1.

INTRODUCTION
The living organisms react with their environments and they bear full

impression of the environments in which they grow.

In order to withstand adverse conditions of the environment and utilize to

their maximum benefit the nutrients and other conditions prevailing therein, the

organisms develop certain morphological, anatomical, physiological and

reproductive features.

Any feature of an organism or its part which enables it to exist under

conditions of its habitat is called adaptation. Every organism develops certain

adaptations and so does the population or a community. The completion of life

cycle of an organism or stabilization of a community results through a series of

adaptations which have survival value.

Adaptations of survival value comprise such features as prevent

destruction of vital vegetative tissues and help in large production and efficient

dissemination of reproductive bodies. Warming (1895) had realized for the first

time the influence of controlling or limiting factors upon the vegetation in

ecology. He classified plants into several ecological groups on the basis of their

requirements of water and also on the basis of nature of substratum on which

they grow.

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 Warming classified plants on the basis of nature of substratum

(soil) into the following groups.

(1) Plants of acidic soil (Oxylophytes)

(2) Plants of saline soil (Halophytes)

(3) Plants growing on the sand (Psammophytes)

(4) Plants growing on the surface of rocks (Lithophytes)

(5) Plants growing in the crevices of rocks (Chasmophytes).

Epiphytes are not included in the above classification because of the fact

that they do not have permanent connection with the soil. Warming’s second

classification (1909) of the plants is based on their water relations. The supply of

water to the plants and regulation of transpiration are the factors that evoke great

differences in plant forms and plant life.

On the basis of their water requirement and nature of soils, the plants
have been classified as follows:
1. Hydrophytes:
Plants growing in or near water.

2. Xerophytes:
Plants adapted to survive under the condition of very poor supply of available
water in the habitats.

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Xerophilous plants are further classified on the basis of their habitats
as follows:
(i) Oxylophytes (on acid soils)

(ii) Halophytes (on saline soils)

(iii) Lithophytes (on rocks)

(iv) Psammophytes (on sand and gravels)

(v) Chersophytes (on waste land)

(vi) Eremophytes (on deserts and steppes)

(vii) Psychrophytes (on cold soils)

(viii) Psilophytes (savannah)

(ix) Sclerophytes (Forest and bush land)

3. Mesophytes: Plants growing in an environment which is neither very dry nor

very wet. The detailed description of only some important ecological groups is
given here.

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2. OBJECTIVES
i. To study the morphological, anatomical and physiological
modifications of plants.
ii. To study the adaptation of plants in accordance to different
conditions.

3. HYDROPHYTES (Adaptations in plants to aquatic

environment)
The plants which are growing in water partially or completely are known as

aquatic plants or hydrophytes. Water may be freshwater or saline. Plants which

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grow in fresh water bodies like ponds, lakes, pools, streams, rivers etc. are known

as freshwater plants, and those growing in salt water are known as saltwater

plants or marine plants. The free-floating, on-vascular hydrophytes constitute

phytoplanktons.

The aquatic plants show the following adaptations.

Classification of Hydrophytes:

According to their relation to water and air, the hydrophytes are

grouped into the following categories:

(a) Submerged hydrophytes

(b) Floating hydrophytes

(c) Amphibious hydrophytes.

(a) Submerged hydrophytes:

Plants which grow below the water surface and are not in contact with

atmosphere are called submerged hydrophytes. Such plants may be free-floating

or rooted. Example Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Potamogeton, Najas. Ceratophyllum

Mynophyllum, Utricularia, Chara, Nitella and a number of aquatic microbes.

(b) Floating hydrophytes:

Plants that float on the surface or slightly below the surface of water is

called floating hydrophytes. These plants are in contact with both water and air.

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They may or may not be rooted in the soil. On this ground, the floating plants

have been divided into two groups.

(i) Free floating hydrophytes:

These plants float freely on the surface of water but are not rooted in the

mud. Examples-Wolffia arhiza and Wolffia microscopica (a rootless minutes

duck weed). Trapa bispinosa, Lymnanthemum. Eichhornia crassipes (water

hyacinth, verna—Jalkumbhi), Salvinia (a fern), Azolla (a water fern) .

(ii) Floating but rooted hydrophytes:

Some submerged plants are rooted in muddy substrata of Ponds Rivers and

lakes but their leaves and flowering shoots float on or above the surface of water.

They are grouped as floating but rooted hydrophytes. Nelumbium speciosum

(Lotus), Victoria regia (water lily), Ceratopteris thalictroides (a hydrophytic fern

of family Parkariaceae), etc.

(c) Amphibious hydrophytes:

These plants are adapted to both aquatic and terrestrial modes of life.

Amphibious plants grow either in shallow water or on the muddy substratum.

Amphibious plants which grow in saline marshy places are termed as ‘halophytes.

Roots and some parts of stems and leaves in these plants may be submerged in

water or buried m mud but some foliage, branches and flowering shoots spring

well above the surface of water or they may spread over the land.

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 The aerial parts of these amphibious plants show mesophytic or sometimes

xerophytic features, while the submerged parts develop true hydrophytic

characters. Some varieties of rice plants, (Oryza sativa), Marsilea, Sagittaria.

Alisma, Jussiaea. Neptuma, Commelina, Polygonum, Ranunculus aquatilis,

Phragmites. Enhydra fluctuans, etc. are familiar examples of this group of

hydrophytes. In some amphibious plants the shoots are completely exposed to air

as m land plants but the roots are buried in water lodged soil or mud. They are

called marsh plants. The common examples of marsh plants are Cyperus, Typha,

Scirpus, Rumex, etc.

Morphological adaptations:-

1. Roots may completely be lacking (Wolfia, Utricularia) or feebly developed

(Hydrilla)

2. Root hairs are absent (Lemna) or feebly developed.

3. Roots caps may be absent or root pockets are present (Eicchornia).

4. Roots are generally fibrous type and adventitious, unbranched or sparsely

branched.

5. The stem is long, slender, weak, spongy and flexible type in submerged

hydrophytes.

6. The stem is short, stoloniferous, thick, and spongy, with extensive parenchyma

in free floating plants.

7. The leaves may arrange in alternate phyllotaxy (Potamogeton) or opposite

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(Cabwoman) or whorled (Hydrilla).

8. Stomata are present on the upper epidermis which is in contact with air and

gaseous exchange takes place through this stomata and lower surface is in touch

with water.

9. The upper leaf surface in floating leaves are coated with wax to prevent wilting.

10. The of many partially submerged plants show heterophylly (presence of

different types of leaves). E.g. Ranunculus aquatilis

11. The entire plant body covered with mucilage.

12. The flowers and seeds are less abundant.

13. Reproduction is mainly by vegetative methods.

Physiological Adaptations:-

Petioles of floating- leaved hydrophytes have a great capacity for renewed

growth, which is perhaps regulated by auxins (phytohormones). In lotus, the long

petioles seem to adapt themselves the depth of water, thus keeping the leaf

lamina on the surface of water. Many hydrophytes maintain active

photosynthesis. Some carbon dioxide evolved during respiration is stored in the

air spaces and utilized during photosynthesis. In hydrophytes, the osmotic

concentration of the cell sap 3 equal to or slightly higher than the surrounding

water.

In some hydrophytes, the initiation of the 5owering phase may depend

upon nutrition. The Utricularia, a carnivorous plant, flowers when grown

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aseptically in inorganic nutrient medium but only when supplemented with

organic nitrogenous compounds, e.g., mixture of peptone and meat extract.

However, in Eichhornia, flowering seems to be influenced by temperature rather

than photoperiod. In some hydrophytes (e.g., water-lily) food is stored in the

rhizome, in others such as Sagittaria, tubers are formed.

Anatomical adaptations:-

1. Excessive development of parenchyma and elaborate system of aerenchyma

(air space)

2. Poor development of vascular and mechanical tissues.

3. Cuticle absent or poorly developed

4. Stomata are completely absent in submerged leaves.

5. Chlorophyll found in all the tissues.

6. Mucilage canals and mucilage cells are present which secrete mucilage to

protect the plant body.

7. The reserve food is in the form of starch grains which occur in cortex and pith.

8. Cystoliths (sclereids) of various shapes are seen in leaves and other tissues.

4. MESOPHYTES

Mesophytes are those plants which grow on average and moisture

temperature.

Examples of these plants are mustard, wheat, mango etc.

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 Mesophytes are a type of terrestrial plants which are adapted to neither a

dry nor a wet environment. Mesophytes are the largest ecological group of

terrestrial plants that grow under moderate to hot and humid climatic

conditions. These plants are exposed to such an environment which does not

need any extreme adaptations as do not have a hardship of loosing water by

evaporation from the aerial parts of the plant.

The structural and physiological features of mesophytes allow them to

cope to terrestrial habitats. The leaves of the mesophytes have a waxy cuticle

which are important in the survival of the plants as they trap the moisture inside

leaves and it also decreases water loss as it does not letting water diffuse easily.

The cuticle works as a protective waxy covering on the epidermis of the leaf and

is thicker on the top of the leaf. The stomata in the mesophytes are present on the

lower epidermis of the leaf. The stoma closes in conditions of extreme heat or

wind and prevents transpiration, the guard cells force the stomata to close and

prevent water loss.

The mesophytes are plants that grow under average conditions of

temperature and moisture and these plants are intermediate between xerophytes

and hydrophytes. The adaptations of mesophytes are:

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 The root system is well developed in the mesophytes, the dicots have a

taproot system and the monocots have a fibrous root system. The roots of

the mesophytes are well developed and are provided with a root cap.

 The stem of the mesophytes are solid and are well branched. The stem is

aerial, straight, thick, branched and hard.

 The leaves of these plants are well developed and are covered with cuticle.

The stomata are present on the lower surface of the leaf. The leaves are

thin, are broad in middle and dark green.

 The leaves of this group of plants are large and variously shaped.

 The mesophyll layer in the leaves are well differentiated with many inter

cellular spaces.

 The vascular and mechanical tissues are well developed.

 They have no any water conservation mechanisms.

 They can remove excess of water from their body during transpiration.

 Cuticle is moderately developed.

 Mesophyll layer in leaves is well differentiated with many inter cellular

spaces.

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5. XEROPHYTES (Adaptations to dry environment)
A xerophyte (from Greek xero dry, phuton plant) is a species of plant that

has adapted to survive in an environment with little liquid water, such as

a desert or an ice- or snow-covered region in the Alps or the Arctic.

The morphology and physiology of xerophytes are variously adapted to

conserve water, and commonly also to store large quantities of water, during dry

periods. Other species may be adapted to survive long periods of desiccation of

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their tissues, during which their metabolic activity may effectively shut down.

Plants with such morphological and physiological adaptations are xeromorphic

Types of Xerophytes:-

Three general types of xerophytes having practically nothing in

common morphologically, physiologically and perhaps even more

truly taxonomically, may be recognised:

1. Ephemeral Annuals:

The ephemerals are a prominent feature of vegetation of all semi-arid

regions which are characterized by definite and regular, however brief, rainy

seasons. These regions support a considerable flora of small annuals which

complete their entire life cycle within a few weeks after the first rains have fallen.

With the onset of rains seeds of such annuals germinate, quickly grow to

maturity, flower and set seed, i.e., the entire life cycle is completed before the soil

dries out again. The new crop of seeds set, survives through intervening dry

season until the next advent of rains.

A great number of these desert annuals have been investigated and in most

cases no xerophytic characteristics could be discovered in these plants. Most of

these plants are small roundish, dense shrubs represented among others by

species of Papilionaceae (Astragalus sp., etc.), some inconspicuous Compositae

(e.g., Artemesia), a few Zygophyllaceae, Boraginaceae and some grasses

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2. Succulents:

Succulents also contribute a large percentage of vegetation to the flora of

the most semi-arid regions. They are also frequently found in locally dry habitats

such as sandy soils, sea beaches, etc., of more humid climate.

Succulence is due to the proliferation of parenchymatous cells

accompanied by an enlargement of vacuoles of mature cells and a considerable

reduction in the size of intercellular spaces. To decrease their water loss they

have evolved an interesting type of metabolism by which they open their stomata

during night when they absorb CO2 (dark fixation) which is stored in the cells in

the form of dicarboxylic acids (e.g., malic acid). During the day, they keep their

stomata closed thereby losing very little water and also transforming the dicar-

boxylic acids formed at night into sugars (Crassulacean acid metabolism).

The most conspicuous succulents of all semi-desert regions belong to the

cactus family (Cactaceae). The other important families of plants which include a

number of succulent species are Euphorbiaceae, Crassulaceae, Liliaceae,

Amaryllidaceae, Portulacaceae, etc. Succulence may occur in roots (in species of

desert Pelargonium, Oxalis, etc.) but is rare.

Some ecologists have excluded succulents from the group of true

xerophytes as they avoid drought by means of their water reserves. It seems that

the tissues of succulents do not have any intrinsic resistance to the harmful

effects of droughts: survival of plant depends wholly on its outer line of defences

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—xeromorphic characters (e.g., leaves in many cases reduced to spines, ridges or

protuberances, so that when the storage tissue shrinks due to depletion of water,

contraction can take place without damage; thick and waxy epidermis, etc.) and

its water-storage capacity.

3. Non-Succulent Perennials:

Members of this category are the true xerophytes (euxerophytes)—the

drought-enduring plants—which can successfully endure long and continuous

dearth of water in the soil. Soil-drought conditions are usually accompanied by

dry atmospheric conditions such as high temperature, low humidity and often

high wind velocity, all of which favour high transpiration rates. In euxerophytes,

water deficiency usually reaches 60-70% of their gross fresh weight. As a rule,

water deficiency is harmful; first of all it decreases growth process as a whole

especially during cell elongation. The plants which survive drought are as a rule

small and weak.

`The plants which are growing in xeric (dry) environment (habitat) are called

Xerophytes. Deserts are the best examples for xeric environment, where plant

face inadequate water and excessive transpiration .xerophytes are classified into

the following three categories-Ephemerals [the plants complete their life cycle

within a short period. they also called “drought escapers” or “drought evaders”],

Succulents [these plants have succulent, fleshy organs, to store to store high

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amount of water accumulated during rainy seasons. these xerophytes suffer

dryness only in external environment],true xerophytes[these plants which are

able to live under extreme dry conditions and high temperature].

Morphological adaptations:-

1. Stem shows stunted growth

2. Certain plants have underground stem to tide over dry season.

3. Plants like acacia, Zizyphus etc .have very hard, woody stem with thick bark.

4. In many plants the leaves are reduced to scaly or spiny e.g. Ruscus, Asparagus

etc.

5. Many plants have very small and narrow leaf blade to reduce the transpiration

area.

6. Some plants have shining leaf surface to reflect light. E.g. Nerium odorum.

7. In certain plant leaves are very thick and leathery to reduce transpiration. E.g.

Calotropis procera.

8. Many plants have waxy coating on the upper surface of leaves.

9. Folded type leaves are seen in some of the grasses to protect the

10. In non-succulent plants root system is several times larger than the aerial

portion.

Anatomical adaptations:-

1. Presence of thick cuticle on the upper surface of leaves.

2. The epidermal cells are thick walled.

3. Multiple epidermal layers are seen on both upper and lower surface of leaves.

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4. Stomata are reduced in numbers and are sunken type.

5. The stomata pits are filled with number of hairs.

6. Thick walled sclerenchyma cells are seen in the hypodermis. E.g. Pinus needle

7. Few spongy parenchyma cells with small inter cellular spaces.

8. Presence of many layered palisade parenchyma

9. The cells are relatively smaller in size and vacuoles are small.

10. Well developed vascular tissues are present.

Structural Peculiarities of Xerophytes:-

Morphological Adaptation of Xerophytes

The root system is very well developed in proportion to the shoot. In Cacti,

however, the root system if feebly developed. In certain cases, as in

Asparagus, the roots become fleshy and store water and food.

There occurs a great degree of variation in the form and structure of leaves.

In plants, such as Agave and Dianthus caryophyllus, which are capable of

growing under more or less dry conditions, the cells of the mesophyll are

very closely packed. Cuticle is very thick to check excessive transpiration.

Sometimes a waxy coating (e.g. Salix glaucophylla) or numerous

vescicular hair (e.g., Atriplex canescens) may be present on the epidermis.

In Calatropis, both waxy coating as well as vesicular hair occur on the leaf

surface. Epidermis is usually multilayered (e.g., Nerium and Ficus elastica)

and possesses sunken stomata covered with numerous hair (e.g., Nerium).

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In the mesophyll of the leaf, the palisade tissue is usually very well

developed. Sclerenchymatous hypodermis may also be present (e.g.,

Pinus).

In majority of the xerophytes, the leaves are thick fleshy with water storage

tissue. Leave may be very much reduced, sometimes so greatly reduced

that they take the shape of scales or needles (e.g., Casuarina, Pinus,

Equisetum). Leaves may even disappear entirely (e.g., Opuntia) and the

function of photosynthesis is taken up by the stem itself. Sometimes, as in

resurrection moss, the leaf surface is only temporarily reduced to overcome

the drought.

In woody xerophytes the cork is very well developed in the stem. Such an

adaptation is of great importance in the conservation of water supply. Stem

may, sometimes, be covered with spinous outgrowths (e.g., Carthamus,

Argemone and Solanum xanthocarpum).

In some plants the stem is greatly reduced, or it may be modified into

phylloclade, or cladodes, e.g., Cactii, Ruscus, Muehlenbeckia, Asparagus

etc.

Oil and resin glands are often present.

Watery sap or latex may also be present (e.g., Cactii and Euphorbias

respectively).

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 The vascular system is well developed and differentiated. The xylem

possesses broad and large vessels with very much thickened walls.

Mechanical tissue, like bast fibres, is extensively developed

Physiological Adaptation of Xerophytes:-

1. The osmotic concentration of the cell sap is usually higher than among plants

growing under less arid environment.

2. According to Maximov (1929), although the net rate of transpiration per plant

is much reduced in xerophytes but the rate of transpiration per unit area is much

greater. These plants control the excessive loss of water during transpiration by

reducing total transpiring surface,

3. Although the rate of photosynthesis per unit area is much rapid but starch-

sugar ratio is usually lower in these plants (Levitt, 1956; Iljin, 1957).

4. The amount of bound-water (i.e. water adsorbed on the surface of colloidal

particles) per unit dry weight of the plant tissue is comparatively greater

(Whitman, 1941).

5. According to Iljin (1957), the protoplasm in these plants is less viscous and

more permeable.

6. Xerophytes have greater potentiality to resist wilting

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Adaptations in xerophytes are of two types:-

(i) Xeromorphic adaptations are those which are inherited whether the xerophyte

grows in xeric conditions or not. For example, a Cactus has the same feature,

whether it is in a desert or in a normal land.

(ii) Xeroplastic adaptation is the ones that are induced temporarily but disappear

when the conditions are favorable.

Xerophytic adaptations may be morphological, anatomical or physiological.

A. Morphological Adaptations:-

 Xerophytes exhibit a number of special features in their morphological

organs.

 The root system is well developed, extensive and much branched.

 Roots of perennial xerophytes reach greater depth to absorb water but

some xerophytes

 have shallow root system especially when water is available in the surface

layers

 Root hairs are profuse.

 Stems are hard and woody.

 Some stems are covered with dense hairs (Calotropis), coated with wax

(Opuntia) or silica (Equisetum).

 Stems in some xerophytes are modified to thorns (Duranta).

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  Succulents have their stems modified into structures like phylloclades

(Opuntia.); cladodes (Asparagus) or leaf like structure (Ruscus). All such

structures are usually meant for water storage.

Leaves

Usually leaves of xerophytes are reduced or modified to various kinds of

structures to minimise transpiration. The following types of condition are seen:

(i) Microphyllous when the leaves are small scaly (Casuarina: Asparagus) or

needle like (Pinus)

Trichophyllous when the leaves are covered with hairs (Nerium, Calotropis

(iii) Macrophyllous when the leaves are soft and fleshy (Begonia) Sclerophyllous

when the leaves are stiff and hard. (Banksia) Many xerophytes have no leaves

(Capparis) or they fall very early (caducous) as in Euphorbia.

Rolling of leaves is observed in some xerophytes like Ammophile where the

stomata are directed inwards.

B. Anatomical Adaptations can be conveniently discussed under the

headings- epidermis, hypodermis, ground tissue and vascular tissue.

Epidermis

(i) Some xerophytes have multiple epidermises (Nerium).

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(ii) Epidermis is with thick cuticle and deposition of waxes, resins etc.

(iii) There are epidermal hairs especially in grooves (furrows) that protect the

sunken stomata.

(iv) Mostly stomata are sunken and are in pits.

(v) Stomatal frequency is low.

(vi) Leaves that have the capacity to roll have specialised cells called bulliform

cells that help in rolling.

Hypodermis

Hypodermal layers of xerophytes are thick and well developed.

(i) In stems there is abundant mechanical tissue in the form of sclerenchyma as

in Casuarina stem.

(ii) Since leaves are reduced, the stems usually have chlorenchyma.

(iii) In succulent plants, cortex is filled with water, mucilage, latex etc.

(iv) In plants that have leaves, palisade parenchyma is well developed.

(v) In Pinus mesophyll cells are modified.

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(vi) Intercellular spaces are greatly reduced. Conducting tissue/Vascular tissue

(xylem and phloem) is very well developed in xerophytes.

C. Physiological Adaptations:-

i. Xerophytes show a number of physiological features:

ii. Transpiration is well regulated.

iii. Osmotic concentration of the cell sap is high.

iv. Succulents have high pentosans (derived from polysaccharides) resulting

in accumulation of water.

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6. CONCLUSION
Now through this investigatory project i can understand the plant

adaptation in accordance to different condition. The plants different

morphological, physiological, anatomical modifications can be easily be

understood from the investigatory project. So plants modify their parts to survive

(live and grow).

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7. References
1.) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerophyte

2.) http://www.biologydiscussion.com/plants/xerophytes/xerophytes-types-

and-characteristics-botany/18167

3.) http://www.preservearticles.com/2011120818269/adaptations-in-

xerophytes-are-of-two-types.html

4.) http://studygoal.blogspot.in/2008/12/hydrophytes-adaptations-in-plants-

to.html

5.) http://studygoal.blogspot.in/2008/12/hydrophytes-adaptations-in-plants-

to.html

6.) Muthulingam Udayakumar and Kanakasanthi Ajithadoss. 2010.

Angiosperms, Hydrophytes of five ephemeral lakes of Thiruvallur District,

Tamil Nadu, India. Checklist-journal of species list and distribution.

7.) NCERT class 12 biology lab manual

8.) Ramesh Subramaniam, Prema Subramaniam, Rathi Menon, Rathnabai R,

Hemamalini V, Sridhar R, Sriram R, Kokila devi M, Godwin Vimalraj V,

Judson Jude N and Nicky C. 2015. Study of the plant biodiversity of ABS

Vidhya Mandhir(A World Class CBSE School), Thiruvallur, Tamilnadu,

India and ethanobotanical uses of some selected plants: An innovative and

explorative study. Sedinst Journal-Advances in Agriculture, Science and

Engineering Research (Nigeria-ISSN-2276-6723], Nigeria, 5(10): 1866 –

1880.

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