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UNIT 2: THE MORAL AGENT

 

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Explain the relationship between individual acts and character;

b. Identify and articulate each stage of moral development.
 

2.1. Introduction
 
Have you ever visited a place you find so strange that you feel like the actions
of the people there are wrong if not downright offensive? Did you ask any of
them why they do what they do? If you just walked away from that situation
without trying to understand their decisions, then most probably, you ended
up becoming judgmental of them instead of trying to understand where they
are coming from, their norms, and their values included.

In this chapter, we will scrutinize the enormous significance of culture in

understanding the moral actions of people. In doing so, we will look at the
contextual differences of societies and how these affect the moral behavior of
individuals inclusive therein. In the process, both its strengths and weaknesses
as more and more people invoke it as their final arbiter in making moral
judgments.

2.2 Discussion

Culture and our moral behaviour

On January 3, 2018, CNN reported that a Nigerian man posted graphic pictures on
Facebook showing children apparently going through genital mutilation (Adebayo,
2018). The post caused an outrage from his fellow Nigerians, which pressured
him to take down his post, eventually apologizing for what he did.

The case of female genital mutilation (fgm) is not an entirely new practice in

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many African countries. This is considered as a rite of passage to womanhood, in

countries including Kenya and Sierra Leone, while it is valued as a means of
preserving a girl’s virginity until marriage, in Sudan, Egypt and Somalia (FGM,
Information, Historical and Cultural, n.d.). Although there are already a lot of
reports about this, in Nigeria for example, none have been convicted for doing it
even if it was already legally prohibited since 2015 (Adebayo, 2018).

One of the most difficult concepts in learning and understanding our moral
behaviour is the idea of cultural relativism. As culture and morality are
intertwined, their inseparability in understanding our actions makes it even more
complicated since we ought to look at cultural lenses in figuring out whether we
arrived at making moral decision or not. The case of general mutilation has
already been deemed a violation of human rights by the United Nations.
Nonetheless, the practice has not been entirely extinguished in some African, and
even Asian countries.

Truthfully, we invoke the norms of our culture in deciding whether our choices
mirror the true, the good and the beautiful, or if it disgraces our cultural moral
ideals. When the act is acceptable, we do not usually challenge, much less,
question it. Norms refer to social and cultural regulations and decrees that govern
the everyday activity of people, inclusive of its moral and ethical imperatives,
customs and cultural practices (Barker, 2004). When we abide by these norms, we
are considered normal, as everybody else, doing what is normative in the society.
On the contrary, those who do otherwise are deemed strange, irrational, or to be
blunt about it, abnormal or deviant, going against what is socially prescribed.

Hence, the moral behaviour of people is clearly hinged from what was ingrained
to him as right, proper and acceptable in his cultural context. As this was acquired
through the process of socialization, we become aware, growing up, of the many
do’s and don’t’s, the oughts and ought nots, reflecting the upheld values of our own
people.

Culture is defined as that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts,
morals, laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society (Burke, 2008). It is one big chunk of our society that dictates
how we are supposed to act in varying situations based on what is right and
wrong, acceptable or not. As our actions and perspectives are culturally
constructed, so is our moral behaviour.

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Pop-Up Question:
How do you think you community influence your behaviour?

Since culture is the totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge,

material objects, and behaviour (Shaefer, 2013), it is only right to comprehend and
appreciate its impact in the over-all understanding of people of who they are and
in their decision makings.

Pop-Up Question:
How does culture define moral behaviour?

The Filipino Way

In the Philippines, one way of looking (at the problem of) morality is to reflect on
the prevailing norms of right and wrong among Filipinos (Gorospe, 1966). As
majority of us adhere to religious ideals, particularly Christian ones, our concept
of morality hinges from what we do as Christians, if it is in adherence or in
conflict with what we need to do as individual entities or a collective group.
Gorospe lists the following as distinct Filipino moral norms:

1. Group-centeredness or group-think. As Gorospe explained, “what will

others say” usually determines Filipino moral behaviour. He perfectly calls
this as the Filipinos’ “conscience from the outside.”
2. The “Don’t be caught” attitude based on shame or fear of the authority
figure. For example, even if there is already a national smoking ban in the
country at present, there are still those who disregard the law since they are
not being caught by authorities anyway.

Pop-Up Question:
Give one Filipino cultural practice that should never be tolerated
3. Complacency when one is and explain
aware but why.
is not concerned. It is an open-secret
that corruption is rampant in the government. Even though we are aware
of it, there are still a lot of Filipinos who do not really mind about changing
the status quo by invoking their rights of suffrage, but perhaps are just so

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indifferent about it.

4. Rationalization. We have that instinct of justifying an act no matter how
wrong it is. Students do know for a fact that cheating is bad. Still and all, if
they feel like it is the only way to pass a course, then, they will rationalize
the act and continue it until they achieve their goal.

Functions of Culture

Here are some of the functions of culture which are significant in understanding
our moral behaviour:

1. Culture provides identity to the people in the society. This is what

separates communal groups from each other. They are known by their
distinct traditions and beliefs that they hold dear.
2. Culture mirrors the laws of the land. Laws in one society are born out of
the norms which are the socially acceptable behavioural patterns in the
community. These norms are held with supreme importance, and so the
people make sure that they are systematized and followed by all. Going
against these laws are punishable in most, if not all cases.
3. Culture unifies people in ways that only those who belong in that
society understand. It is always what the communal group invokes in
matters of decisions, practices and traditions.
4. Culture influences our concept of morality. Culture provides the rules of
the games in the society through our cultural norms. It is very much
prescriptive of what is morally right and wrong, what is respectful and
not, affecting our patterns of behaviour. It is the culture that molds, if not
dictates, the values that should be adhered to by the people.

Our moral actions are embedded in the social structures provided by the
traditions of old. There is no way that we will decide without invoking our
cultural moral biases. How we talk, think, and tap daily judgements is definitely
carved by what we were raised to believe is morally acceptable or not.

Culture Relativism: Different Strokes for Different Folks

One way of knowing which ethical views work in certain context is by

understanding the cultures of different people. Though there are certain
universals that everyone might agree upon, it has to be accepted that the
manifestations of these vary from culture to culture. Behaviours of people are

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very much affected by the society they belong to. It is in the society that they learn
what is right or wrong, acceptable or not.

Communal groups have ways in which they show respect for people, for the law,
for the environment and what not. Cultural traditions have become the go to
element if we are to understand why people vary in their perspectives and their
actions. In this regard we ought to recognize and appreciate differences in moral
behaviours of people from varying cultures.

In sociology, known as the study of human society, cultural relativism is give

prime importance. Cultural relativism is the view that moral beliefs and practices
vary with and depend on the human needs and social conditions of particular
cultures (Holmes, 2007). This definition is entirely based on the premise that there
can be no universal “oughts”, and there is no culture that can be the basis of all that
is good and true. It is important to recognize the vitality of cultural differences
since ethical judgements are relative to cultural contexts (Fiala & Mackinnon,
2013).

Thus, our morality can only be understood based on what is culturally acceptable
or not, in the society where we belong. Cultural relativism then should be
understood as a celebration and appreciation of cultural diversity (Kellenberger,
2011). This diversity could be manifested in the way we dress, the way we talk to
the elderly, and even in our beliefs in the supernatural. It is important to
underscore as well the important historical role of cultural relativism in
encouraging cross-cultural understanding and contributing to an expansion of
human freedom(Brown, 2008).

Moral Relativism

In effect, cultural relativism results to, if not implies moral relativism which
maintains that different societies (and ages) hold distinct systems of morality and
that there are no objective, and transcultural criteria for judging between these
systems (Herder as cited in Sikka, 2011). Thus, people are supposed to be
understood from the perspective of the traditions that they hold dear.

Pop-Up Question:
How does cultural relativism promote moral relativism?

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No one has the right to intrude a society whose values are embedded in their
culture and tradition. It might be improper as well as to teach them what to do
and what not to do on the basis of one’s belief as an outsider. As diversity is
celebrated in cultural relativism, so should due respect be given to people of all
cultures, deferring judgements and extending understanding to all instead.

Factors Affecting Moral Character Development

Moral character is formed by one’s actions. “The habits, actions, and emotional
responses of the person of good character are all united and directed toward the
moral and the good” (Mitchell, 2015, para 1). In order for us to be able to acquire
good habits and values, we have to know what factors influence our moral
character.

Mamawal (1993) listed several agencies of values formation:

1. Family,
2. Biological constitution,
3. Peer,
4. School, and
5. Community.

The family plays a crucial role in the formation of someone’s moral character.
Biological or not, the family that one. Modern times also affect the composition of
the family we traditionally have known to be. Before, we have a female for
mother, a male for a father, and their children. But, now, the composition of
parents could be varied. Despite the changes, the adults who are deemed to be the
parents are still accountable for the moral development of their child or children.
Zigler and Finn-Stevenson (1987) asserted that there are several factors affecting
the values a parent could teach a child. These factors are: socioeconomic status,
culture, age, gender, religion, and education (as cited in Mamawal, 1993).

The biological factors such as age, sex, and gender, may also have an impact on
the value formation. It is supposed that as one grows older, the moral character
one has should also grow or improve. However, this is not always the case. One’s
progress in moral development is also hinged to other factors. One’s sex or
gender would have more impact once it combines with the other factors that could
shape one’s moral character.

As we become exposed to more people, we are pressured in trying to belong or be

accepted. Peers, friends, classmates, and colleagues are also influencers in our
moral character. Parents and teenagers are to be aware that in the adolescent
years, teens are drawn to spending more time with peers than family. The time
spent with peers will expose them to other perspectives and practices. This would

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test their existing set of morals. Thus, the foundation of their moral character
formed in the family should be strong.

To be part of a community means to also share their beliefs and/or practice their
traditions or culture. A community could pertain to a “locality, neighbourhood,
town, city, or even a nation” (Panopio, 1983, as cited in Mamawal, 1993).

Most of a person’s life before adulthood is commonly spent in school. In this span
of time, the exposure of the students comes from the school, teachers, classmates,
lessons in class, and their peers. The school and its teachers could enhance the
students’ moral character if they know how and if they are intentional about it.
More and more schools and workplace settings expect a student applicant to be of
good character so teaching how to develop one is vital.

“strictly speaking, then, moral philosophy cannot be taught because the love of wisdom
cannot be imparted the same way that facts about the world are imparted. But the love of
moral wisdom can be encouraged in everyone and nurtured in those who actively seek to
understand morality and its place in human life” (Holmes, 2007,p,2)

Pop-Up Question
From your perspective, do you think you belong in a community
with a strong moral values? Expound your answer.

Goodness is about character – integrity, honesty,

kindness, generosity, moral courage, and the like.
More than anything else, it is about
How we treat other people.
-Dennis Prager

Stages of Moral Development

Developing moral character does not happen overnight. Mizzoni (2010) stated
that “Human beings are not born with moral virtues”. However, if we are aware or
made aware, we have the potential to choose and control our actions through
repetition until they become habits embedded in our character. If the habits we
have formed are good, they can be regarded as virtues and these will be easier to
do and choose when a dilemma arises. It is essential to realize that though it
might be embedded in our character, an intention to choose and act on it every
time is vital. Moreover, once people recognize it to be part of our character, they
would expect for us to always do it.

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Repeated Habit
Potential Character
Actions Formations

Figure 1. Moral Development

For morality to be developed, it need its building blocks, Love, hate, values,
thoughts, feeling, emotions, obligations, virtues, and principles – the elements of morality
– are in their own way as real as atoms and electrons” (Holmes, 2007. P.2).

In forming habits, an input is needed to be able to have a desired output. Input

could come from the various factors and exposures. This is why Aristotle
emphasized the need for a good role model in developing moral character
(Mizzoni, 2010).

The research of Kohlberg though tedious is regarded as simple and

straightforward. He asked his subjects of varied ages hypothetical dilemmas and
their answers were noted and interpreted. The most famous story he used was the
Heinz Dilemma (McLeod, 2013):

Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might
save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and Heinz tried desperately to
buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug, and
this was much more than the Heinz could afford.

Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He
explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug
cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. The chemist refused, saying that he had
discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to
save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemist’s lab and stole the drug.

Then, Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?

2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?

After interpreting and making inferences from the answers of his subjects,
Kohlberg was able to come up with a Moral Development Theory. This present a
six-stage theory involving three levels of moral reasoning categorizing progressive
change in person’s moral development. The theory involves three levels of moral
reasoning. Each of the three levels contains two separate stages:

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1. Preconventional (you scratch my back and I will scratch yours),

2. Conventional (conforming to other’s expectations, regardless of immediate
consequences), and
3. Post conventional (determine moral values apart from groups holding
them) (Kohlberg, 1971, as cited in Larson, 2003, p.24).

Level 1 Preconventional, Stage 1 Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The

(you scratch my back and I physical consequences of an action determine its
will scratch yours) goodness or badness regardless of the values of these
consequences. Avoidance of punishment are regarded
as values in their own rights.
Stage 2 Naively Egotistical. Relativists orientation. Right
action is viewed as what satisfies one’s own needs, and
occasionally the needs of others.
Level 2 Conventional Stage 3 “Good Boy – Nice Girl Orientation”. Behaviour
(conforming to other’s which pleases or helps others, or is approved by
expectations, regardless of others, is viewed as good behaviour. One gains
immediate consequences) acceptance and approval by being nice.
Stage 4 Authority – Law and Order Orientation. Doing one’s
duty, showing respect for authority, and following
fixed rules is viewed as demonstrating good
behaviour. Maintaining the social order for its own
sake, rather than out of fear of punishment.
Level 3 Postconventional Stage 5 Contractual Linguistic Orientation”. Correct action is
(determine moral values viewed in terms of general individual rights and
apart from groups holding standards that have been accepted by society. There is
them) emphasis upon the “legal point of view”.

Stage 6 Conscience and Principle Orientation. Right is

determined by conscience in accordance with personal
ethics and principles. Included would be universal
abstract principles of justice.
Note: From the “Stages of Moral Development as a Basis for Moral Education”. By L. Kohlberg, 1971. In Beck, ed.
Figure 2. Stages of Moral Development (Source: Larson, 2004)

There are several studies challenging Kohlberg’s study. Some studies stated that
through Kohlberg’s theory tries to have a universalist perspective, people from
different cultures could have different ways in forming moral character. Another
study contradicted Kohlberg’s findings, Moon (1984) asserted that it “did not find
dominance of the justice principle, and moral development, unfortunately is not
necessarily congruent with age” (Larson, 2004, p.24).

After Kohlberg, other models for moral development emerged but still, his is
considered to be a relevant foundational contribution. As Giligan (1998) puts it,

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“Kohlberg is perhaps the most influential psychologist in the field of moral development”
(as cited in Larson, 2003, p.13).

Pop-Up Question:
Are you satisfied with the quality of your moral character? What is
about your moral character that makes you satisfied/dissatisfied?

Morality in Today’s Generation

In a globalized world, commitment to morality would be more challenging.

Poushter (2014) asked the question: “What’s morally acceptable?” specifically in the
issues of extramarital affairs, gambling, homosexuality, abortion, premarital sex,
alcohol use, divorce, and contraception use. The answer from the poll was: “It
depends on where in the world you live”.

In a survey conducted by Pew in 2014, it was found out that there are still a lot of
people who stated that belief in God is essential to be a moral person though this
is only limited to the poorer countries. In the Philippines, 93% believe that belief
in God is necessary to have morality.

Accessibility to information is a double-edged sword. It provides the ease of

getting information but not the ease of processing it well. Despite the digital
divide, many still enjoy and possibly suffer the plethora of information given or
even forced to be digested by the sources of information around us. Having a
quiet time for self-reflection or just to take a break from the many physical and
psychological noises surrounding us becomes elusive with the presence of mobile
devices and the fear of missing out.
Pop-Up Question
What social media sites do you use? How do these contribute to the
development of your moral character?

Exposure to numerous and diverse information makes us prone to more

emotional, intellectual, psychological, spiritual, and moral problems. Addressing
each one starts with the ability and knowledge to fist recognize it. Just like any
other problem, being able to identify the problem is the onset of solving it. We
would only be able to identify it, if we know what it is and if we have good
foundations on it. If one is not well-equipped, identifying, facing, and solving
moral problems become more challenging.

Morality is influenced by culture, religion and education. For one to learn it, it

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has to be taught directly or indirectly, it has to be observed in words and in

practice, better yet, it has to be experienced in one’s interaction with other
people. Despite the reliance of parents at home – the earlier parents/guardians
understand this, the better the moral installation would be. That is, if the
morality defined at home is the same morality developed in school, church,
community, and media. However, the incongruences are ubiquitous – resulting
to a possible hodgepodge of morals. This strengthens the need to ensure proper
moral development among children – even adults – a very timely wakeup call
that has been snoozed off and ignored every time it is convenient.

In cases of confusion and/or desire for convenience, moral relativism happens to

practice. Having a double-standard type of morality serving as one’s guiding
principle could focus on self-serving biases. Every moral dilemma could be
blurred and could be negotiable thing depending of what is more convenient.
This could be problematic and detrimental.

“Although moral philosophy cannot promise to resolve your moral problems for you, it
can help guide you in your efforts to resolve those problems and in your deliberations
about what constitutes the wise conduct of life” (Holmes, 2007, p.2).

Pop-Up Question
What one virtue that you have, would you consider as non-negotiable?
(Meaning, you would never give it up or sacrifice it.) Why?
Please explain your answer.

Do not do an immoral thing for moral reason.

- Thomas Hardy
Unit Summary

Developing a strong moral character takes exposure, practice, time, and good role
models. It is never perfected but the crucial part is the persistence to try, rise from
every fall, learn from each mistake, and forgive one’s self. In the process of forming
our moral character, we understand ourselves better. This may reveal to us things
we do not want about ourselves but at least now we know we have the ability and
right to choose what is moral and just. May our moral character not be limited in
our words or thoughts alone but may it overflow to our actions, behaviour, and
treatment to other people regardless of race, gender belief, age, education, or socio-
economic status.

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ACTIVITY WORKSHEET

Direction: Identify Filipinos who you deem to have exemplary moral character. List
down the traits that you consider as exemplary and the specific ways you know on
how to execute them. Then, explain why you consider it to be an exemplary moral
character and how you would be able to apply it in your own life. Kindly use the table
 
below:
Why do you consider it an
Exemplary Moral
Name of Person exemplary moral character? And,
Character
how can it be applied in your life?

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2.3 References
 
Palean, E. D., Nazario, M.D., Descartin, I.L., Mendoza, B.S., Valero, J.G (2019).
Ethics Exploring Moral Philosophy. Mandaluyong City. Books ATBP. Publishing
Corp. pp. 7-14
What are Dilemmas:
https://www.storyboardthat.com/articles/e/dilemma#:~:text=Common
%20types%20of%20dilemmas%20include%20classic%2C%20ethical%2C%20and
%20moral.
What is a Moral Dilemma:
https://viva.pressbooks.pub/phi220ethics/chapter/what-is-an-ethical-dilemma/

2.4 Acknowledgment
 

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The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.

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