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Quantum Computing

Preprint · January 2019

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.18905.36969

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 Quantum Computing
Garcia G., López A., Villa B.
Master in​ Mechatronics and Micro-Mechatronics Systems
Hochschule Karlsruhe - Technik und Wirtschaft
Karlsruhe, Germany
gaga1012@hs-karlsuhe.de
loan1015@hs-karlsuhe.de
vibe1011@hs-karlsuhe.de

Abstract—​Quantum computers a is a challenging topic to read, understand and explain,

nevertheless in the following paper it will be explain complex characteristics of a quantum
computer in the most understandable way.
Each year, transistors are getting smaller and they are getting closer to reach the size of the
atom. Based on that, scientifics exploited the quantum mechanics to create a new
technology using particles smaller that an atom and with a faster behavior.
Based on the principle of observation, superposition state and entanglement, scientifics had
created different models of quantum computers, like the quantum gate array, one-way
quantum computer, adiabatic quantum computer and the topological quantum computer.
Also, it will be explained the problems that scientific encountered, but also the benefits and
the most important nowadays applications.

Index Terms—​ Entanglement, Gate Operations, Qubits, Quantum Computing, Quantum

Circuits, Superposition.
 I. INTRODUCTION

Since the year 1960, the production and improvement of computers are grown so
fast, that they not only go more powerful, they get smaller at the same time. Nevertheless,
humanity are reducing transistors incredible fast that now it is near the atom size, and that
signify that our computers will reach soon the minimum size.
But also, humanity are demanding everyday a computer with more capacity to develop
homeworks, industry, mathematics education, etc. But the capacity of computation, is also
reaching its maximum.
In the last years, physicist and engineers, hat developed quantum computers, that
not only enhance the capacity, but also will incredible improve the size of the futuristic PC.
Quantum theories are characterized for their complexity, but these ‘disadvantages’
had been exploited in order to create an small and powerful computer.
In the present paper it will be explained the basic concepts to understand quantum
computers, that englobes the explanation of the minimum information piece, that it is the
quantum bits or qubits. Also, it will be explained the principle of observation, the
superposition state and also the entanglement.Then it will be explained the quantum
models that includes the quantum gate array, one-way quantum computer, adiabatic
quantum computer and the topological quantum computer.
After that, it will be continued with the physical implementation and the
superconducting system, finally the applications, problems presented in quantum
computers and a description of the quantum computers of the actual market.

II. BACKGROUND

Computer technology has been changed during the last 50 years, microprocessors
become smaller and smaller and this increased the number of transistors and also the
speed rate of computation.
Gordon Moore (co-founder of Intel) noticed that the number of transistors in
integrated circuits doubling roughly every 18 months. This is known as Moore’s Law is
merely an empirical observation of a scaling regularity in transistor size and power
dissipation that industry had achieved, and Gordon Moore extrapolated into the future.
However, there is uncertainty in the chip industry today regarding how much longer Moore’s
Law can be sustained. Some of the companies are migrating to multi-core microprocessors
architectures and using new semiconductor materials to sustain Moore’s Law. Beyond
these advances, a switch to nanotechnology may be necessary. Whatever strategy industry
adopts to maintain Moore’s Law it is clear that as time goes on fewer and fewer atoms will
be used to implement more and more bits.[1]
Computers are large, finite physical systems which play an important role in science
today. Computers use algorithms to process information, sequentially. That is the main
reason why classical computers have limitations, to do more complex calculus or simulation
will be prohibitively time- consuming, for example, factorize a large number, simulate
molecular bond or search in a complicated database.
The first approach on quantum computing was carried out in 1981 by Richard
Feynman, in his lecture “Simulating Physics with computers” he asked what kind of
computer could simulate physics and then argued that only a quantum computer could
simulate quantum physics efficiently. He focused on quantum physics rather than classical
physics because nature has a quantum mechanics behavior cannot be explained using
classical theory. [2]
Around the same time, Paul Benioff demonstrated that quantum-mechanical systems
could model Turing machines. In other words, he proved that quantum computation is at
least as powerful as classical computation.systems could model Turing machines.
In 1985, David Deutsch, a physicist, published a paper describing the world's first
universal quantum computer. He showed how such a quantum machine could reproduce
any realizable physical system. What’s more, it could do this by finite means and much
faster than a classical computer. He was the first to set down the mathematical concepts of
a quantum Turing machine, one which could model a quantum system.
 III. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

In this point, it will be explained all the basic knowledge the reader should know in
order to understand the present work. In the first point, it will be explained what a Qubit and
the comparison with the digital bits, in the second point it will be explained the principle of
observation, in the third point will be shown the superpostiionstate and finally the
entanglement state.

A. Digital bits and quantum bits

In classical information systems that we are familiar of, the most basic piece of
information is the bit. The bit represents two states: a yes- no answer; or in binary numbers,
a 0 or 1. But all our logic are based on bits, because physically everything is compounded
with transistors, and they can only represent two states.
In quantum computation, the basic unit of information is the quantum bit, or in the
short way, qubit. Qubits also represents two states, that will be labeled hereinafter by |0〉or
|1〉. These states are sometimes referred as ‘up’ and ‘down’, related to the spin direction,
and are denoted with the following notation:

| ↑ 〉 ≡ |0〉
| ↓ 〉 ≡ |1〉

It is also important to precise, that in the quantum theory, the notation | 〉

represents a state, and also called ket [3].
But what is the difference between a classical bit and a qubit? While the classical bit
can only have a state 0 or 1, the qubit is a two dimensional system and can also have both
states a the same time, and chose to be one of them at the moment that is observed. From
here it derives the principle of observation and the superposition state.
B. The principle of observation
According to physics, sometimes the observer plays an important role during the
development of the experiment. As soon as it measured or even observed, change the
result or phenomenon. There are different examples of the observer effect, not only applied
in quantum, but also in other areas.
For example, in electronics when it has been implemented an analog circuit, and it is
necessary to measure the current or voltage, it is used a equipment to measured. But this
electronic equipment contains inside an analog circuit, that in certain way affects the circuit
when it is measured.
Another example applies in thermodynamics, where is used a temperature
instrument to measure the temperature of certain body. As soon as the termometer impact
in the environment, the proper temperature of the thermometer will affect the temperature of
the system before being measured.
The same occurs in quantum, when a qubit has not being measured, its final value is
not yet defined. But, as soon as the observer measured the qubit value, the qubit is set on
|0〉or |1〉.

Fig 1: Qubit vs.classical bit [5]

C. The superposition state
The superposition state is the linear combination of |0〉and |1〉, where the values
can be represented mathematically as follow:
|ψ〉 = α × |0〉 + β × |1〉
Which ψ , represents the state of the qubit, and α , β represents complex numbers
and the probability of appearance are represented by its module.
In other words, this equation is the probability to obtain a |0〉or |1 〉at the moment
that is observed. In this case, the system is affected for the principle of observation, and the
variables p1 and p2, represent the following [4]:
2
p1 = |α| : T he probability of f inding |ψ〉in the state of |0〉
2
p2 = |β| : T he probability of f inding |ψ〉in the state of |1〉
The Fig.1, represents the qubit and its probability, and a classical bit with values 0 or 1. [5]

D. Entanglement
The most incredible and unusual property of quantum particles is the entanglement.
This means that no matter id the particles are at long distances, their properties are
correlated. If a particle A is entangle with partile B, particle B will assume the same
opposites properties than particle A.

IV. QUANTUM COMPUTING MODELS

Although every quantum computer developed up until today works with the same basic
principles and can be considered theoretically equivalent, there are many possible
approaches in order to perform quantum computations.

A. Quantum gate array

As it is common knowledge, classic computers are composed of circuit chips which
in turn are composed of Logic Gates. These are defined as electronic circuits designed to
implement a Boolean function that transforms its input bits into one definite output
depending on the type of gate. If we take an AND gate as an example, the output would be
1 if all the inputs are 1 but the output would be 0 otherwise.
These gates are then combined in different configurations in order to solve more
complex operations. If a two-bit input gate configuration is considered this time, the resulting
state would be one out of four of the different possible arrangements (00, 01, 10, 11).
These concepts can be applied to the quantum gate array model since both of them
work in a similar way. However, if we consider the same case, that is, a two-qubit input gate
configuration and the property of superposition, the resulting state can store all four
arrangements at the same time. These arrangements are then measured causing the qubits
to collapse into one of its possible states. If more Qubits are added, the number of
computations increases exponentially, specifically that relation is [6]. Being 2 the possible
states of each qubit and n the number of qubits in our system. Therefore, a small increase
in the number of qubits will be able to generate systems which can represent enormous
states [7]
A lesser known concept but a major difference between quantum and classic
computers is reversibility. In other words, quantum gates are reversible, which means that
they do not lose information. On the other hand, most conventional logic gates do lose
information, making it impossible to revert operations. This is a mandatory property for
quantum gates since the loss of information destabilizes the system while increasing
entropy.

B. One way quantum computer

One way quantum computer, also known as a measurement-based quantum
computer (MBQC) represents perhaps one of the most interesting developments in recent
years. Being able to perform quantum computations relying only on measurements, brings a
fresh perspective that challenges the common perception of quantum computers.
As mentioned above, the quantum gate array model transforms selected qubits
using quantum gates and then measures the outputs. However, the MBQC process itself is
based on a sequence of single-qubit measurements that relies heavily on their
entanglement property [8].
The process starts with a group of many qubits forced in an entangled state, this is
known as a cluster state. This cluster can be grouped in different configurations, depending
on the desired calculations to perform. As an example, the cluster can be described using
an arrangement of four qubits named Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4 as shown in Figure 2 [9].
The next step is to choose the first single qubit to be measured, this is not randomly
but based on previous data collected. In this instance, we will consider the first qubit to be
the Q1 as seen in Figure 3. As was mentioned, once it is measured, the Q1 collapses into
one of its possible states giving a certain result. Due to the effects of entanglement, the
state of the leftover qubits is then affected accordingly. With this information, it is possible to
predict which are the states of the remaining qubits. Thus, the order in which the qubits are
measured will affect the results. Once this data is saved, it can be used to determine
specific measurement orders that manipulate the result.

Fig. 2. Representation of a four-qubit cluster in superposition.

Fig. 3. Representation of a measured qubit Q1 collapsed in state 1 while the resting qubits in the cluster shift
probabilities accordingly.

C. Adiabatic quantum computer

Adiabatic quantum computation (AQC) is a model of quantum computing that relies
on the adiabatic theorem to perform its calculations and can be considered a subclass of
quantum annealing. The adiabatic theorem states that gradually changing conditions allow
the system to adapt its configuration, hence the probability density is modified by the
process [10].
The system begins with a number of qubits in superposition and with a defined
organization along with an initial Hamiltonian, easily explained like an operator that
describes the energy of this mentioned qubit system. This Hamiltonian is initialized at its
lowest energy state, also known as ground state and was prepared in intentionally so the
values of this ground state correspond to the answer of a known function.
A final Hamiltonian is also included, however, it is structured to represent the
function we wish to solve, thus its ground state containing the answer is unknown. Its final
state is collapsed and its structure is composed of magnetic fields that influence the phase
of the qubits, called bias, as well as a device that can link two qubits and force them to have
the same or opposite state, known coupler.
Perhaps an easier way to describe the initial and final Hamiltonians is as a matrix
that represents a function. Then, the eigenvalues of this matrix (the qubits or values of the
ground state), would be the answer to this function.
The system then evolves changing slowly from the configuration of the initial
Hamiltonian, to the configuration of the final one. The slow speed ensures that the qubits
are adapting while maintaining equilibrium. Thus, no energy or information is lost.
Once the initial Hamiltonian is ramped down, the qubits pass to the final Hamiltonian
configuration, falling through its structure made of bias and couplers and finally resting in a
positions that complete the answers of its function [11].

D. Topological quantum computer

Up to this point, we have reserved discussing the actual physical components of the
different models of quantum computers in order to fully explain them in upcoming sections
of the paper. However, the computing process of a topological quantum computer heavily
relies on the properties of the specific particle used, thus it is a vital part of the explanation.
This specific particle or more specifically quasiparticle called an anyon exists only in
two-dimensional quantum systems [12] and once grouped, composes our qubits. Anyons
cannot occupy the same state, thus their trajectories can be imagined like threads that
remain defined and cannot intersect or merge with one another. But like threads, they can
be braided with each other and through this braiding, they are subjected to either a change
in its possible states (for Abelian anyons) or a unitary operation (for non-Abelian anyons)
[13]. The braiding can occur with anyons inside of a single qubit, this entangles the
mentioned anyons and establishes the superposition of the qubit. The braiding can also
occur between qubits, resulting in a change of phase. Thus the quantum states of the
chosen qubits are manipulated using the topology of the anyons as shown in Figure 4.
Moreover, the desired operations or algorithms are formulated by defining which
threads are needed in order to achieve certain outcomes which are then measured by
fusing two of the anyons inside of each qubit and observing the resulting state [14].

Fig. 4. Representation of the braiding of anyon’s trajectories.

V. PHYSICAL IMPLEMENTATIONS AND DEVICES

There are many different possible physical implementations for quantum

technologies that are generally distinguished on how the qubits are generated, registered
and processed. Between the many proposals, the Superconducting quantum computer and
the Trapped ion quantum computer are the most widely used.

A. Superconducting quantum computers

The Superconducting quantum computers are manufactured based on two
phenomena: superconductivity and the Josephson effect. When cooled below a
characteristic critical temperature, certain materials called superconductors, present zero
electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic flux fields, this is known as
superconductivity. In detail, once the materials reach a certain temperature, their atoms fall
in line and push charge-carrying electrons together to make new particles called Cooper
pairs [15].
Since the intrinsic spin of a Cooper pair is an integer number, then Cooper pairs are
defined as bosons. Multiple cooled bosons behave as a single particle once again, due to
the lower temperature of the system. This principle is known as Bose-Einstein Condensate
(BEC).
Furthermore, the Josephson effect describes an electric current that flows indefinitely
long (without any voltage applied) between two pieces of superconducting material
separated by a thin layer of insulating material known as a Josephson junction (JJ).
Moreover, the superconductive qubits are constructed from circuits using the
Josephson junctions. The three classic types of qubits defined in this system are phase,
charge and flux qubits, all of which are constructed with the same elements [16].
For the charge qubit, different energy levels correspond to an integer number of
Cooper pairs on a superconducting island, represented in Figure 5. In the flux qubit, the
energy levels correspond to different integer numbers of magnetic flux quanta trapped in a
superconducting ring described in Figure 6. Lastly, in the phase qubit, the energy levels
correspond to different quantum charge oscillation amplitudes across a Josephson junction,
where the charge and the phase are analogous to momentum and position correspondingly
of a quantum harmonic oscillator as shown in Figure 7.
 Fig. 5. Charge qubit circuit

Fig. 6. Flux qubit circuit

Fig. 7. Phase qubit circuit

B. Trapped ion computer

So far, the greatest progress of all has been made with trapped ion systems since
they can be accurately controlled and manipulated [17], moreover have already been used
to implement several algorithms including the Fourier transform.
In this implementation, qubits are encoded in the stable electronic energy levels of
ions suspended in vacuum [18]. To obtain these ions, small amounts of metals such as
Calcium or Ytterbium are heated in a high vacuum and vaporized. In this vapor, the
electrons are stripped from the atoms through a current of fast-moving electrons and then
they are directed to the trap. During this process, the outermost electron from these
vaporized neutral atoms is removed, resulting in ions that have a single valence electron.
Since ions are charged particles, they can be attracted and confined in the trap through
gate electrodes with certain voltages.
Lasers are applied to induce coupling between the qubit states (for single qubit
operations) or coupling between the internal qubit states and the external motional states
(for entanglement between qubits) [19].

VI. CURRENT PROBLEMS

There are some difficulties that has been found in the processing of build Quantum
computers, researchers are continuous working on improvement.
First one is that Qubits can be disturbed by noise, temperature change, electrical fluctuation
or vibration and this can cause lose data. The way to stabilize qubits is to keep them very
cold. Companies are used helium as a coolant to the refrigeration and keep the quantum
computer in a temperature above absolute zero (-273 degrees Celsius).
Moreover qubits are susceptible to changes in data, like phase error, which can
incorrectly flip the superposition sign of the phase relationship and cause errors in
measurement.
Another problem is with the quantum algorithms that are mainly probabilistic. One
operation in a quantum computer returns many solutions where only one is the correct. This
trial and error for measuring and verifying the correct answer weakens the advantage of
quantum computing speed. [11 ]

VII. APPLICATIONS

Thanks to the wide range of possibilities that quantum computers bring, they have
many applications in different fields, in this part, we briefly described the mainly used and
examples that are being implemented.

A. Optimization
Optimization is the process or methodology of make something effective as
possible is used in many fields such as systems design, mission planning, airline
scheduling, financial analysis, web search, and cancer radiotherapy.
 For example, traffic jam is a daily problem in the capital cities which the amount of
cars in certain hours exceed the capacity. Researchers from Volkswagen investigated the
quantum computers to solve this kind of problem, they showed how to map certain parts of
a real-world traffic flow optimization problem to be suitable for quantum annealing.They
showed that time-critical optimization tasks, such as continuous redistribution of position
data for cars in dense road networks, are suitable candidates for quantum computing [12].

B. Machine learning
Machine learning is the field that uses statistical framework to solve problems where
exact algorithms are hard to develop. The huge amount of data included in the process, and
the multiple potential combination of data elements make that this become a computational
expensive optimization problem.Artificial intelligence, medical applications, image and
speech recognitions, autonomous systems are example of field with problems that are
complex to solve.
Researchers in NASA, analyzed the possibly applications on Machine Learning with
Quantum computing; for example the majority of data are being collected daily is unlabeled.
Photos, videos, audio recordings, medical imaging, financial and sensor data are being
stored online. Labeling is a process of tagging this information, this task often requires
humans experts. An unsupervised Machine Learning algorithm could be the solution, it
would extract the information and structure from unlabeled data [13]. 
 
C. Material simulation
Feynman's idea of simulation of quantum systems in computers are becoming real.
Quantum computers could be used to find advanced materials.
In 2018 researchers from D-Wave Systems report the prototype of quantum
simulation hardware to understand better the magnetic phases transition on a spin-glass. A
3- dimensional cubic lattices was programed with 512 quantum spins in order to study the
magnetics properties as a function of energy and intentionally induced disorder. By tuning
the degree of disorder and effective transverse magnetic field, they could observed phase
transitions between a paramagnetic, an antiferromagnetic, and a spin-glass phase [14].
D. Cryptography
Cryptography is used in electronic communication system to secure passwords,
financial transition, email, e- commerce. This ensured that only parties involved in the
process can read encrypted message with a secret or a public key, that are commonly a
password with large list of numbers.
Theses techniques are based on mathematical algorithm that are very difficult to
break. Modern algorithm would take decades or centuries to read and intercepted public
key. However, with a quantum computers, all the cryptographic secrets keys can be
calculating in a short period of time and the system would be vulnerable. IT researchers
analyzed the possibility of used hybrid systems and quantum algorithm to make systems
encryption more secure and also incremented the numbers in secret and public keys [15].

VIII. ACTUAL COMPUTERS IN THE MARKET

In March 2018, the company Google released is 72 Qubits microprocessor called

Bristlecone as seen in Fig.8, this is a gated- base superconducting system that is used to
provide a testbed into system error rates and scalability of our qubits technology.Google
Quantum AI Lab purpose is to build quantum computers that can solve real-world
problems in machine learning, optimization and simulation. They analyzed the way to
implemented near-term applications using systems that are forward compatible to a
large-scale universal error-corrected quantum computer.

Fig. 8. Bristlecone: Google’s quantum processor [16]

IX. CONCLUSION

Theories of quantum mechanics and the development of quantum computers, seems

to be, until now, understandable and complex for most of the scientists. Nevertheless, it is a
technology that is solving the actual problematic: humans demands more powerful and
faster machines in smaller spaces.

We summarized the different existing models for quantum computers as well as

explaining its operations in a simple language and analogies so it could be understood
without having experience in the subject. We complemented this theoretical explanation
with some of the physical constructions of the actual computers, using both of the most
popular quantum computers. From this extensive information it is evident that quantum
computing is a growing subject that, although not fully understood, can be theoretically and
practically developed in a vast number of directions.

Quantum computing is the key to solve many problems that classical computer
cannot handle, for example: optimization, machine learning, data encryption and material
simulation,we would be able to improve some process that now are difficult to calculate.
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