CENGR 2230 - CONSTRUCTION

MATERIALS & TESTING

ENGR. RUEL V. VERGARA

WOOD AND
TIMBER
 TIMBER DECAY
Deterioration occurs mainly due to:
•Decay or Rot
•Insects. Marine borers
•Fire
 TIMBER
• Wood suitable for building or other engineering
works is called “timber”
• Not properly subjected to intermittent wetting
decays
• It has a less than 25% of moisture or fully submerged
in water
• Major disadvantage: ease with which it burns as
compared with structural materials
CLASSIFICATION OF
TIMBER
 STANDING TIMBER
- when it forms a part of a living tree

ROUGH TIMBER
- when the tree has fallen
 CONVERTED TIMBER
- when it has been sawn to various market
forms such as beams, battens, and planks
CLASSIFICATION OF
TREES
 ENDOGENOUS
Trees which grow inward in a longitudinal fibrous
mass
Ex. canes, bamboos, and palms

EXOGENOUS
Trees which grows outward from the center in
approximate concentric rings across the longitudinal
section of the stem.
Extensively used in engineering works
 EXOGENOUS TREES
CONIFER DECIDUOUS
Evergreen tree yielding Trees with broad leaves yielding
softwood trees with hardwood shed their leaves in
pointed leaves winter

Ex. Pine, chirr Ex. Sal, and Sheesham

METHODS OF SAWING
TIMBER
 ORDINARY SAWN OR
FLAT SAWN
Parallel cuts made throughout the length of the
log cutting parallel slices of planks easiest and
economical method shrinkage of sapwood
more than the heartwood causing warp and
twisting of planks
 QUARTER SAWING

Tendency to curve in a transverse direction

when applied to wood, not having distinct
medullar rays
 RIFT OR RADIAL
SAWING QUARTER
Timber cut parallel to medullar rays and
perpendicular to annual rings

3b ►least shrinkage but most wasted

3c ►limited rift is adopted
 TANGENTIAL SAWING
Boards or planks sawn tangentially to annual rings
not suitable for flooring planks cut by this method
warp too much
 PROPERTIES OF WOOD
& TIMBER
• It is readily and economically available
• Easily machinable
• Amenable to fabrication into an infinite variety of sizes and
shapes using simple on-site building techniques:

• Exceptionally strong relative to its weight

• A good heat and electrical insulator
• It is a renewable and biodegradable resource.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
• Used structural species ranges from roughly
0.30 to 0.90.
• Higher allowable design values are assigned
to those pieces having narrower growth rings
or more dense latewood per growth ring and,
hence, higher SG.
 MOISTURE CONTENT
AND SHRINKAGE
• Wood is hygroscopic, it picks up or gives off moisture to
equalize with the relative humidity and temperature in
the atmosphere.
• Bending strength can increase by about 50% in going
from green to a moisture content found in wood
members
• Wood also shrinks as it dries, or swells as it picks up
moisture, with concomitant warpage potential.
 THERMAL PROPERTIES/
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
• Its strength and other properties are
affected adversely by exposure for
extended periods to temperatures above
about 100°F.
• At temperatures above 220°F, wood takes
on a thermoplastic behavior.
 ENVIRONMENTALLY
FRIENDLY
• Timber is the most environmentally responsible
building material.
• -Timber has low production energy requirements
and is a net carbon absorber.
• -Timber is a renewable resource. Well-managed
forests produce timber on a sustained continuous
basis, with minimal adverse effects on soil and water
values.
 IN PLENTIFUL AND
GROWING SUPPLY
• Timber is readily available.
 STRONG AND
LIGHTWEIGHT
• Timber is strong, light and reliable making timber construction simpler
and safer than steel or concrete construction.
• A comparison with steel and concrete shows that radiata pine
structural timber, for example, has a strength for weight ratio 20
percent higher than structural steel and four to five times better than
unreinforced concrete in compression.
• The lightweight structures possible in wood confer flow-on advantages
in terms of reduced foundation costs, reduced earthquake loading
and easier transport. Building components and complete
constructions are simple and safe to erect, and cheaper to
deconstruct or reuse at the end of a building are useful life.
 SAFE
• Timber is strong, light and reliable making timber
construction simpler and safer than steel or concrete
construction.
• A comparison with steel and concrete shows that
radiata pine structural timber, for example, has a
strength for weight ratio 20 percent higher than
structural steel and four to five times better than
unreinforced concrete in compression.
 RECYCLABLE
• Timber is a forgiving material that can be
easily disassembled and reworked. If
demolition or deconstruction of a wooden
building is necessary, many wood-based
products can be recycled or reused.
COST EFFECTIVE

DURABLE

COMFORTABLE

COMPRESSION STRENGTH
 FLEXIBLE
• A particular feature of timber is the flexibility of
design forms and finishes that can be used. This
flexibility also extends to the ease with which existing
buildings can be added to or modified to suit
changing circumstances. High levels of thermal
insulation are incorporated within the construction,
reducing heating costs and conserving energy.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
 DRYING AND
SEASONING OF WOOD
• The process of removal of moisture content from
wood so as to make it useful for construction and
other uses
• This reduces the chances of decay, improves load
bearing properties, reduces weight, and exhibits
more favorable properties like thermal & electrical
insulation, glue adhesive capacity & easy
preservative treatment.
 NATURAL OR AIR
SEASONING
• it is the traditional method of seasoning timber was to stack
it in air and let the heat of the atmosphere and the natural
air movement around the stacked timber remove the
moisture.
• The process has undergone a number of refinements over
the years that have made it more efficient and reduced the
quantity of wood that was damaged by drying too quickly
near the ends in air seasoning
 FOUR MAIN REASONS
FOR AIR DRYING WOOD:
• To increase dimensional stability. Wood shrinks across the grain when it dries.
If wood is cut to size before it is seasoned, it will shrink during drying and thus
be undersized in its final form.
• To reduce or eliminate attack by decay or stain. Wood that is dried below 20
percent moisture content is not susceptible to decay or sap staining.
• To reduce the weight. The weight of lumber will be reduced by 35 percent or
more by removing most of the water in the wood or, as we say, by
"seasoning."
• To increase the strength. As wood dries, the stiffness, hardness and strength
of the wood increases. Most species of wood increase their strength
characteristics by 50 percent or more during the process of drying to 15
percent moisture content.
 ARTIFICIAL (KILN)
SEASONING
• Kiln drying of lumber is perhaps the most effective
and economical method available. Drying rates in a
kiln can be carefully controlled and defect losses
reduced to a minimum. Where staining is a problem,
kiln drying is often the only reasonable method that
can be used unless chemical dips are employed.
 PROGRESSIVE
SEASONING
• Progressive kilns may be further subdivided into natural draft kilns in
which heated air is allowed to rise through the material by natural
convection, and forced draft kilns in which fans are employed to
force the air through the wood. Generally, it is not feasible to kiln-
dry structural timber in thicknesses greater than 45 mm, although
there are limited amounts of 70 mm thick kiln-dried softwood
members in the market place. All untreated structural pine and
some commercial hardwoods are seasoned, mostly using kilns that
are often heated by sawmill by-products or gas.
 COMPARTMENT
SEASONING
• Compartment kilns differ from progressive kilns in that the
timber is loaded into the kiln and remains in place
throughout the drying process. Compartment kilns are
usually smaller than progressive kilns, and because of
their construction the temperature and humidity
conditions within them can be closely controlled.
Consequently, they are often used to dry expensive
material or woods which are difficult to dry.
 PRESERVATIVES
OF WOOD
• Preservatives increase the resistance of wood to decay and
increase its useful life.

Main classes of preservatives

• Oily substances insoluble in water
• Water Soluble Salt
• Salts carried in volatile solvent other than water
• Painting
 OILY SUBSTANCES
INSOLUBLE IN WATER
• Coal-tar is the best known
• Obtained from bituminous coal
• Available in many grades
• Insoluble in water
• Highly toxic to fungi
• High degree of penetration
 DISADVANTAGES OF
USING OILY
PRESERVATIVES
• Timber
• Disagreeable odor
• Difficult to be covered with paints
 WATER SOLUBLE
SALT
• Zinc chloride
• Readily available, clean, odorless
 SALTS CARRIED IN
VOLATILE SOLVENT
OTHER THAN WATER
• Another recent product is AsCu which is a copper
and arsenic compound is used as a preservative
• Odorless and leave on strains on timber
• Good fire resistant
 PAINTING
• Acts not only as a preservative but it also
enhances the appearance of the treated surface
• Only well seasoned timber should be painted
closing of timber pores by paint
METHODS OF APPLYING
WOOD PRESERVATIVES
-Wood must have the following characteristics
before preservatives are applied to it:
-Wood must be well seasoned
-Wood must be cut to size before applying
preservatives
 PAINTING & DIPPING
• Simplest method
• Preservatives applied by mean of brush (several times)
• Timber can also be immersed in tank full of liquid
(preservative)
• Penetration should hardly exceed (1/16 inch)
• Duration of immersion and temperature of preservative
solution
• to increase penetration
 PRESSURE PROCESS
(FULL CELL PROCESS)
• A higher degree of penetration can be obtained by forcing the
preservative into the wood
• Timber placed inside a chamber
• Air drawn out to create a vacuum
• The cells are completely (almost) empty to receive the preservative
• Preservative material may be creosote oil or zinc chloride
• Preservatives pumped under a pressure of 100 to 200 psi at 120oF
• The excess preservative is removed by creating a low vacuum
• Timber preserved by this method are used in piles in saltish water,
poles, sleeper
 THE EMPTY CELL
PROCESS
• Similar to the full cell process but no initial vacuum is
created
• No attempt is made to remove the air from the cells
• The preservatives applied under a pressure of 200 psi
• The excess preservatives drain away
• A deeper penetration of preservatives
 DECAY OF WOOD &
TIMBER
• The principal destroyers of wood are decay, caused by fungus, and
attack by a number of animal organisms of which termites, carpenter
ants, grubs of a wide variety of beetles, teredo, and limnoria are the
principal offenders. In addition, fire annually causes widespread
destruction of wood structures. Decay will not occur if wood is kept
well ventilated and air-dry or, conversely, if it is kept continuously
submerged so that air is excluded.
• The drywood and dampwood termites found along the southern fringes of the
country and along the west coast.
• Teredo, limnoria, and other water-borne wood destroyers are found only in salt or
brackish waters.
 DECAY OF WOOD &
TIMBER
• The principal destroyers of wood are decay, caused by fungus, and
attack by a number of animal organisms of which termites, carpenter
ants, grubs of a wide variety of beetles, teredo, and limnoria are the
principal offenders. In addition, fire annually causes widespread
destruction of wood structures. Decay will not occur if wood is kept
well ventilated and air-dry or, conversely, if it is kept continuously
submerged so that air is excluded.
• The drywood and dampwood termites found along the southern fringes of the
country and along the west coast.
• Teredo, limnoria, and other water-borne wood destroyers are found only in salt or
brackish waters.
 WOOD AS
CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
 WOOD
CONSTRUCTION
• Wood is the oldest material used by humans for
constructional purposes, after stone. Despite its complex
chemical nature, wood has excellent properties which lend
themselves to human use. It is readily and economically
available; easily machinable; amenable to fabrication into
an infinite variety of sizes and shapes using simple on-site
building techniques; exceptionally strong relative to its
weight; a good heat and electrical insulator; and—of
increasing importance—it is a renewable and
biodegradable resource.
 PROBLEMS IN WOOD
CONSTRUCTION
• Wood and water do not mix well
• Pay attention to detail
• Wood is viscoelastic and will creep under load
• Repair structural members correctly
• Protect materials at the job site
• Take time to know what species and grades of lumber you require, and then inspect it
• Inspect the job site
• Inspect all timber connections during erection
• Be aware of wood’s orthotropicity
• Use metal joist hangers and other fastening devices; they add strength and efficiency in
construction to a job
• Wood and fire pose a unique situation
 WOOD DEFECTS
• Knots
• Slope of grain
• Wane
• Shake
• Splits and cracks
• Insect attack
• Decay