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Impact of Dam Construction on the Hydrological Regime and Quality of a

Sahelian Lake in the River Senegal Basin

Article  in  Regulated Rivers Research & Management · January 1997

DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1646(199701)13:1<27::AID-RRR421>3.0.CO;2-G

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 REGULATED RIVERS: RESEARCH & MANAGEMENT, VOL. 13, 27–41 (1997)

IMPACT OF DAM CONSTRUCTION ON THE HYDROLOGICAL

REGIME AND QUALITY OF A SAHELIAN LAKE IN THE
RIVER SENEGAL BASIN
F. X. COGELS,1A. COLY2 AND A. NIANG2
1
Orstom, B.P. 1386, Dakar, Senegal
2
Geography Department, University of Dakar, Senegal

ABSTRACT
The direct and indirect impact of the recent hydraulic installations on the River Senegal on Lake Guiers are obvious. The
hydrological regime of the lake was very irregular before the dams were brought into operation. The lake is now characterized
by very stable water levels. These new conditions prevent cultivation of traditional recession crops which have been replaced
by irrigated crops. The water quality of the lake has been modified. Mean salinity has decreased and the significant interannual
and intraannual variations noted before 1986 are now far less pronounced. The new hydrological regime of the lake and its low
salt content have encouraged aquatic vegetation to grow rapidly. This vegetation used to be controlled by the periodic partial
drying of the flooding zone and specific water quality conditions at certain times of the year. Pistia stratiotes and Typha
australis are now increasing rapidly. This proliferation of aquatic plants has no doubt accelerated the rapid spread of
schistosomiasis, which now affects 80% of the population of some lakeside villages. The management of Lake Guiers requires

#
an integrated quantitative and qualitative approach. A water management model has been perfected. It permits an assessment
of the effects of various quantitative reservoir management options on the salinity of the water. 1997 by John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd.
Regul. Rivers, 13, 27–41, 1997.
No. of Figures: 9. No. of Tables: 0. No. of Refs: 36.
KEY WORDS: dams; lake levels; water salinity; schistosomiasis; model

INTRODUCTION
 0  0
On average, Lake Guiers (latitude 14 09 N, longitude 16 08 W) is 50 km long and 6 km wide. It is fed by the
River Senegal at its northern point via the Taoué Canal (Figure 1). A system of water sluices facilitates transfer of
water between the lake and river. A dyke separates its southern part from the Ferlo Valley. The lake is 2 m deep
(on average), and thus classed as a ‘shallow lake’, like most of the Sahelian lakes. Since the beginning of the
century, Lake Guiers has been the object of many hydraulic installations which have improved its filling and
storage capacities.
Before 1986, this freshwater lake used to have a direct impact on survival in this Sahelian region (average
annual rainfall 1972–1994: 190 mm), which suffered from severe water shortages. The River Senegal was salty
for a part of each year due to the annual inflow of sea water upstream, promoted by low flow rates and a very
slight slope (Gac et al., 1986). The lake’s water was used both for irrigating crops and for traditional farming on
the lake bank during flood recession (recession crops). It was also used for drinking water production for urban
centres, including Dakar, the capital of Senegal, and assured water supplies for the local population and animal
herds.
Since 1986, the river environment has been modified due to the operation of two dams. The Diama Dam has
been in operation since the end of 1985. It is located 50 km from the river mouth in the Atlantic Ocean and

# 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

CCC 0886–9375/97/010027–15 $17.50 Received 30 July 1995
Accepted 29 February 1996
28 F. X. COGELS, A. COLY AND A. NIANG

Figure 1. Geographical location of River Senegal, Lake Guiers and Diama Dam

100 km downstream from the Taoué–lake junction. Its primary function is to stop the upstream movement of sea
water into the River Senegal. More than 1000 km upstream, at Manantali in Mali, a second dam, in operation
since 1989, controls the River Senegal flows from the upstream basin, allowing 250 000 ha of crops to be irrigated
in the valley and hydroelectricity to be produced (OMVS, 1986; Albergel et al., 1993).
The present study assesses the impact of the dams on Lake Guiers. It describes the hydrological and water
quality changes as well as their direct and indirect effects on the environment and the lakeside inhabitants.

RIVER–LAKE RELATIONS AND RECENT HYDROLOGICAL CHANGES

Hydrological balance components

The hydrology of Lake Guiers is regulated by seven major parameters: (i) the supply of river water via the
junction canal; (ii) very irregular rainfall (50 to 300 mm year 1) from July to October; (iii) the inflow of drainage
ÿ

water from crop irrigation (on salty soils); (iv) pumping for irrigation; (v) pumping for drinking water production;
(vi) the periodic release of water from the southern dam to supply the Ferlo valley; and (vii) evaporation
(2125 m year 1). The exchanges between the lake and groundwater have never been clearly quantified. The few
ÿ

studies that have been carried out, estimate that exchanges are very slight, or at least balanced (Cogels, 1984;
Traore, 1995).
 IMPACT OF DAM CONSTRUCTION ON A SAHELIAN LAKE 29

Modifications of the hydrological system

The Diama Dam was brought into operation in 1986. Prior to this, between August and October, the lake was
filled once a year from the River Senegal. The maximum level in the lake was dependent upon the initial volume
of water stored in the reservoir and on the duration, flow and volume of the annual flood.
During the four or five months per year in which river water became salty due to the intrusion of sea water,
Lake Guiers allowed the crops in the region to be cultivated, including 8000 ha of sugar-cane and 1500 ha of rice.
Heavy demand for water for irrigation, the frequent low inflows to the lake and intense evaporation meant that
very low lake levels prevailed in certain years. On occasions, the whole lake would almost completely dry up,
such as in 1980 and 1983 (Figure 2). From 1977 to 1985, the mean annual level was only 0142 m. The
hydrological regime of Lake Guiers was also characterized by a large variation throughout the year with a mean
annual range of 2113 m. In certain years even greater ranges were in evidence (2167 m in 1978). Because of its
‘shallow lake’ morphology, these variations in level meant that a significant part of the floodplain dried up every
year (Cogels and Gac, 1982; Cogels et al., 1990).
Since 1986, the operation of the Diama Dam has prevented any seawater intrusion upstream and fresh water is
available all year round at the Taoué–lake junction. Since 1992, the steady, continuous operation of the Manantali
Dam and the regulation of the river have changed the hydrological conditions in the lower valley and the delta
region. There is now a constant supply of fresh water, sufficient to fill the lake several times a year if necessary
(Coly, 1992; Cogels et al., 1993a).
From 1986 to 1991, as before 1986, the lake was filled only once a year during the annual flood. However,
water levels were clearly greater than before 1986 with average levels of 0186 m, compared with 0142 m prior to
1986. Moreover, since the river water upstream of the Diama Dam was fresh and available all year round for crop
irrigation, demand for irrigation water from the lake was lower and the annual variations in level were also
reduced. The mean annual range was only 1182 m and the minimum less frequently below 0100 m.
Since 1992, the partial regulation of water flow by the Manantali Dam has further altered the hydrological
regime of Lake Guiers, which may now be filled several times a year. The mean annual level has reached 1150 m

Figure 2. Variations of Lake Guiers from 1977 to 1994. Hm: annual mean water level; dH: annual mean variation of the water level
30 F. X. COGELS, A. COLY AND A. NIANG

and its annual range is no greater than 0196 m. The hydrological behaviour of Lake Guiers during the period
1992–1994 no doubt foreshadows the situation for the years to come, if rainfall upstream of the catchment area
and storage in the Manantali Reservoir permit it. Owing to the constant availability of water from the river and
the lack of rigorous quantitative management, the river–Taoué junction is almost constant and the level in the
lake often follows the same pattern as that of the river.

Consequences of the hydrological changes

The regular supply of water from Lake Guiers has improved the way of life of the lakeside inhabitants, whose
needs previously had to take second place to those of the agricultural industry. The years 1981 and 1983 proved
to be especially difficult for water supply. Since 1986, the availability of water and the stabilization of the lake’s
level have had direct and indirect effects on the biological, socio-economic and sanitary conditions of this region.
Today, the availability of water has encouraged the development of private initiatives. The irrigation of crops
has rapidly replaced traditional low-water agriculture (recession crops). The latter are untenable given the
stability of the water levels of the lake. Moreover, in the years after 1992, the hydrological management of the
reservoir was often incoherent, with a succession of short phases of flooding and recession during the year,
without reference to the agricultural calendar. The villagers, who have always produced a variety of food crops,
now specialize in the irrigation-based production of rice and tomatoes. Technical inadequacies, a lack of
experience, problems involved in the sale of these products and a reduced capacity to invest led farmers to incur
debts during the first years of operation, and this was frequently followed by bankruptcy. Moreover, a
combination of insufficient irrigation and a lack of money has led to an increase in soil salinity, with some land
having been abandoned.
The ensuing problems highlighted an important lag between plans for regional development and the benefits
for rural inhabitants, who are not sufficiently prepared for such changes. Only a few farmers with higher
investment potential have managed to obtain a sufficient profit threshold.
Before 1986, the annual drying up of a large part of the lake’s banks limited the development of aquatic
vegetation. De to the current hydrological regime, the whole of the shallow zone in the south of the lake is being
invaded by plants.
Typha australis and Pistia stratiotes are the two species that have best developed since 1991 as a result of the
stabilization of the level of the lake. Moreover, the modifications in salt content (described below) have also
encouraged plants to spread. Typha australis has always been present in the lake. This species prefers shallow
waters (1 m) of constant level. Proliferation of this plant was already noted in the 1950s, when the hydrological
conditions and saline content were similar to those of today (Trochain, 1956; Adam, 1964). At that time, the
average annual depth of the lake was greater than usual, due to the lake having been filled by substantial river
spates (Grosmaire, 1957; Rochette, 1974). Variations in level over the course of the year were insignificant, since
there was little demand for water for irrigation. These hydrological conditions thus allowed the stock of dissolved
salts in Lake Guiers to be diluted considerably (Cremoux, 1961), and thus meant that the salinity of the lake water
was low.
On the other hand, a succession of extreme low water levels such as those that occurred from 1978 to 1983
caused Typha australis to regress and almost to completely disappear from the southern region in 1983 (Thiam,
1984). Since 1986, Typha australis has quickly regenerated and now almost totally covers the southern part of the
lake. Up to 1990 there existed only a few isolated groups of Pistia stratiotes. From 1991 onwards, especially in
the southern part of the lake, this species has developed at such a speed that, in 1993, it covered several hundred
hectares (Guiral, 1994; Thiam and Cogels, 1995). As banks no longer dry out, plant populations are not limited as
they once were.

MODIFICATIONS IN WATER QUALITY

The hydrological conditions in the lake, which have been modified since the dams started operating, have led to
direct and indirect changes in water quality.
 IMPACT OF DAM CONSTRUCTION ON A SAHELIAN LAKE 31

Methodology
From 1977 to 1994, water salinity monitoring was based on daily analyses carried out in a reference station on
the west bank of the lake. It has been established that there is a reliable correlation between the saline content
measured at this reference station and the mean salinity of Lake Guiers (Cogels et al., 1993b). These
measurements allow a distinction to be made between two hydrological periods of the lake, i.e. with or without
filling from the River Senegal. The calculation of mean salinity was based on 60 sampling series carried out from
1979 to 1982 and from 1989 to 1992 at 13 stations distributed over the lake. Each of the 13 stations has been
allocated a lake zone in which the concentration of various dissolved elements is considered homogeneous. The
volume of water in each of the zones is calculated as a function of water level, which is measured at each series of
samplings. The total mass of dissolved salts in Lake Guiers can thus be calculated and, from that, the average
salinity of the lake as a whole can be determined.

Results
Figure 3 illustrates the annual mean, maximum and minimum salinity of Lake Guiers since 1977. From 1977 to
1991, mean salinity did not vary appreciably (360 mg l 1), while it clearly decreased from 1992 onwards
ÿ

(240 mg l 1). Before 1986, the average annual salinity of the lake varied over the course of the year from 200 to
ÿ

780 mg l 1, or by approx. 285%, with extremes in the order of 600% in 1980 and 1983. The inverse correlation
ÿ

between these annual variations in salinity and the corresponding mean annual volume (calculated from the mean
of the daily water levels) of the lake is very good. This relation is not direct but expresses the effects of
evaporation on the concentration of the dissolved salts, which is more pronounced as the volume of the lake
decreases (Cogels and Gac, 1993). The level/lake area and volume diagram (see Figure 5) assists the
interpretation of the water quality evolution.
The slight annual variations measured in 1992, 1993 and 1994 were due to the almost permanent supply of
fresh water from the river into the lake. Management of the hydrology of the lake therefore directly influences
water quality.

Figure 3. Average volume (106 m3) and annual salinity (mg l 1) of Lake Guiers, maximum and minimum values 1977–1994
ÿ
32 F. X. COGELS, A. COLY AND A. NIANG

Figure 4. Annual variation in salinity in the northern, central and southern zones of Lake Guiers in 1990 and 1991 (mg l 1)
ÿ

The lake’s salinity is not homogeneous. A north–south gradient is more or less pronounced according to the
hydrological conditions that prevail during the year. Before 1985, the salinity at the two ends of the lake differed
by a factor of five (Cogels and Gac, 1987). In 1994, this difference was threefold and the difference is still
decreasing. Figure 4 indicates the annual variation in salinity at three stations in the northern, central and southern
zones of the lake in 1990 and 1991.
Before 1986, as a result of intense evaporation, the concentration of dissolved salts was as high as 10 g l 1 (and ÿ

sometimes more) in the temporary stagnant pools of the central and southern zones, which were isolated during

the low water periods. Since water temperature was sometimes higher than 40 C, this had serious effects on fish
and aquatic plant life. Following the modifications to the lake regime, this situation no longer applies.

Effects of qualitative changes

The recent change in the water quality has clearly improved the way of life of the lakeside inhabitants,
especially in the southern zone. Before 1986, water quality at the end of the dry season, when the water level was
at its lowest, had deteriorated to such a point that shepherds did not let their herds drink. Since the water from
wells and boreholes was brackish or salty, the supply of potable water was severely restricted and had grave
consequences for human health.
This qualitative improvement has also accelerated the development of aquatic plants such as Pistia stratiotes,
whose growth was already being encouraged by the stabilization in water levels. This species has a low tolerance
to water with a mineral content higher than 2000 mg l 1 (Guiral and Etien, 1994), a concentration which was
ÿ

often found prior to 1986, especially in the southern region. Under current conditions, the mineral content no
longer exceeds 750 mg l 1. ÿ

Ceratophyllum demersum, an aquatic herb, has rapidly developed in the northern part of Lake Guiers,
especially in the deep zones that are permanently submerged. This species has also invaded the irrigation canals
of the farming areas and is causing serious hydraulic problems. When high doses of herbicides are used, the
residues accumulate in the lake via agricultural runoff. This species is commonly found in eutrophic
 IMPACT OF DAM CONSTRUCTION ON A SAHELIAN LAKE 33

environments and is an ideal support for snails, intermediary hosts of schistosomiasis (Klumpp and Chu, 1980;
Leveque, 1980).
Since 1981, Potamogeton schweinfurthii has spread at a remarkable rate in the north-western zone of Lake
Guiers. This species of aquatic plant is also considered to be favourable for snails acting as vectors of
schistosomiasis (WHO, 1967).
The appearance of intestinal schistosomiasis (Schistosoma mansoni) in the lower valley of the River Senegal in
1988 was one of the negative consequences of the new environmental conditions after the Diama Reservoir had
begun operation (Talla et al., 1990; Diaw et al., 1991; Handschumacher et al., 1992). The suppression of the
annual movement of sea water upstream into the river has provided ideal conditions for the development of
malacological fauna, the vector of this disease. Today, almost 75% of the population of Richard-Toll City,
situated at the River Senegal–Taoué Canal junction, suffer from schistosomiasis. The first cases of Schistosoma
mansoni in lakeside inhabitants were reported in 1991. Here too, it has spread at an alarming rate, the latest
reports indicating that 80% of the lakeside inhabitants are affected (Picquet and Mbaye, 1995).
The rapid development of Schistosoma mansoni in Lake Guiers has to be seen in relation to that of
Biomphalaria pfeifferi, its principal transmitting host snail. In 1981, Cogels (1984) reported certain isolated
individual snails in Lake Guiers. Today, this snail has invaded the entire shore zone. The new environmental
conditions are probably responsible for this species’ development. At the beginning of 1995, finally, the first
cases of Schistosoma haematobium were registered on the lake’s west bank. Bulinus globusus is the principal
transmitting host snail for this.

LAKE WATER MANAGEMENT MODEL

A water management model has been developed which integrates quantitative and qualitative aspects. It is the
first model of its kind adapted to the management of Lake Guiers (Cogels et al., 1994). Research has been carried
out to solve the questions raised by the local managers of Lake Guiers. The research aims are as follows.
1. To explain how the changes in water salinity noted since 1991 have come about, and what has caused the
rapid development of aquatic vegetation since then. A further aim of this research was to estimate the effects
of various water management options on the development of salinity in Lake Guiers.
2. To evaluate the general qualitative effects of bringing into operation, in four to five years, of a canal
supplying fresh water to the entire north-western region of the country, starting from the most southerly point
of Lake Guiers. If one takes into account that very significant discharges are planned for this canal, and, thus,
that it is necessary to augment supplies from the river to Lake Guiers, then the lake is likely to undergo a very
marked qualitative development.
This model aims to quantify the respective effect of each component of the hydrological balance on the salinity
of water and to forecast how the water quality of the lake may evolve, given daily assessments of water inflows
and outflows.

Components
The first step in the development of this model is to calculate the daily hydrological state of the lake. The
hydrological components included are as follows.
1. The daily water levels measured in the lake’s central region. The relationships between level, surface and
volume of the lake are established from a topographic chart and field measurements (Cogels and Gac, 1982).
The area and volume curves are calculated by polynomial equations (Figure 5). Note that the lake bottom is
below sea level.
2. The water pumped from the lake. The main users (industrial production of sugar-cane and rice, production of
drinking water) provide data relating to pumped volumes. Those amounts intended for irrigation of
agricultural smallholdings are calculated on the basis of the areas under cultivation and their water
requirements over the course of the year.
34 F. X. COGELS, A. COLY AND A. NIANG

Figure 5. Level/area, volume diagram of Lake Guiers

3. 6
Rainwater supplies. These comprise direct supplies (amount of rainfall lake surface) and indirect supplies
via runoff. A runoff coefficient of 10% was used and applied to the raised part of the lake’s rainwater basin,
which was limited to an altitude of 4 m. The runoff coefficient corresponds to an average taken from studies
by Albergel (1988) in Burkina Faso, under similar environmental conditions. The reference weather station is
situated at the northernmost point of the lake.
4. Wastewater drainage from the 8000 ha of sugar-cane grown in the northern region of Lake Guiers. The
extremely saline condition of the soil means that these fields are constantly being irrigated and drained, and
this water is discharged at the lake’s northernmost point. The sugar company provides monthly data on the
volume of these discharges. Farmers of other irrigated crops do not discharge drainage water into Lake
Guiers or do not drain their soil at all.
5. Volume of water released into the Ferlo Valley from the lake’s southernmost point. The daily development
of the amount released into the Ferlo is calculated on the basis of available calculation tables. Evaporation
loss is calculated by taking the average amount of daily evaporation in Lake Guiers and applying it to the
water surface in the valley. In practice, the water level shows little variation, and the discharges passing the
lake’s southern embankment thus only compensate for losses by evaporation, since losses by infiltration are
regarded as practically zero. The water is not used for any particular purpose.
6. Calculation of evaporation from the lake is performed differently according to whether the lake is being filled
or not.
During the non-filling periods, evaporation is the only unknown parameter on the water balance and can be
deduced directly. The amount of water evaporation is calculated by dividing monthly volumes of evaporation by
the corresponding average areas of the lake. During the filling periods, two months per year from 1976 to 1990,
the lack of gauging equipment on the Taoué Canal prevents quantification of inflow from the river into the lake.
Monthly lake evaporation is then calculated on the basis of the average monthly evaporation coefficient (lake
evaporation divided by evaporation measured in a ‘Class A’ tank) calculated during the non-filling periods. The
 IMPACT OF DAM CONSTRUCTION ON A SAHELIAN LAKE 35

data from ‘Class A’ tank evaporation are recorded daily at three stations located at the northern end of Lake
Guiers.
Pouyaud (1985) used the same method to calculate evaporation in Lake Bam in Burkina Faso. Lake Bam and
Lake Guiers are subjected to the same dry tropical climatic conditions.
In the Hadeja–Nguru floodplain and under Sahelian climate conditions, Hollis and Thompson (1993)
calculated the evaporation of the water table on the basis of that measured in a Class A tank, multiplied by a
coefficient of 0170. In Lake Guiers, the average annual coefficient [lake evaporation/tank evaporation] is 0163.
Figure 6 shows average monthly evaporation calculated for the period 1976–1994 and the standard error of the
mean. Among other things, low interannual variation is typical of the annual evaporation cycle in the Sahelian
climate. This characteristic, which has been confirmed in many Sahelian lakes (Pouyaud, 1985), is due to the
interannual similarity of the annual cycle of these climate elements fundamental to evaporation: lack of air
vapour pressure and wind speed. At Lake Guiers, average annual evaporation totals 2123 m. During the period
1976–1994, it varied between 2114 and 2158 m. Its cycle and annual total are very similar to those measured at
other sites subject to similar climate conditions: at Lake Bam (Pouyaud, 1985) and Oursi Pond in Burkina Faso
(Chevallier et al., 1985), and at Lake Chad (Vuillaume, 1981). Time-wise, however, the annual evaporation
cycles at these locations are slightly out of line with those at Lake Guiers, since the schedule of seasons is
different. The monthly average evaporation values (1976–1994) are then integrated with polynomial equations.
The equations allow the calculation of the 365 daily evaporation values, included in the model. During the filling
periods, the model calculates supplies from the river to the lake. As has already been pointed out, the lack of any
means of river gauging, unfortunately, prevents any direct calculation of this parameter.
The second stage is to calculate the average salinity of the lake. This assumes homogeneous water quality,
which is not truly the case, as was shown above. In spite of this inaccuracy, observation of average water quality
allows an interesting diagnosis to be made with regard to the origin of the changes in salinity noted over the past
few years.
Figure 7 shows that the model calculates a mass balance of daily inputs and outputs of salt in the lake, and the
divides the actual stock of salt by the volume of the lake, thereby calculating average salinity (qL). Each element
of the hydrological balance is multiplied by its salinity, i.e.:
1. The salinity of the water supplied by the River Senegal—q1 (daily measurements)
2. The salinity of runoff from cultivated fields—q2. Average monthly samples are analysed.
3. The salinity of rainfall—q3 (interannual mean).

Figure 6. Average monthly evaporation (mm day 1) of Lake Guiers (1976–1994) and standard error of the mean
ÿ
36 F. X. COGELS, A. COLY AND A. NIANG

Figure 7. Diagram of water and weight balance parameters

4. The salinity of the water released into the Ferlo Valley is measured once a month—q4. At the same time, six
years of measurements allow the relationship between the salinity at that station and the average salinity of
the whole lake to be calculated. A submodel integrated into the overall model then calculates daily salinity.
5. The salinity of water sampled for the production of drinking water—q5 (daily measurements). Here too, a
submodel integrated into the overall model calculates the daily salinity at this station given the salinity of the
whole lake.
6. The salinity of irrigation water is assumed to be as identical to the average salinity of the lake (qL).
The model works on the EXCEL-5 spreadsheet program, at intervals of one day, and can compute changes in
water salinity over five successive years.
 IMPACT OF DAM CONSTRUCTION ON A SAHELIAN LAKE 37

First application of the model

Figure 8 presents a summary of the net inflows and outflows of water volumes and dissolved salts during the
period 1990–1994. The river provides up to 89% of the annual inflows of water, rainfall 6% and the drainage
water from crops only about 5%. Evaporation accounts for 89% of water loss.
The load of dissolved salts is mainly regulated by the inflow of drainage water from irrigation in the northern
region of the lake (58% of input) and by losses at its southern end, due to the release of water into the Ferlo
Valley (67% of the losses). The fact that saline content is highest in the southern region clearly explains the
impact of these outflows on the mean water quality of the lake.
The mineral input from drainage water and discharge into the Ferlo Valley are approximately in balance at
35 000 tons of dissolved salts p.a. on average. Bearing in mind that the mean dissolved salts load of Lake Guiers
is 110 000 tons, it is clear that hydrological management of the lake has a major impact on its water quality. A
scenario based on limiting outflows into the Ferlo Valley may double the lake’s salinity in four or five years.
Integrated management of the reservoir water is therefore fully justified.
Calculations indicate that the load of dissolved salts increased by about 50% between 1990 and 1994 (Cogels,
1995). During this same period however, the mean saline content decreased from 325 mg l 1 to approx. ÿ

230 mg l 1, i.e. by 30%. This fall in salinity is caused by the diluting effect of fresh river water (30 mg l 1)
ÿ ÿ

entering the lake. Water quantity and quality parameters are still closely related.

Second application of the model

Figure 9 shows that the model can also be used to simulate changes in water quality. It allows the impact of
different quantitative management options to be evaluated directly: management of water supply and losses,
reduction of drainage water in the lake, precise limnetric lake management throughout the year and delimitation
of filling periods.
The simulation presented covers a five-year period from 1990 to 1994. The basic data used in the model are
indicated above. The load of dissolved salts on 1 January 1990 is also a basic data input. The water salinity
measurements, carried out daily at the reference station on the west bank, permit the mean salinity to be estimated
(observed values). The coefficient of correlation between observed and calculated values is 0185.
In 1990 and 1991, the two periods of the hydrological year (filling period in August and September and non-
filling periods during the rest of the year) are clearly apparent. During the non-filling period, salinity increases as
a result of the closure of the river–lake junction, with evaporation playing a significant role in the process of
mineralization. In the second phase (filling period), the lake’s salinity decreases due to dilution by fresh water

Figure 8. Mean annual quantitative assessment of the inflows and outflows of water and dissolved salts 1990–1994 (%)
38 F. X. COGELS, A. COLY AND A. NIANG

Figure 9. Calculated and observed salinity of Lake Guiers, 1990–1994 (mg l 1)

ÿ

from the river. During the filling periods in 1990 and 1991, there is a clear time lag between observed salinity and
that calculated by the model. The model assumes complete and immediate mixing of inputs, which clearly does
not occur.
From 1992 to 1994, the river–lake junction was almost permanently open and the constant inflow of fresh
water into the reservoir clearly reduced the importance of the annual mineralization cycle of its water.
It must also be noted that the integrated water management model shown here is complemented by another
water balance model which evaluates the daily changes in the lake’s water levels on the basis of the various
parameters of the hydrological budget (Evora et al., 1991). This model, developed by ORSTOM in 1991, also
permits the inflow of river water needed throughout the year to be quantified, thereby ensuring that the level in
the lake follows a fixed cycle.

DISCUSSION AND MANAGEMENT CRITERIA

After nine years of operation of the River Senegal dams, it is useful to try to assess their positive and negative
effects.
1. For the lakeside inhabitants, water availability is the most important criterion. They previously suffered from
a chronic water shortage. The rapid spread of schistosomiasis in the region is the clearest negative effect. The
start of the epidemic corresponds exactly with the change in hydrological conditions and water quality in the
lake.
2. The profitability of investment in these installations can be evaluated by the relation between the annual
amounts of river water transferred to Lake Guiers and the amounts used to irrigate crops and produce
drinking water. Today this rate of utilization is very low: even if the amount of water released into the Ferlo
Valley is included, whose usefulness so far is questionable, the rate of utilization is in the range of 15–18%.
In addition, evaporation losses are very high due to the fact that the lake has been kept at a level that is far
greater than necessary. This highlights a fundamental water management problem.
 IMPACT OF DAM CONSTRUCTION ON A SAHELIAN LAKE 39

3. The forced abandonment of flood-recession agriculture has been disastrous for some of the lakeside
inhabitants. The ideal solution would be agricultural development adapted to the specified needs of the
population, combining modern crop irrigation methods with traditional recession crops. Strict management
of the river inflow into the lake would permit variation in the water level and the flooding and drying of
cultivation zones according to a traditional crop calendar.
4. Annual variation in water level would have the double advantage of drying up some of the aquatic vegetation
and limiting its further expansion. Failure to do so could lead to the very invasive plants becoming an
obstacle to water circulation and would also have negative effects on the fish population. The aquatic plants
are also a vector for various diseases. Pistia is the favoured support for Mansoria larvae, which transmit
filariasis. Ceratophyllum and other species such as Potamogeton are the supports for vectors of
schistosomiasis. The periodic drying of vegetation would not greatly modify the adult snail population,
since they are very resistant to desiccation. However, it would be more effective against their eggs, which are
very sensitive to it.
The effect of even a slight decrease in water level is particularly effective as a result of Lake Guiers’s
‘shallow lake’ morphology. This technique avoids recourse to other procedures such as chemical treatment,
which is costly and affects other environmental elements. According to Verhoef (pers. comm.), experiments
carried out in Puerto Rico with this in mind show that it is necessary to decrease water level by something of
the order of 1 cm per day. The dried snail’s eggs are destroyed within a few hours. In contrast, eliminating
aquatic vegetation requires a longer drying out period. Experiments in Lake Guiers show that a drying out
period of at least six weeks is needed to eliminate Pistia stratiotes.

Annual variation in water level would thus seem to be at least a partial solution to the problems faced at
present. Since 1991 the river–lake junction has been practically constant, as this is clearly the most simple
management system. Here, the level of the lake depends on that of the river, which has itself been very stable
since the Diama Dam went into operation. This maintenance of a very stable water level in the lake has simply
accelerated the negative effects of the new environmental conditions. However, a precise annual variation in the
level of Lake Guiers is relatively easy to manage. River water to recharge the lake is available throughout the
year, and correct management of the sluices on the Taoué Canal can allow supplies to be regulated at will.
However, it is still necessary to install gauging stations at both ends of the canal and to derive a rating curve
describing the relationship between water level and inflows, in order to calculate inflows into the lake precisely.
During periods when the lake is not being filled, the hydrological lake management model calculates the probable
development of the level of Lake Guiers as a result of water being pumped out at various points, and of
evaporation. One can therefore subject the lake to an annual fluctuation in level that also takes into account the
criterion of the agricultural calendar, as well as the need to dry out vegetation. It can thus be planned when the
lake is to be filled in the course of the year, taking into account both the needs of the users of the lake itself and
the availability of water in the river. In fact, between 200 000 and 250 000 ha of irrigated crops are being
developed in the catchment. The qualitative model can then estimate the effects of various quantitative
management options.
By way of example, the water level of Lake Guiers could vary during the course of the year from 2100 m, when
filling ends at the beginning of October, to 0150 m ten months later, prior to the next filling. This would allow
some 70 km2 of banks to be dried, some of which would be available for flood-recession agriculture. The water
would retreat by an average of 400 to 500 m, sufficient to dry a substantial part of the aquatic vegetation on the
shore. A minimum level of 0150 m ought not to present any problems for farmers of irrigated crops.
There are several management alternatives. Assuming that the elements of the hydrological balance are
identical to those of 1994, one could suggest a management plan commencing from a level of 2100 m on 1
October, at the end of the filling period. Until 1 February in the following year, the lake would not be supplied
from the river, and its level would fall steadily to 1125 m. The river–lake junction would then again be closed for
three months, with the water level falling to 0160 m. Finally, benefiting from the arrival of the river spate, the lake

6 6
would be filled to its original level of 2100 m. This management option would require river water supplies in the
order of 675 106 m3, with evaporation amounting to 570 106 m3. By way of information, maintaining the
lake at a constant level of 1175 m with constant supplies from the river would require 760 106 m3, 6
40 F. X. COGELS, A. COLY AND A. NIANG

6
637 106 m3 of which would evaporate. The amount of water saved in the former option is thus clear. In
addition, it provides a variation in level that fosters traditional agriculture and, at the same time, limits the spread
of aquatic vegetation.
From the start, the success of such a plan will depend on the participation of the lakeside inhabitants, and
therefore on good prior information. It will also require the approval of local authorities, who are not always in
favour of change.
The average salinity of the lake as depicted by the model corresponds with the measured values. Nevertheless,
the model is hampered by inaccuracies linked to the lack of reliable hydrological data. Precise measurements of
river water inflows in the lake would be particularly useful. The other elements of the hydrological balance are
sometimes also only approximations. Moreover, as conceived at the moment, the model calculates the average
salinity of the lake water even though there is evidence of a north–south gradient. The great number of water
analyses carried out on the lake should allow more sophisticated calculations in future, which take this disparity
into account. In its present version, considering the degree of accuracy required, the model assists in the
management of problems for which it was developed. It is adapted to the needs of local decision makers, and
must remain accessible to them.

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