1.6: Google Arial Topographic Terrain map of the study area………………………….9
Figure 1.7: Showing the Tectonic Model of Evolution of the Dahomey Basin……………….13
Figure 1.8: Ternary composition diagram showing regions of most common limestone..……23
Figure 1.9: The Dunham classification of carbonate sedimentary rocks.. ……………………24
Figure 3.1: Relationship Between %Composition of SiO2 and CaO based on the geochemical
data of Onigbedu Limestone………………….…….………………………………………..37
Figure 3.2: Relationship Between %Composition of MgO and CaO based on the geochemical
data of Onigbedu Limestone…………………..……………………………………………..38
Figure 3.3: Purity Comparism of Onigbedu Limestone based the %Composition of CaO, SiO2
and MgO…………………...…………………………………………………………………39
Figure 3.4: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 1………………………...…...45
Figure 3.5: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 2………………………...…...46

ix
Figure 3.6: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 3……………………...……...47
Figure 3.7: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 4………………...…………...48
Figure 3.8: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 5……….………..…………...49
Figure 3.9: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 6……….………..…………...50

x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To God be all glory for his immeasurable mercies, kindness and grace upon my life, for without
Him I am but nothing.
My sincere appreciation also goes to my supervisor Dr. S.A. Opeloye for his fatherly guidance,
corrections and assistance at every stage of this work, I am indeed grateful, may God perfect
all that concerns you.
It is with a hearth full of gratitude that I acknowledge my dear lecturers and mentors starting
from the Head of Department, Prof. Y.A. Asiwaju-Bello, Dr. S.A Opeloye, Late Dr. S.O
Olabode, Dr. P.S. Ola, Dr. C.T Okonkwo, Dr. A.T Bolarinwa, Dr. T. Ademeso, Mr. M.O
Adepoju, Mr. J.O Owoseni, Mr. O.R Egbeyemi, Mr. A.L Adisa, Mr. E.E Egonor, Mr. O.A
Ogbahon, Mr. T.I Asowata, Mrs.O.A Bamisaye Mr. S.F Olabode, Mr. B. Adeoti. I must not
forget our amazing technologists; Mr. J.F Oladeji, Mr. M.O Imolore, Mr. Ojo, Mr. S.K Alabi,
Mrs. A.I Ayodele, who took pain to put us through our practical classes, and other members of
staff, both academic and non-academic of Applied Geology department who have through their
hard work and devotion, contributed to the successful completion of my program as an
undergraduate.
My profound gratitude goes to my dear parents, thanks you for always being there. I will never
forget your teachings and corrections in love. I acknowledge my wonderful siblings for their
support, thanks for proving to me that blood is thicker than water.
Kudos to my amiable roommates, Gbemileke, Joseph, David, Ope, Felix and especially Mr.
Ajose Jeremiah for making his system available to me. In addition, my sincere appreciation
goes to my amiable friends Bakare Moses, Alabere Quadri, Faniyi Tobi, Umoru Solomon,
Sulaimon Tope, Ogunleye Olumide, Ogundimu Peter, Olukoju Ayomide, Segun Adesanmi,
thank you for being friends indeed.

1
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Statement
The Benin (Dahomey) Basin also known as Dahomey Embayment (Fig.1.1), is an extensive
marginal sedimentary basin located in the continental margin of the Gulf of Guinea,
southwestern part of Nigeria (Fig. 1.2). The basin is a marginal pull – apart basin (Klemme,
1975.) or a marginal sag basin (Kingston et al., 1983.) which was initiated during the early
Cretaceous separation of African and South American lithospheric plates. Its southern margin
is submerged by the Atlantic Ocean in the Gulf of Guinea (Fig 1.2). The basin is separated
from the Niger Delta in the east by the Okitipupa Ridge (Benin Hinge line), which marks the
continental extension of the chain fracture zone (Coker, 1982 and Ejedawe, et al, 1984.).
The lens-shaped Ewekoro Formation which appears in parts of Dahomey Basin, outcrops at
the cliff section of Purechem limestone quarry Onigbedu, where it is well exposed. The rock
(limestone) is been exploited for the production of cement and roofing sheets.
Despite the abundance of limestone occurrence in Nigeria, and its utility in the construction
industry, its compositional characteristics is not often being assessed before utilization. It is to
be noted that relevance of mineralogical and chemical investigations cannot be overemphasized
when assessing the suitability of carbonate rocks for specific usage. Therefore, this study is
directed at the geochemical and textural evaluations of the limestone deposit. The composition
will reveal the intrinsic characteristics of the rock in form of the grain/allochem types, the
matrix (micrite) the sparite (cement) and the form of porosity.

2
These attributes become economically important especially with respect to accumulation of
fluid. Accumulation of such fluid in form of gas, water and hydrocarbon has been well known
in the giant oil reservoir in the Middle East. (Kulke, 1995).
This study therefore is in on the compositional characteristics of limestone through textural and
geochemical analysis in order to establish their effective utilization and environment of
deposition.
1.2 Aim and Objectives
This project aims at carrying out the textural and geochemical compositional analysis of
selected Tertiary strata (Ewekoro) in the Dahomey Basin as exposed at the cliff section of
Purechem Quarry Onigbedu. The analysis will assist in establishing the effective industrial
utilization and also the environment of deposition of the Limestone deposit.
The objectives are to:
i. Characterize the different limestone beds
ii. Determine their compositions petrographically and geochemically.
1.3 Location of the Study Area
Purechem Onigbedu, the study area is situated in Ifo, Ogun State, about 64km North-West of
Lagos, south western Nigeria. The geographical coordinates of the study area lie at latitude
6°58' 0" North, longitude 3° 08' 0" East. Figure 1.3 and 1.4 shows the Base map and Google
satellite map of the study area respectively. The outcrop studied is exposed at the cliff section
of the Purechem Manufacturing limited, quarry site, Onigbedu.

3
Figure 1.1: Geological Map of the Dahomey (Benin) Basin with an inset map of Nigeria
showing the location of Dahomey Basin. The stratigraphy is composed both of Cretaceous and
tertiary sediments as shown. (Modified after Agagu, 1985).
4
Figure 1.2: East -West geological section showing position, extent and sediment thickness
variations in the onshore Dahomey Basin and the upper part of the Niger Delta (After
Whiteman, 1982).
5
1.4 Climate, Relief and Vegetation
Onigbedu, Ogun State is located in the moderately hot, humid tropical climatic zone of
southwestern Nigeria. There are two distinct seasons in the area, namely, the rainy season
which lasts from March/April to 0ctober/ November and the dry season which lasts for the rest
of the year, October/November till March/April. The temperature is relatively high during the
dry season with the mean around 30°C. The harmattan, brought in the northeasterly winds from
December to February, has ameliorating effects on the dry season high temperatures. Low
temperatures are experienced during the raining season, especially between July and August
when the temperatures could be a low as 24°C. The distribution of rainfall varies from about
1000 mm to about 2000 mm in Onigbedu.
The Drainage pattern of the study area is dendritic; all the small tributaries are directly
connected to Onigbedu’s major river (Fig 1.5).
Three distinct topography were recognized. The Northern upland consisting of plateau rising
above sea level northwest Abeokuta. This falls away southwards to a low-lying marshy belt
known as Ewekoro, figure 1.6 shows the Google Arial Topographic Terrain Map of the study
area. In addition, the low-lying coastal strip and a southern upland drop gently southward to
the Coastal plain sand (Benin formation). (Jones and Hockey, 1964).
Vegetation is predominantly rainforest, and depressions covered by tall grasses of savannah
vegetation.
6
Figure 1.3: Base map showing the study area.

7
Study Area
Figure 1.4: Google satellite map showing the study area.

8
Figure 1.5: Figure showing the drainage pattern of the study area
9
Figure 1.6: Google Arial Topographic Terrain map of the study area.
10
1.5 Literature Review
Several published work exists on the geology of the study area. Some of these works basically
discuss the geological setting of Ewekoro Formation and assigned age to the important strata
in the area. Though the Cretaceous and Tertiary strata of western Nigeria have been studied by
a number of workers since pioneer work of Russ, 1924, and Reyment, 1965, the identity of
the Ewekoro Formation was not recognized until 1977, when Adegoke and others initiated
some series of studies. The first detailed study in Nigeria was by the Associated Portland
Cement Manufacturers Limited during the search for raw materials for a cement factory. The
results of their investigation were issued as a six unpublished reports the last of which contained
a synopsis of the geology of the area. Some of the earlier works include Jones and Hockey,
(1964), Reyment, (1965), Ogbe, (1972) and Sacks and Adegoke, (1975). The stratigraphic
relationships and palaeontology of the strata exposed at the Ewekoro quarry have variously
been described by Adegoke, (1977), Adegoke et al., (1972); Ogbe, (1976); Jan Du Chene et
al., (1978) and Peters and Olsson, (1979).
Reyment, (1965) first suggested the Paleocene age for the Ewekoro Formation, based on the
typical Paleocene planktonic foraminifera recorded from the quarry section. Kogbe, (1976)
examined the algae preserved in the Ewekoro Formation and concluded that they are mostly
Paleocene forms. Peters and Olsson, (1979) based on Planktonic foraminifera recovered from
the Ewekoro quarry assigned a Paleocene age to the formation. Jan Du Chene et al., (1978)
also assigned a Paleocene age to the Ewekoro and Akinbo Formation. Other workers like
Adegoke, (1970), Ogbe, (1972,) and Sachs and Adegoke, (1975) based on their individual
works have independently confirmed Paleocene age for the formation. An Eocene age have
also been suggested by Fayose and Asseez (1972).

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Adegoke et al., (1972), based on radiometric dating of glauconite from two horizons
unconformably overlying the Ewekoro Formation, assigned an average date of 54.45 ± 2.7
million years to Ewekoro Formation. This age corresponds to the Paleocene – Eocene transition
of Berggren, (1960).
Reyment, (1965) described the Ilaro Formation. Adegoke et al., 1980; Omatsola and Adegoke,
(1981); and Idowu et al., (1993) in describing the Ilaro Formation assigned an Eocene age to
the Formation.
Although carbonate deposits, such as limestone, occur abundantly in Nigeria, and furnish the
raw material needed for the rapidly expanding construction and other industries, their
compositional features have not been widely investigated and documented. The few
contributions on compositional and quality attributes of limestone and marble deposits in
Nigeria, include those of Ikhane et al., (2009), Akinmosin et al., (2005), Olaide, (1988). Age,
(2008), Danladi, (1993), Davou and Ashano, (2009), and Emofurieta et al., (1995).
1.6 Geology of Dahomey Basin
1.6.1 Tectonic Evolution of Dahomey Basin

Omatsola and Adegoke, (1981) and Ofegbu and Onuoha, (1988), agreed that the Dahomey
Basin originated during a rifting stage at the margin of the Gulf of Guinea which started during
the late Jurassic (Mesozoic Era) as a result of the separation of the African and south America
plates. Subsequent opening of the continent in the coastal basin of west African and Brazil
showed remarkable similarities and the evidence of their being together before the rifting
episode. Ofegbu, and Onuoha, (1988) elucidated the steps leading to the formation of the
marginal Dahomey Basin as follows:
i. The stretching of the continental crust and the upwelling of mantle material.
12
ii. The creating of rift valley s and subsidence of the valleys caused by isostatic adjustment
to injected mantle materials.
iii. Massive injecting of mantle materials of the newly formed spreading centres of rift axes
and the formation of ocean crust.
iv. Deposition of continental sediments, which is followed by marine sediments, with the
subsidence of the margin as the South American and African continents drifts apart.
From the available stratigraphic evidence, deposition was initiated in the faults controlled
depression on the crystalline Basement complex (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981). Previous
work on the Dahomey Basin shows that rift generated basement subsidence during the lower
Cretaceous resulting in the deposition of a very thick sedimentary sequence of continental grits
and pebbly sand over the entire basin. Over 1,400m of this pre-drift and post-drift arenaceous
deposit are drilled near the coast (Adegoke and Omatsola, 1981). Similar thick sequences were
recorded from boreholes on the continental shelf of the republic of Benin (Billman, 1976).
Another episode of major tectonic activity which may be associated with the closure and
folding of the Benue trough was observed during the Late Cretaceous to Santonian periods.
Rocks like granites, gneisses and associated pegmatites as well as the sediments in the
Dahomey Basin were tilted and block faulted forming series of horst and graben structures
(Fig. 1.7). These uplifements and block faulting were accompanied by erosional activities
(Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981).

13
Figure 1.7: Showing the Tectonic Model of Evolution of the Dahomey Basin
14
1.6.2 Stratigraphy of Dahomey Basin
The stratigraphy of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations in the Nigerian sector of the basin
is controversial. This is primarily because different stratigraphic names have been given to the
same formation in different localities in the basin (Billman, 1992; Coker, 1982). This situation
can be partly blamed on the lack of good borehole coverage and adequate outcrops for detailed
stratigraphic studies. Earlier studies on the basin stratigraphy by Jones and Hockey (1964)
recognized both Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments (Table 1.1). Other subsequent workers
recognized three chronostratigraphic units:
i. Pre-lower Cretaceous folded sequence,
ii. Cretaceous sequence
iii. Tertiary sequence (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981, Billman, 1992)
The Cretaceous Stratigraphy as complied from outcrop and borehole records consists of
Abeokuta Group sub-divided into three informal formational units, namely, Ise, Afowo, and
Araromi (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981). The tertiary succession consist of Ewekoro, Akinbo,
Oshosun, Ilaro and Benin Formations.
1.6.2.1 Ise Formation
The Ise Formation is a sequence of continental sands, grits and siltstone with a basal
conglomerate overlying the Basement Complex. Interbedded kaolinitic clays occur in some
places. It has a known maximum thickness of about 1860m. According to Omatsola and
Adegoke, (1981) sporomorphs recovered by the Shell – BP palynologists include
Cicatricosisporites sp. cf. C. mohrioides, Pilosisporites trichopapillosus, Klukisporites
pseudoreliculatus, Aequitriradites aff. Verucosus and Stapilinisporites caminus. These indicate
a Neocomian (probably Valanginian – Barremian) age for the formation.

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1.6.2.2 Afowo Formation

The Afowo formation is partly equivalent to the outcropping unit referred to in older literature
as the Abeokuta Formation (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981). It is composed mainly of coarse to
medium-grained sandstone with variable, thick Interbedded shales, siltstones and clays, the
shale component increasing towards the top. The lower part consists of an alternation of
brackish to marginal marine strata with well-sorted, subrounded, clean, loose, fluviatile sands.
The formation has been dated Turonian to Maastrichtian based on it palynomorphs content
(Billman, 1976, 1992) and its marine foraminifera and ammonites such as the Sphenodiscus
and Pachydiscus species (Omatsola and Adegoke, 1981). Its maximum known thickness is
2,300m.
1.6.2.3 Araromi Formation
The Araromi Formation is composed at the base of fine to medium – grained sands, at the base,
which are overlain by shale and siltstone with thin Interbedded limestones and marls.
Occurrence of thin lignitic bands is also common. The shales grade from light grey to black,
and are mostly marine and have a high organic content. The formation is richly fossiliferous,
bearing abundant foraminifera, ostracods and palynomorphs. The formation has been dated
Maastrichtian to Paleocene based on its fossil content (Jan du Chene, 1977, Adegoke et al.,
1980).
1.6.2.4 Ewekoro Formation
The Ewekoro Formation in parts of the Dahomey basin conformably overlies the Afowo
formation (old name – Abeokuta Formation). It is not encountered offshore and in coastal
boreholes (Reyment, 1965; Fayose, 1970, Billman, 1976, 1992). Where not encountered, it is
replaced by predominantly shaley Imo Formation which uncomformably overlies the Afowo
Formation (Fayose, 1970) Borehole studies have revealed that the formation is lens – shaped,
16
thinning out and eventually disappearing in all directions. It has a maximum thickness of 34m
at Ibese (Fayose and Assez, 1972). The Ewekoro Formation has it type locality at the Ewekoro
limestone quarry. There, it consists of 10 to 12.5m of thinly bedded glauconitic and sandy
limestone at the base, which then becomes massive grey and fossiliferous in the middle and
fine grained, marly and algal in the upper part (Dessauvagie, 1975; Adegoke, 1977). The top
highly scoured layer consists of red, dense, glauconitic, phosphatic and fossiliferous limestone.
The Ewekoro Formation is highly fossiliferous. Adegoke, (1977) identified more than 220
mollusks and echinoderm species and subspecies from the formation. It also contains abundant
foraminifera, ostracods and algae.
The age of Ewekoro Formation has been controversial. Two schools of thought are known to
exist. Reyment, (1965), Berggren, (1960), Adegoke, (1969), and Adegoke et al, (1970)
proposed a Paleocene age on the basis of the occurrence in the strata of macrofossil and
microfossil assemblages. The Foraminifera assemblage consists of Globorotalia
pseudobulloides, G. velascoensis, G. acita, Globigerina triloculinoides and G. linaperta.
Reyment, (1965) also listed a typical Paleocene ostracods fauna retrieved from the formation.
However, Fayose and Assez, (1972) disagreed with the Paleocene age. They pointed out that
the presence of Globorotalia subbotinae Morozova (a lower Eocene index fossil) and other
diagnostic Lower Eocene fossils (including Bolivina ottaensis and pseudohastigerian
wilcoxensis) in the strata is significant and should be overlooked. They therefore, placed the
Paleocene – Eocene boundary in southwestern Nigeria within some calcareous shale –
limestone Interbedded sequence below the massive shelly limestone unit. Evidences in favour
of a Paleocene age for the Ewekoro formation appear to be quite convincing and very well
documented. It is possible, however, that part of the sequence exposed at Ewekoro and also
occurring in boreholes in southwestern Nigeria (especially the shales overlying the limestone
i.e. Akinbo Formation) could be lowermost Eocene in age.

17
1.6.2.5 Akinbo Formation
The Ewekoro Formation (where encountered) is uncomformably overlain by predominantly
shaley formation, which Ogbe, (1972) named Akinbo Formation. Where the Ewekoro
Formation is missing, the Akinbo Formation lies uncomformably on the Afowo Formation
(Billman, 1992). The Akinbo Formation consists of dark micromicaceous, fine-textured shale
that is locally silty with glauconitic marl and conglomerate at the base (Dessauvagie, 1975).
The greenish-grey or sometimes black Akinbo shale is encountered in the subsurface of most
inland areas of western Nigeria. In the Ewekoro and Sagamu quarries, it overlies
disconformably the Ewekoro Formation. The Akinbo Formation is eight to nine meters thick
at its type locality (the Ewekoro quarry) but it attains an average of 18metres in boreholes. At
the Ewekoro quarry, the formation has a very gently dip less than 2o south. It is highly fractured
and some of the fractures have been filled with chalky material. Many contemporary load
fractures occur in it.
1.6.2.6 Oshosun Formation

The shales of the Akinbo Formation grade into the overlying mudstones and claystones of the
Oshosun Formation. The Oshosun Formation is composed of dull brown and brick-red sandy
mudstone and claystone with light grey and purplish mottling in its lower part. There are local
intercalations of thin pebble beds and coarse pebbly sandstones. Phosphatic and glauconitic
materials occur as inclusions but become more abundant and characteristics in the middle part.
Light grey arenaceous sediments are locally presents near the top of the formation constituting
an unevenly developed sequence which Jones and Hockey, (1964) called Ilaro Formation
(Adegoke, 1969). The lower part of the Oshosun Formation is extensive, stretching
southeastwards from west of Ilaro to beyond Ijebu-Ode. It total thickness onshore is unknown
but offshore it is about 270 (Billman, 1992).

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The Oshosun Formation is fairly fossiliferous. Onshore mollusks, planktic and benthic
foraminifera, fish remains, corals, crinoids, crustaceans and sea snakes have haven recovered
from it (Adegoke, 1969). Offshore, benthic foraminifera and calcareous nannoplankton occur
(Billman, 1992). These date the formation Mid-Eocene (Lutetian). The presence of glauconites,
phosphates and abundant planktic foraminifera in the Oshosun Formation indicates deposition
in a fairly deep marine environment, probably in the bathyal zone.
1.6.2.7 Ilaro Formation

The Ilaro Formation was described by Jones and Hockey, (1964) in shallow boreholes drilled
at the Akinside and Ifo areas. It includes both marine and non-marine deposits exhibiting
transition from marine in the basal part to continental in the upper beds. Over most of the
outcrops, the formation is continental in character and shows lateral changes in thickness and
lithology, which are rapid and confusing. Ilaro Formation consists of coarse, angular and poorly
sorted sand with considerable amount of clay layers and rare occurrence of shale. False bedding
and pebble beds are also present. Fossils have been recovered in the arenaceous lower part of
the formation. These fossils are fish remains, foraminifera and ostracoda; they have been used
to assign Eocene age to the formation.
1.6.2.8 Benin Formation
The Benin Formation is commonly referred to as Coastal Plain Sands (Jones and Hockey,
1964). It consists of yellow and white, sometimes cross-bedded sand, pebbly beds and clays
with some sandy clay lenses. It thickness is unknown except in the Niger Delta where it
measures about 2000m (Merki, 1972). The Benin Formation contains remains of plants. Also
planktic foraminifera have been recovered from its lower portion offshore and these indicate a
Miocene age. The upper part of the Benin Formation is believed to be Pliocene to Recent in
age.
19
Table 1.1: Simplified Cretaceous and Tertiary stratigraphy of Nigeria part of Dahomey Basin
(compiled after Reyment, 1965; Jones and Hockey, 1964; Omatsola and Adegoke. 1981;
Billman, 1992).
20
1.7 Classification of Limestone
1.7.1 Folk Limestone Classification
Folk limestone classification, a widely used classification of carbonates, based on the type of
particles and the nature and proportion of the matrix and or cement present. In his original
classification Folk, (1962) defined three main components of limestones. These are allochems,
comprising various grains and particles; micrite (microcrystalline calcite mud matrix); and
sparite (sparry calcite cement). The main allochems are bioclasts (‘bio-’,), pellets (‘pel-’),
intraclasts (‘intra-’), and ooids (‘oo-’). In defining a limestone by the Folk classification, the
rock is named according to the nature of the material filling the spaces between the particles
(i.e. micrite matrix or sparite cement), prefixed by an abbreviation to denote the main allochems
present: ‘bio’- for bioclasts, ‘pel’- for pellets, ‘oo’- for ooids, and intra- for intraclasts (Table
1.2). For example, a limestone comprising pellets in a mud matrix is called a ‘pelmicrite’, and
a limestone comprising shell fragments with a sparry calcite cement is a ‘biosparite’. It is
possible to combine the prefixes of several allochems where appropriate, e.g. ‘oobiosparite’
(Folk, 1959). Limestones which lack allochems, consisting only of micrite are termed
‘micrites’, this are usually common than there sparite counterpart (Fig 1.8). Dismicrite is used
for micrites with fenestral cavities. Organically bound limestones, e.g. reef rocks, or
stromatolites, are termed biolithites. Folk subsequently modified his classification to include
various carbonate textures. Under his textural scheme a limestone with varying proportions of
bioclasts, mud matrix and cement would be classified as follows: micrite with less than 1%
shell fragments: micrite; micrite with 1–10% shell fragments: fossiliferous micrite; micrite with
10–50% shell fragments: sparse biomicrite; micrite with over 50% shell fragments: packed
biomicrite. Limestone with micrite and sparry calcite together with shell fragments: poorly
washed biosparite; poorly sorted shell fragments with sparry calcite cement: unsorted
biosparite; well sorted shell fragments with sparry calcite: sorted biosparite; rounded and
21
abraded shell fragments with sparry calcite cement: rounded biosparite. Similar textural terms
apply for other allochems with micrite and/or sparite. (Cox et al., 1977).
1.7.2 Dunham limestone classification
The Dunham Classification is the most widely used scheme for the description of limestone in
the field, in hand specimen and in thin-section. The primary criterion used in this classification
scheme is the texture, which is described in terms of the proportion of carbonate mud present
and the framework of the rock (Fig. 1.5). The first stage in using the Dunham classification is
to determine whether the fabric is matrix- or clast-supported. Matrix-supported limestone is
divided into carbonate mudstone (less than 10% clasts) and wackestone (with more than 10%
clasts). If the limestone is, clast-supported it is termed a packstone if there is mud present or a
grainstone if there is little or no matrix. A boundstone has an organic framework such as a coral
colony. The original scheme (Dunham, 1962) did not include the subdivision of boundstone
into bafflestone, bindstone and framestone, which describes the type of organisms that build
up the framework. These categories, along with the addition of rudstone (which are clast
supported limestone conglomerate) and floatstone (matrix-supported limestone conglomerate)
were added by (Embry and Klovan, 1971) and (James and Bourque, 1992). Note that the terms
rudstone and floatstone are used for carbonate intraformational conglomerate made up of
material deposited in an adjacent part of the same environment and then redeposited. These
should be distinguished from conglomerate made up of clasts of limestone eroded from older
bedrock and deposited in a quite different setting, for example on an alluvial fan. The nature of
the grains or framework material forms the secondary part of the classification. A rock
consisting entirely of ooids with no matrix would be an oolitic grainstone, one composed of
about 75% broken shelly fragments in a matrix of carbonate mud is a bioclastic packstone, and
rock composed mainly of large oyster shells termed a bioclastic rudstone. Naming a limestone
22
using the combination of textural and compositional criteria in the Dunham scheme provides
information about the likely conditions under which the sediment formed: for example, a coral
boundstone forms under quite different conditions to a foraminiferal wackestone (Nichols,
2009).
1.8 Economic Importance of Limestone
Limestone deposit in Dahomey basin occurs within the Ewekoro Formation (Jones and
Hockey, 1964). Investigation of limestone as a source rock of raw materials for cement
production started in 1956 by Associated Portland Cement Manufacturers, Limited the area
around Ewekoro where the factory of West African Portland Cement Company (now Larfage)
is now situated was earmarked for detailed exploration of limestone. Ample reserve of good
quality limestone with overlying shale were proven. The thickness obtained for the limestone
during the exploration work is approximately 31m, but towards the base an increasing
proportion of araenaceous material appears and only the top 10 m to 12 m part is relatively
pure limestone (Elueze and Eton; 2004). Approximately 35 million tons of limestone has been
proved under less than 50ft. of overburden over a distance of 1 mile along the strike in Ewekoro
and Sagamu (Jones and Hockey, 1964).
Other uses include:
i. It is the raw material for the manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide), slaked lime
(calcium hydroxide), cement and mortar.
ii. Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soils.
iii. Is crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads as well as in asphalt
concrete.
iv. Geological formations of limestone are among the best petroleum reservoirs;
23
Table 1.2: Folk’s Classification of limestone (Folk, 1959)
Figure 1.8: Ternary composition diagram showing regions of most common limestone ( After
Cox et al., 1977).
24
Figure 1.9: The Dunham classification of carbonate sedimentary rocks (Dunham 1962) with modifications by Embry and Klovan, (1971).
This scheme is the most commonly used for description of Limestone in the field and in hand specimen.
25
v. As a reagent in flue-gas desulfurization, it reacts with sulfur dioxide for air pollution
control.
vi. Glass making, in some circumstances, uses limestone.
vii. It is added to toothpaste, paper, plastics, paint, tiles, and other materials as both
white pigment and a cheap filler.
viii. It can suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines.
ix. Purified, it is added to bread and cereals as a source of calcium.
x. Calcium levels in livestock feed are supplemented with it, such as for poultry (when
ground up).
xi. It can be used for remineralizing and increasing the alkalinity of purified water to
prevent pipe corrosion and to restore essential nutrient levels.
xii. Used in blast furnaces, limestone binds with silica and other impurities to remove
them from the iron.
xiii. It is often found in medicines and cosmetics.
xiv. It is used in sculptures because of its suitability for carving.

26
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The materials and methodology employed during this study shall be considered under two main
headings.
i. Field Study; involves outcrop study and hand specimen description.
ii. Laboratory Analysis; this involves thin section analysis and geochemical
compositional studies
Materials used for field studies are listed below;
i. Global Positioning System (GPS): It is used for locating oneself on the map and
taking the outcrop coordinate used in map digitization.
ii. Geological hammer: It was used for used to break sedimentary rock samples from
exposures encountered.
iii. Compass clinometer: It is an instrument that contains the four cardinal points (N, S,
E, W) used in obtaining one’s position in the field. It was also used for measuring
the strike and dip of the planar fabrics.
iv. Field book: It is used to record observations and measurements taken on the field
to aid the compilation of a report.
v. Sample bag: It was used for carrying rock samples collected in the field.
vi. Hand lens: Used to examine mineral grains with rock samples.
vii. Markers: Used in numbering rock samples.
viii. Tape measure: for measuring the thickness of the different lithostratigraphic
units
ix. Paper/masking tape: used instead of markers sometimes for samples identification.
Materials used for Thin Section Analysis are listed below;
i. Glass Slide: this serve as a housing and protector form the chip
ii. Chip: this is the layer , on which the prepared sample is attached.
27
iii. Cover: this serve as an additional protection for the slide.
iv. Rock cutter: used for cutting rock sample into small rectangular pellet of 3mm.
v. Grinding machine: the sample of the chip to be mounted is grounded on this
machine so as to make the surfaces smooth.
vi. Hot plate: this is used for heating the chip and glass slide during mounting
vii. Lapping machine: this use for smoothening and polishing the small rectangular rock
pellet.
viii. Petrographic microscope: this is use for viewing and analyzing the prepared
slide.
Materials used for Geochemical Compositional Analysis
i. Beaker: is a simple container for stirring, mixing and heating liquids.
ii. Standard flask: is a piece of glassware, a type of laboratory flask, used for the
preparation of solutions, they are used for making up solutions to a known volume.
iii. Measuring cylinder: is a piece of laboratory equipment used to accurately measure
the volume of liquid reagents. Measuring cylinder also known as Graduated
cylinders are generally more accurate and precise than flasks and beakers when it
comes to measurement.
iv. Beam balance: it is used for weighing the samples.
v. Muffle furnace: this is used during the gravimetric analysis to heat the samples at
very high temperature.
vi. Pestle and mortal: is used during digestion to crush, grind, and mix samples. The
sample to be ground is placed in the mortar and ground, crushed or mixed with the
pestle.
vii. Crucible: are used for heating the samples, to very high temperatures. The crucible
cover can be used to contain any smoke particles.

28
2.1 Field Studies
2.1.1 Outcrop Description
Field mapping was conducted in the Ewekoro formation exposure at Purechem Quarry of the
Dahomey (Benin) Basin, southwestern Nigeria (Fig. 1.1). The work included reconnaissance
mapping and detailed measurement of stratigraphic units of the Limestone as exposed at the
cliff section of Purechem Quarry. During both the reconnaissance and measured section work,
outcrops were examined for bedding contacts, bed thickness variations, fossils, composition,
primary physical sedimentary structures and post-depositional sedimentary structures. The
mapping was carried out for the whole of Ewekoro Formation as exposed at the cliff section of
Purechem Quarry Onigbedu, the outcrop beds studied where continuous quarry exposed unit.
2.1.2 Sample and Hand Specimen Description
A representative sample was taken from each of the studied six (6) limestone beds as clearly
exposed in the Cliff section of the Quarry. The samples are indeed sizeable, this was to enable
us have more than enough for our geochemical and petrographic studies.
2.2 Laboratory Studies
2.2.1 Thin Section Preparation
Thin Section Analysis
This analysis was primarily for the purpose of studying mineralogical features to aid
the identification of rock collected during field mapping. Samples for thin sections analysis
were carefully studied under Petrological microscope selected to maximize the mineralogical
information. The manual preparation of thin section is common and its time consuming as
compared with the Longitech automatic thin sectioning machine. The procedures involved in
29
making a thin section manually are Cutting, Trimming, Grinding, Lapping, Mounting,
Covering, Washing, Drying and Labelling of the slides.
2.2.1.1 Cutting
The processes involve cutting the rock into small rectangular pellet of 3mm by a machine called
rock cutter. Before the sample is taken to the machine, it is necessary to determine or ascertain
the nature of the rock whether it is of sedimentary origin or brittle or friable or fragile which
cannot withstand cutting. For samples like that, impregnation is done before cutting (cut across
the band or foliation and layers). A chip of about 1/8 of an inch and about 1 inch by 1 inch form
the sample.
2.2.1.2 Trimming
Here the edge of the sample is chipped and then a mark is put on the chipped side as well as
the other side. A number is written on the sample, on the chip and also on the parent sample
with pencil. This is done so that the edges of the sample can be smooth without sharp edges
which can be dangerous.
2.2.1.3 Grinding
The sample of the chip to be mounted is grounded on the grinding machine to make the surfaces
smooth.
2.2.1.4 Mounting
In mounting, the materials needed are hot plate, forcept, picking needle, mounting medium
which is of two types (a) permanent mounting medium e.g. Resin and Aradite (b) temporary
mounting medium e.g. Lakeside 70 cement and Canada balsam.
The chip is placed on the hot plate and the hot plate is covered with aluminium foil or paper
with the thermometer set, the hot plate is switched on. The chip and the glass slide are allowed
to warm up for some minutes and then the mounting medium is added i.e. Canada balsam or
30
lakeside 70 cement or resin. We mount the chip unto the glass slide by placing the glass slide
unto the chip. The temperature at which mounting is done is at 70 0c. if it is resin or araldite
mixed in the appropriate ratio, we apply a little bit unto the chip and the glass slide, we mount
the chip and press the glass slide to exclude all air bubbles at a lower temperature 40 0c or 30
0
c. The chip is then allowed to set on a flat surface.
Grinding machine is used to reduce the thickness of the mounted chip. The chip is mounted on
the clamp of the machine and pressed onto the grinding wheel, with the coolant switched on.
If the machine does not have a clamp, fingers are used to hold the chip unto the grinding wheel.
Finally, the thickness of the sample (chip) is reduced to about 60µ.
2.2.1.5 Lapping
The mounted slide was lapped on a glass plate using medium-grain carborundum as abrasive
to generate friction between the rock pellet and the glass, in the process reducing the slide
thickness to a desirable thickness of 0.3mm. At this thickness, it has been established that rocks
behave like a transparent medium allowing the passage of light. Canada balsam was later used
to seal the thinned rock using a glass cover lid. Hence, the study of optical properties of mineral
components of the rock was enhanced. This process is done on three grades of abrasive,
carborundum 400,600, and 700. A paste of the first grade of carborundum 400 is made on a
glass plate, carborundum 600 on another glass plate and carborundum 700 on another glass
plate. Lap the slide on the mixture from 400 to 600 and finally 700. Watching changes in colour
as it is lapped on the different grades of carborundum. To watch the changes in colour, a
polarizing microscope is needed. A mineral is picked as an index (standard) e.g. Quartz, the
colour changes from purple to red to blue on 400 grades, on 600, the colour changes from blue
to thick yellow and 700 is changes from grey/white then stop. Feldspar is red or violet on 400,
pink on 600 and grey/white on 700. The slide is lapped in a zigzag manner to create evenness.
Conclusively, a standard thin section is achieved which is 30µ thick and when the colour quartz
or feldspar is grey/white.
31
2.2.1.6 Washing, Drying and Labelling
Further processes include covering, washing, drying and labelling. Diamond impregnated pen
is necessary for writing the number of the sample on glass slide.
2.2.2 Geochemical Analysis
In the studied cliff section of the Onigbedu limestone quarry, a sample was selected from each
of the six beds identified and were digested for geochemical analysis in the laboratory.
Sample digestion was achieved by collecting a piece of about 4kg was collected from each of
the samples and this were ground using pestle and mortal. Standard flask (100ml), beaker
(50ml), measuring cylinder (100ml), analytical weighing balance, concentrated HCl, non-
distilled water, spatula as well as plastic bottles (200m), were the equipment and reagent
employed for sample digestion.
Each piece of the of the representative sample from each bed was pulverized after which
analytical weighing balance was utilized to measure 1 gram each from every pulverized
samples and this 1gram was put into a beaker and a concentration of HCl acid was run into this
beaker containing 1gram of pulverized limestone up to 5ml and this beaker was manually
shaken for few minutes and was left undisturbed for about 10 minutes.
After thorough digestion, the solution that ensued from the addition of HCl to the pulverised
sample was emptied into the 100ml standard though the 100ml measuring cylinder and the
beaker were procedurally rinsed using available non-distilled water to ensure that no solute is
left behind.
Therefore, the available non-distilled water was run into the beaker up to its normal meniscus
level and was properly shaken to attain homogeneity. This homogeneous solution was finally
emptied into the plastic bottle for atomic spectrometric analysis, after which the digested
samples were analysed with specific model of atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS).
32
Determination of Percentage Loss on Igition was actualized using One gram of each of the air-
dried samples was ground and weighed with a beam balance and oven-dried at 1100C for an
hour. The crucible was then left to cool and weighed. The loss in weight represented the
hygroscopic moisture or superficially absorbed moisture. The crucible was then ignited in a
muffle furnace at 9500C for one (1) hour, then cooled and weighed.
The heating, cooling and weighing was repeated until the weight of the residue was constant.
The percentage loss on ignition was deciphered from the weight of the residue.
Owing to unavailability of appropriate flame for analysis, using Atomic Absorption
Spectrometry, Gravimetric Analysis was employed in lieu of ASS for the determination of
silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3).
The residue ensued after ignition during the determination of LOI, was utilized in the
determination of SiO2 concentration, this was digested with hot concentrated hydrated
hydrochloric acid. The acid dissolved all the basic salts except silica and metallic oxides. The
solution was filtered and the fitrate set aside. The precipitate was placed in a weighed crucible
and ignited at about 11000C in a muffle furnace, allowed to cool and weighed.
The weight of the precipitate was the weight of silica and the metallic oxide present. The
precipitate was later transferred into platinum crucible and treated with dilute tetraoxosulphate
VI acid (H2SO4) and hydrofluoric acid (HFl) to digest the silica content. The solution was dried
in a fume cupboard and the residue ignited at 11000C, cooled and reweighed. The loss in weight
represents the weight of the pure silica in the sample.
Aluminium (as Alumina (Al2O3)) was precipitated as hydrated oxide by adding ammonia
solution in the presence of ammonium chloride from aliquots of the filtrate contained in the
silica determination. The gelatinous precipitate was washed and converted to aluminium oxide
(alumina) by ignition in muffle furnace at 1200C. Ignition was repeated until a constant weight
was obtained.
33
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
3.1 Lithostratigraphy of the Strata Exposed in Field Location
The cliff section of the Purechem quarry, Onigbedu provides a good exposure of the Paleogene
Ewekoro Formation. Based on the fieldwork the lithostratigraphic succession of the strata
exposed are described. The lithostratigraphic successions includes Limestone and Shale (Table
3.1).
The sedimentary units exposed at the cliff section of Purechem quarry, measures about 9.66m
(Tab. 3.1). From field observation it was noted the Limestone strata is made up of six (6) beds
(about 8.6m in thickness), which is then overlain by a relatively thin shale bed (about 1.4m
thick)
The whole section is then divided into three (3) parts:
Basal part; this consist of bed 1 and 2 (about 3.04m thick) which is a sandy
fossiliferous unit. As one moves upward from bed 1 (about 1.6 m thick) into bed 2
(about 1.44m thick) the coarseness of the texture tends to reduce.
Middle part; overlying the basal part is a massive limestone unit consisting mainly of
bed 3 and 4 (about 1.97m thick). This unit is highly fossiliferous.
Upper part; this unit is made up of dark grey nodular limestone (about 3.25m thick),
it was noticed that the grey coloration darkens as we move from bed 5 (about 1.53m
thick) to bed 6 (about 1.72m thick). Overlying the nodular limestone unit in the upper
section is a well laminated grey shale with an approximate thickness of 1.4m.

34
Table 3.1: A Composite Lithostratigraphic Section Showing the various beds as exposed at
PURECHEM Quarry Onigbedu.
Shale bed:
The grey shale is well
laminated, and overlies the
nodular limestone.
Bed 6:
This bed is made up of
dark grey nodular
limestone.
Bed 5:
The grey coloration
darkens as we move from
this bed.
Bed 4:
This bed is highly rich in
fossils, there are presence
of warm burrows.
Bed 3:
This is grey in color with a
medium texture.
Bed 2:
A light grey limestone it is
less coarse relatively to bed
1.
Bed 1:
Highly fossiliferous sandy
limestone. Pelecypod were
identified in this bed.
35
3.2 Geochemical Analysis of Limestone Samples
The Geochemical analysis of the limestone samples were carried out using both Instrumental
and Classical methods. Instrumental method entails the use of Atomic Absorption
Spectrometry to obtain the content of trace or minor quantities of element while classical
method employed involves Gravimetric analysis to obtain the content of Silica and Alumina.
The result obtained from this analysis gave the proportions of nine elements in their oxides in
the limestone samples. (I.e. CaO, MgO, etc.) The Loss on Ignition (LOI) of each limestone
sample was determined. However, the result analysis are presented in Tables 3.2 to 3.3 and
Figures 3.1 to 3.3.
3.2.1 Interpretation of data
The result of the geochemical analysis of the exposed limestone section at the cliff section of
Purechem purechem quarry, Onigbedu, gives both the major and minor elemental constituents
in form of percentage of oxides as well as Loss on Ignition (LOI), which was formed by the
liberation of hydration and carbon dioxide (CO2) from clay minerals and carbonate minerals
respectively.
Major Oxides
The result of the major elemental composition shown in Table 3.2 indicates that the Calcium
oxide concentrations ranges between 48.75 and 54.24% with a mean value of 52.63%. The
silica SiO2 contents range between 1.26 – 8.33 % with a mean value of 2.98% and Fe2O3
between 0.55 – 1.11% with mean of 0.74%, MgO and Al2O3 contents vary between 0.58 –
1.11% and 0.52 – 1.25% with equal mean values of 0.79%.
From the result of major oxides, CaO from calcite is dominant. The relatively high level of
CaO and low values of silica (SiO2) and MgO, (Figure 3.1-3.3), show a high degree of purity
of the limestone hence its suitability as raw material for industrial use (cement and roofing
sheets). The CaO stands at a mean value of 52.63% but far lower than that of Sagamu, Ewekoro
36
and Ibeshe having mean values of 89.2%, 80.3% and 75.7% respectively, Akinmosin et al.,
(2005).
Silica concentrations of Onigbedu is low (1.26 – 8.33 %) compared with other limestone
deposit in Nigeria; such as Igunmale (13.9%), Sokoto (11.3%), Olaide, (1988), but almost at
par with that of Sagamu, Nkalagu and Ibeshe with mean values of 5.7%,5.9%, and 8.7%
respectively, Akinmosin et al., (2005), Ikhane et al., (2009).
The percentages of MgO and Al2O3 are low 0.58 – 1.07% and 0.52 – 1.25%, respectively.
Magnesium could be added by dolomitization process, which is comparably infinitesimal in
this deposit. In addition, Chave (1954) stated that marine invertebrate skeletal debris has low
magnesium with increasing level in the phyla. Onigbedu limestone is very rich in bivalves,
echinoderms and gastropods – higher invertebrates – which are suspected to be responsible for
the low level of magnesium in the samples. Magnesium concentration is also a function of
temperature of formation, and often low in shells living in shallow waters (Pettijohn, 1984).
Thus shallow marine environment is proposed for Onigbedu limestone base on this. The
aragonitic/calcitic shells are usually magnesium deficient and such fossil shells like bivalves,
a shallow marine dweller is very abundant common in the deposit. Low alumina might be
indicative of the dearth of alumino-silicate minerals in the provenance. The low concentration
of alumina is also an indicative of low energy environment. (Adekoya et al., 2011).
According to the specifications of the Morroccan Standard NM 10.1.004, and the American
Construction Code, in the use of limestone for various industrial purpose (focusing on cement
and roofing sheet), the magnesium oxide (MgO) must not exceed 5% by mass and the mass
ratio (CaO)/ (SiO2) should not be less than two (2). From the result of the geochemical analysis
the mean MgO content is extremely low (0.785%), and the mass ratio (CaO)/ (SiO2) (table
3.3),greatly exceeds the bench mark, were the minimum ratio stands at 5.85, the maximum
ratio stands at 43.05, therefore giving a mean ratio of 25.77. Therefore validating Onigbedu
limestone as a good Industrial material for the production of cement and roofing sheet.
37
Table 3.2: Geochemical Elemental Composition of Onigbedu Limestone.

Sample Bed1 Bed2 Bed3 Bed4 Bed5 Bed6 Mean
Code/Elements
SiO2 % 8.33 1.62 2.08 2.56 2.01 1.26 2.976667
Al2O3 % 0.99 0.67 1.25 0.67 0.52 0.62 0.786667
Fe2O3 % 0.61 0.55 1.11 0.83 0.6 0.76 0.743333
CaO % 48.75 53.77 53.12 52.97 52.92 54.24 52.62833

MgO % 0.58 0.83 0.71 0.71 0.81 1.07 0.785
Na2O % 0.17 0.05 1.9 0.01 0.22 0.22 0.428333
K2O % 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03

SO3 % 1.52 0.12 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.08 0.295
Cl- % 0.08 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.055
LOI % 38.8 40.12 39.1 42.14 41.51 39.68 40.225
TOTAL 99.87 97.82 99.36 99.97 98.68 98.02 98.95333
Table 3.3: Percentage ratio composition of CaO to SiO2 of Onigbedu’s Limestone.

SAMPLE CODE BED 1 BED 2 BED 3 BED 4 BED 5 BED 6 MEAN
CaO % 48.75 53.77 53.12 52.97 52.92 54.24 52.62833
SiO2 % 8.33 1.62 2.08 2.56 2.01 1.26 2.976667
RATIO(CaO/SiO2) 5.852341 33.19136 25.53846 20.69141 26.32836 43.04762 25.77492
38
Relationship Between %Composition of SiO2 and CaO

% SiO2 % CaO
53.77 53.12 52.97 52.92 54.24

48.75
8.33
2.08 2.56 2.01 % CaO
1.62 1.26
% SiO2
BD1 BD2 BD3 BD4 BD5 BD6
Figure 3.1: Relationship Between %Composition of SiO2 and CaO based on the
geochemical data of Onigbedu Limestone.
Relationship Between %Composition of MgO and CaO
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
% CaO % MgO
Figure 3.2: Relationship Between %Composition of MgO and CaO based on the
geochemical data of Onigbedu Limestone.
39
Purity Comparism of Onigbedu Limestone based

the %Composition of CaO, SiO 2 and MgO
60
50
40
30
20
% MgO
10 % SiO2
% CaO
0
% CaO % SiO2 % MgO
Figure 3.3: Purity Comparism of Onigbedu Limestone based the %Composition of CaO, SiO2
and MgO
40
3.3 Petrographic Analysis of the Limestone

Prepared slides of the collected samples from each of the six beds were analyzed using petrographic
microscope under Plane Polarized Light and Cross Nicol.
Petrographic studies of each slide from the sample were enhanced by point-count method for each
mineral (Table 3.4).
Allochems
The non-skeletal grains identified from the petrological study are intraclast, pellets andooids while the
skeletal grains represent the fossil content. The non-skeletal grains are not as the skeletal component.
Skeletal Grains (Fossil Content)
For the identification of the fossil content of the Onigbudu limestone, the following points were noted:
shape, internal micro-structure and presence of spines or pores. It was noted that the edges of this fossils
have been highly micriticed hereby giving them a high relief (The micritic content of the beds are very
high, thereby suggesting a low energy environment. The following were identified with various beds:
Echinoderms, Pelecypods, Bivalves, Coralline Algae, Ostracod and Gastropod.
Echinoderms
It was observed that sparite cement crystal had grown syntaxially around the echinoderm fragment
identified in the Onigbedu limestone deposit. (Figure 4b).
Bivalves
The shell of bivalve is composed of calcium carbonate. Bivalve shells identified in the deposit consisted
of several layers of specific internal microstructure composed of micron-sized crystallites. (Figures 2c,
4b and c, 5c, and 6c).
Gastropods
Gastropods are ubiquitous throughout shallow marine environments. They occur in hypersaline and
brackish waters, such as on tidal flats and in estuaries. Most gastropods have shells of calcite with similar
internal microstructures to bivalves. (Figures 1c, 2c, 3c, 5b).

41
Table 3.4: Estimated modal analysis of the different component of the various beds of Onigbedu limestone.
Sample Fossil Micrite Intraclast Ooides Pellet Sparry Quartz Fossils remarks Limestone
Code Fragment (%) Calcite (%) Classification
(%) (Folks and
Dunham)
Bed 1 30 24 6 26 14 This bed is highly Folk:
fossiliferous which Biospamicrite
has been micritised at Dunham:
their edges; Wackestone
Pelecypod.and
Gastropod
Bed 2 31 27 8 22 12 The fossils identified Folk:
include Gastropod Biospamicrite
and Ostracod. Dunham:
Wackestone
include Gastropod, Biospamicrite
Coralline Algae and Dunham:
Pelecypod. Wackestone
include Bivalve and Biospamicrite
Echinoderm. Dunham:
Wackestone
include Gastropod, Biospamicrite
Bivalve, Ostracod, Dunham:
and Pelecypod. Wackestone
include Bivalve and Biospamicrite
Coralline Algae. Dunham:
Wackestone
Pelecypods,
Pelecypod have literally compressed bodies enclosed by a shell, there edges have been highly
micritised. (Figures 1b and 3b).
Coralline Algae
Coralline algae are significant carbonate producers; there presence indicates a shallow to
relatively deeper marine environment. (Figures 3b and 6c).
Ostracod
Ostracod most times have sud-circular to circular outline, they were identified in Figures 2b
and 5c.
These fossils have been highly micritised, this is evident at also there is an evidence of
recrystallization, as shown by the precipitation of calcite masaic (sparry calcite) to fill the -
space.
Non-Skeletal Grains
Intraclasts
These fragments have been reworked within the area of deposition thereby forming new
sediment.
Pellets
These are rounded, spherical to elliptical or ovoid aggregates of microcrystalline calcite ooze
which are devoid of any internal structure. They show a uniformity of shape and size (Figures
1, 2,3,4,5, and 6).
Ooids
These particles show either radical or concentric structure
Carbonate Mud Matrix (Micrite)
It is considered as forming very largely by rather rapid chemical or biochemical precipitation
in seawater settling to the bottom and at times undergoing some later drifting by weak currents.
Micrite was identified in all the samples studied (Figures 1, 2,3,4,5, and 6).
43
Sparry Calcite Cement
This type of calcite generally forms grains or crystals 10 microns or more in diameter and is
distinguished from macrocrystalline calcite by its clarity as well as coarser crystal size.
The solution voids have been filled with sparry calcite deu to recrystallization. This is a
characteristic of moderate to high energy condition, (Adegoke, 1977). Large coarse grains of
sparry calcite which were white and grey in colour were observed to be dominant in all the
slides produced from the six(6) limestone beds (Figures 1, 2,3,4,5, and 6).
44
Petrographic analysis of Bed 1
(a)
(b) M
(c)
C
G
Pc
Q
P
Legend
C = calcite Pc = pelecypods
G=Gastropod Q = quartz
P = Pellet M = Micrite
Magnification: x40
Folk’s classification: Biospamicrite
Dunham classification: Wackestone
Figure 3.4: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 1.

(a) Composite Petrographic illustration of limestone Bed 1.
(b) Photomicrograph of limestone Bed 1 under Cross Nicol.
(c) Photomicrograph of limestone Bed 1 under Plane polarized light.
45
(a)
Ostracod
(b) (c)
O
B
P
O B
G
C C
M
Legend
C = Calcite M= micrite
G=Gastropod O = Ostracod
B=Bivalve P=Pelet
Magnification: x40
Figure 3.5: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 2

(a) Composite Petrographic illustration of limestone Bed 2
(b) Photomicrograph of limestone Bed 2 under Cross Nicol
(c) Photomicrograph of limestone Bed 2 under Cross Nicol
46
(a)
Figure 3.6: Composite Petrographic diagram of Bed 3
(b) (c)
G
CA Q C
Q
Pc
Pc
Plate 3I and 3II: Photomicrographs of Bed 3 under Cross Nicol
Legend
C = calcite Q = quartz
G = gastropod Pc=Pelecypod
CA = coralline algae M = Micrite
Magnification: x40

(c) Photomicrograph of limestone Bed 3 under Cross Nicol
47
(a)
(b) (c)
C
B
B Q M
P
E
C
Legend
C = calcite Q = quartz
E = Echnoderm B = bivalve
M = Micrite P = Pellets
Magnification: x40

(c) Photomicrograph of limestone Bed 4 under Plane Polarized Light
48
(a)
(b) P (c) Q
M
G B
M C
B O
Pc
Legend
C = calcite G = gastropod
B = bivalve M = Micrite
O = Ostracod P = Pellets
Pc = pelecypods
Magnification: x40

49
(a)
(b) (c) C
M
B
M
CA
C
Q M
P
Legend
C = calcite M = Micrite
P = pellets B = bivalve
Q = quartz CA = Coralline Algae
Magnification: x40

50
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
4.1 Discussion
4.1.1 Field Occurrence and Composition of Limestone at Onigbedu

From the field observation of the Paloegene Ewekoro Formation as exposed at the cliff section
of purechem quarries, it was noted that the well exposed sedimentary unit measures a total of
9.66m, where the limestone has a total thickness of 8.6m and the overlying relatively thin shale
bed has a thickness of 1.4m.
The limestone unit which is made up of six (6) beds, consist of very high sandy clastic material
at the base, the texture then tend to fine upward as one moves away from the basal part (Table
3.1). This is similar to that of Ewekoro quarry, this basal unit is whitish to light brown, and it
represents the top of the Abeokuta Group (Adekeye, 2006).
A light grey massive limestone overlies the basal component, the increase in the darkness shade
of the grey colouration of the limestone bed as one moves upward is vividly evident. The shale
component at the limestone beds is well laminated, with colour ranging from grey to dark grey,
this shaley unit represents the lowermost part of the Akinbo Formation.
As implied by the low-lying topography, the limestone was deposited probably a down warping
episode in the graben (Adegoke and Omatsola, 1981).
The interpretation of the depositional environment is largely based on the fossil content and
the dominant support of the Onigbedu limestone (Table 3.4).
The deposition must have occurred under varying conditions from quiet to intermittently
agitated water as indicated by the well preserved fossil contents which include echinoids,
bivalves, coralline algae, pelecypod, ostracod and gastropod which are typical of an open shelf
environment.
51
The presence of echinoid indicates shallow to deeper waters. The dominant support is mud and
muddiness is generally a property of rocks deposited in quiet water and a low energy
environment.
4.1.2 Industrial usage
The quantitative identification of CaO, Fe2O3, MgO and SiO2 in the Onigbedu Limestone is
important in the characterization of the quality and hence its usability as an industrial material.
Technically, following Rosen et al. (2005), Onigbedu limestone qualify as pure limestone. This
is supported by, the fact that CaO and LOI composition of the limestone, taken together,
averagely constitute about 98.6 % in most cases (Table 3.2), points to the presence of
significant concentration of components and phases that are compatible with the purity required
of limestone for various important industrial applications. Cherneva et al. (2009) observed that
carbonate rocks classified as pure are calcite dominated, low in MgO content and display high
CaO/SiO2 ratio (Table 3.4). This indeed align with the geochemical composition of Onigbedu
limestone with a very low MgO contents with the maximum concentration reaching 1.07 % in
bed 1and displaying an overall average of 0.79 % (Table 3.2). Furthermore, the computed
CaO/SiO2 ratio values of the limestone (Table 3.4), which vary between 43.05– 5.85 with a
mean ratio of 25.77, is very high which is similar to that of Mfamosing limestone, (Ekwueme,
1995).
In considering these attributes, indication is that Onigbedu limestone is of high industrial
relevance, and CaO appear to be the major component that actually defines the purity of a
limestone. SiO2 that may likely constitute a source of contamination has a very low
concentration, having a mean concentration of 2.98%, (Table 3.2). Figures 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3
shows the analysis of the percentage constituent of CaO to SiO2. Other contaminants, notably
Fe2O3, Al2O3, Na2O and K2O are extremely low in concentration in all the six (6) beds with
overall average values that is often less than 1 % (Table 3.2).

52
4.2 Conclusion
Detailed mapping, lithostratigraphic and petrographic study of the exposed limestone beds at
the cliff section of Purechem industries Onigbedu, representing the Ewekoro Formation in the
eastern Dahomey basin, revealed that the limestone beds are more or less homogenous with
total thickness of 9.66m.
The beds consist of grey to dark grey, nodular to massive units. They are highly fossiliferous
with increasing sandy component towards the base of the section. The dominating limestone
facies Biospamicrite according to Folks, (1959) classification and Wackestone according
Dunham, (1962) classification. Echinoids, bivalves, coralline algae, Ostracod, pelecypod and
gastropods represents the main bioclastic components while pellet, intraclast, ooids and quartz
mainly constitutes the non-bioclastic grains.
Petrographic studies of Onigbedu limestone deposit have shown that the rock is highly
fossiliferous with the identified fossils indicating deposition in an open shelf environment.
Moreover, the limestone deposit was equally observed to be principally mud supported which
is indicative of rocks deposited in quiet water and a low energy environment, therefore from
all indication, the limestone deposited at Purechem quarry Onigbedu, was deposited under low
to high-energy condition.
From the aforementioned textural characteristics, Onigbedu limestone deposits is a
Wackestone, according to Dunham, (1962) classification.
Geochemical studies of the Paleogene Onigbedu limestone have been vividly carried out and
the result of both major, minor oxides and LOI, concentrations, supported by petrographic
analysis, have given some economic insights of the deposit under studied. The limestone is
characterized as a very important industrial material because of its very high CaO, LOI contents
and CaO/SiO2 ratio, and significantly low MgO, and minor oxides composition.
53
The observed compositional features of the limestone makes it a very viable industrial raw
material. According to the specifications of the Morroccan Standard NM 10.1.004, and the
American Construction Code, in the use of limestone for various industrial purpose (focusing
on cement and roofing sheet), the magnesium oxide (MgO) must not exceed 5% by mass and
the mass ratio (CaO)/ (SiO2) should not be less than two (2). From the result of the geochemical
analysis the mean MgO content is extremely low (0.785%), and the mass ratio (CaO)/ (SiO2)
(Table 3.3),greatly exceeds the bench mark, having a mean ratio of 25.77, therefore validating
Onigbedu limestone as a good Industrial material for the production of cement and roofing
sheet.
54
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TITLE PAGE

EVALUATION OF LIMESTONE TEXTURAL AND GEOCHEMICAL

COMPOSITION IN ONIGBEDU, OGUN STATE, IN RELATION TO ITS

INDUSTRIAL USAGE AND DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT

BOLUWATIFE MOSES AREWA

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED GEOLOGY,

SCHOOL OF EARTH AND MINERAL SCIENCES,

THE FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AKURE,

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B. TECH.) IN APPLIED

matriculation number AGY/11/4479, of the Department of Applied Geology, School of Earth

Signature and Date

Dr. S.A OPELOYE ………………..……….……

(Supervisor) Signature and Date

PROF. Y.A. ASIWAJU BELLO …...………….…………..….

(H.O.D Applied Geology) Signature and Date

my daring father, Eng. Arewa Olayinka, you are indeed a father.

investigating the depositional environment and industrial viability of limestone beds in

Purechem’s quarry at Onigbedu. Field observation indicates a homogenous lithology of the

equally observed to be principally mud supported which is indicative of rocks deposited in

Title page .................................................................................................................................... i

2.2.2 Geochemical Analysis ............................................................................................ 31

Table 1.2: Folk’s Classification of limestone …………….…................................................23

PURECHEM Quarry Onigbedu……………………………..…………………………..…...34

Table 3.2: Geochemical elemental Composition of Onigbedu’s Limestone……………...….37

Table 3.3: Percentage ratio composition of CaO to SiO2 of Onigbedu’s Limestone...………37

tertiary sediments as shown. ………………………………...…………………………………3

Figure 1.3: Base map showing the study area………………………………………………….6

Figure 1.4: Google satellite map showing the study area………………………………………7

Figure 1.9: The Dunham classification of carbonate sedimentary rocks.. ……………………24

data of Onigbedu Limestone………………….…….………………………………………..37

data of Onigbedu Limestone…………………..……………………………………………..38

Figure 3.4: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 1………………………...…...45

Figure 3.5: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 2………………………...…...46

Figure 3.6: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 3……………………...……...47

Figure 3.7: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 4………………...…………...48

Figure 3.8: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 5……….………..…………...49

Figure 3.9: Petrographic analysis of Onigbedu limestone bed 6……….………..…………...50

Him I am but nothing.

all that concerns you.

hard work and devotion, contributed to the successful completion of my program as an

support, thanks for proving to me that blood is thicker than water.

thank you for being friends indeed.

1.1 General Statement

be noted that relevance of mineralogical and chemical investigations cannot be overemphasized

matrix (micrite) the sparite (cement) and the form of porosity.

These attributes become economically important especially with respect to accumulation of

in the giant oil reservoir in the Middle East. (Kulke, 1995).

geochemical analysis in order to establish their effective utilization and environment of

1.2 Aim and Objectives

utilization and also the environment of deposition of the Limestone deposit.

The objectives are to:

i. Characterize the different limestone beds

ii. Determine their compositions petrographically and geochemically.

1.3 Location of the Study Area

of the Purechem Manufacturing limited, quarry site, Onigbedu.

1.4 Climate, Relief and Vegetation

1000 mm to about 2000 mm in Onigbedu.

connected to Onigbedu’s major river (Fig 1.5).

Vegetation is predominantly rainforest, and depressions covered by tall grasses of savannah

Figure 1.3: Base map showing the study area.

Figure 1.4: Google satellite map showing the study area.