CAUSES OF KICKSCAUSES OF Kicks ‘The term “kick” is a field expression used in the upstream oil and gas indus- try to denote that formation fluids are flowing into a well. The International Association of Drilling Contractors (IAD) classifies kicks as intentional or unintentional. An intentional kick refers to operations that deliberately in- duce the controlled flow of formation fluids into a well. Obviously, when ‘a well is producing, formation fluids are being brought to the surface un- der controlled conditions and although producing wells are not usually de- scribed as “kicking”, they do fit the definition of an intentional kick There are other operations that fit the definition as well, for example, drill stem bing with wireline, or pumping nitrogen in order to bring @ testing, well in, round blowouts occur when a formation is pr ‘and entering a weaker or fractured formation before the fluid formation reaches the surface. The term “kick” may come from the days when horses: ‘vere used for many of the jobs that engines and motors perform today: Ey- ery horseman knows that even the most docile old mare is capable of surpris- ing him with a dangerous kick if he is not careful. Blowouts are the most tragic accidents in the drilling/workover industry, often resulting in death and injury of personnel, loss of the well and its Po tential production, and severe damage to the environment: Kicks can occur during nearly any operation on an oil or gas well, and if improperly handled, Kicks ean turn into blowouts. The key to blowout prevention is recognition and control of kicks, therefore learning the causes and indications ‘of poten- tial Kicks, and taking the correct action to maintain control of the well isthe essence of blowout prevention. 1d two opposing forces acting on a well in 1) bottomhole pressure, the sum of all pres 11, and 2) formation pressure, as a result The previous chapter describe which the formation is exposed; sures exerted on the bottom of of local geology, acting upward. wns are concerned with unintentional kicks and Sttres: The following discussio some of the situations that might cause them. : iiss oi aaa ‘22 INSUFFICIENT FLUID DENSITY nt of bottomhole pressure is the hydrostatic pressure na well. In fact, if the annulus ofa well ttomhole pressure and The largest compone! created by the density of the fluid i is open on the surface and the pumps are hydrostatic pressure are equal. Therefore +r density is crucial to safe operations Maintaining the fluid at the prope Every well has an operational program that recommends the mud weight for each interval of the well. Adjustments to the fluid program are often necessary to deal with specific well conditions but usually these adjustments are small. Fluid technicians (mud engineers) recommend material and, procedures for adjusting mud properties. Is the contactor personnal ail are responsible for doing the actual work requ red to maintain the mud ac- cording to those recommendations. Experienced drillers make sure that tie fluid density going into, and coming out of their well is checked often witht ce (mud scale) an accurate mud balan Figure 2.1- Field test lab with mud balance It is possible that the mud weight can be reduced accidentally through hue man error. Large offshore units have several mud pits in addition to the ac tive system. The manifolds that route the fluid to various pumps and tanks are made up of complex piping with many valves. An inexperienced worker can easily open or close the wrong valve, sending water or light fluid to the rig pumps. Heavy rain falling into an open pit system can quickly reduce mud weight and alter other fluid properties. Also, a great deal of water is used to cleat the screens of shale shakers when drilling soft clay formations. During these intervals the mud weight in the pits must be checked often. Sometimes itis necessary to reduce the mud weight because of well cond tions. It is always a good idea to consult a mud engineer before starting the job. Reducing the density of the fluid while maintaining other propertiesin the desired range is often more difficult than incre simply adding barite or other weight m: ing the density by Other causes of incorrect fluid density include mistakes made when chang- ing out the present fluid in the well for fracturing or acid jobs, spotting special pills, or changing to completion or packer fluids. The density of t working fluid pumped into and returning from a well should be checked frequently with an accurate mud balance. Lost CireuLation Since the height of the fluid column in a well is a factor in determining total hydrostatic pressure, bottomhole pressure would decrease if the well could not withstand the pressure exerted by a full column of the fluid. The well would not “stand full”. In this case, it is possible that bottomhole pres- sure would be reduced to a value below that of the formation pressure, thus inducing a kick, usually from a zone higher in the well than the thief zone. See figure 2.2. Lost circulation, one of the most c¢ drilling, can be caused by several different situa Par Figure 2.2 Losing Circulation formations ane severely fractured, even though the formations above and below them are strong. In that case drilling into the fractured formation would result in lost returns. nposed on the annulus by the pump. Often in these cases, the ad can be carefully reduced to a point at which full returns can be estalq Surge pressures created by lowering the work string into a well can also jn duce lost circulation in fragile formations. s . These fluids have litle or no solids content and therefore can easily enter permeable formations Lost circulation can be a tricky well problem at any time. The fact that it ean also increase the potential for taking a kick makes it doubly important for + crew to be alert when mud pit volume or return flow from a well changes unexpectedly. ABNORMAL PRESSURE As discussed in Chapter 1, r a i . A for- mation gradiens@®O6aypsiite considered normal in many areas and is equivalent to 9.0 ppg fluid density (0,465. 550,052 = 8.94 or 9.0 ppg). In other words, a mud weight of would balance a “nor- mally pressured” formation. Although well programs project the depths at which abnormal pressure is ble to determine the exact formation pressure until expected, it is impossil he abnormal zone. Recent advances in technology the bit actually enters th Figure 2.3 Massive shale as a transition zone Itis not uncommon in certain areas to find that a permeable formation is _ trapped in some way by a long (massive) impermeable shale formation. drilling progresses and the bit approaches the abnormal zone, changes occur in various drilling conditions, that is, pump pressure, drilling rate, These changes occur because the differential pressure, the difference Bt tween the bottomhole pressure and the formation pressu : th increases. The bit is entering a transition zone,have made pressure predictions far m se P p ions far more accurate than in pre but a driller still cannot see ahead of the bit. Drilling cre recognize the signs of abnormal pressure and to take the app when those signs are recognized. EXCESSIVE DRILLING RATE THROUGH Gas SANDS The density of formation gas (2.0 ppg) is usually much less than 1 of any liquid (9.0ppg) that is used for a drilling fluid, It stands s sand if the penetration rate in a come charged with gas, thus I rottomhole pressure arg) ga le pressu especially offshore locations, can easily be achieved. aM tn order co so that the annulus nstructed to pause from time to t out of a well before proceeding to drill ahead. TRIPPING PRACTICES reasons, Consider a routin rip begins, bottomh is affected in three distinct ways’ The pump is off; there is no annular pressure due to pumping. There are changes in bottomhole pressure due to the swabbing ing effects caused by moving the work string within the well nto or out of a well, the level of flui As the work string is mov well changes, thereby changing hydrostatic pressure Figure 2.4 id in theThe crew can control two of these three factors; swab/surge pressures and the changing fluid level in the well. If a well is stable when the pump switched off before starting a trip out, it is reasonable to assume that the hydrostatic pressure is sufficient to balance the well. Therefore if a kick is taken during the trip. itis induced, that is, che tripping practices of the crew. caused the kick - When circulating or drilling ahead, a driller and his crew have various means of monitoring the well. However when tripping, there are at the flowline, no pump pressure, any rotary torque, Theoretically, the well should take a barrel of fluid for every barrel of steel pipe removed from the well. The opposite is true for trips into the well. There sve han actors haat Kick detection eH A tipping, the priorities of the crew change from steadil from the well, to making the wip as quickly and safely as possible. Tripping is heavy work. It is a difficult, often dirty job that may have to be done atall hours of the day or night. It is not surprising that many of the worst well) control incidents have developed on trips during the early morning hours or on crew change day. Charts are developed listing the displacement and capacity for all compo- nents used in the drill string. The theoretical displacement and capacity values depend on many variables for any given well. A well will seldom take the exact calculated volume; therefore comparisons with recent trips must be made to ensure that the well is acting “normally”. There is a significant difference between pulling a string “dry” that is, pumping a small volume (slug) of heavier mud into the string so that the fluid in the pipe falls as the pipe is lifted, and pulling “wet”, when no slug is pumped. When pulling the string dry, only the tubular steel is removed from the casing annulus because the fluid inside the string is falling below the rotary table as the pipe is pulled. On a wet trip both the displacement — and the capacity (the closed-in displacement) of the string are removed and — that makes a difference in fill-up requirements. For example, 5 inch OD drillpipe (grade G, 19.5 Ibs/ft) with tool joints, displaces 0.00827 bbis/ft. If a stand of this pipe were 93 ft. long the total displacement on a dry trip out would be 93 x 0,00827 = 0.769 bbls/stand. Many rigs pause to fill the annulus every 5 stands therefore the theoretical fillup would be 0.769 x 5 = 3.845 barrels. Suppose the rig did not use @ ti ‘tank and therefore counted pump strokes to monitor fillup. If the pum ‘output were 0.105 bbls/stk, it should take 3.845 = 0.105 = 36.6 or 37 8 for each 5 stand fill-up.Pulling dry pipe: si/ft = : Ps Casing Capacity(bbls/f) ~ Metal Displacement hh, (13.8 x 0.052 x 0.00827) + (0.05648 — 0.00827) = 0.128 psi/a 10.193 x 93 x 5 = 57 psi for each 5 stands pulled Pulling wet pipe: id Weight x.0.052x Closed End Displacement(bby i /ft = a Pam Casing Capacity (bbls/ft) ~ Closed End Displacement(bbis/fy [13.8 x 0.052 x (0.00827 + 0.01719) + [0.05648 — (0.00827 + 0.01719) = 0.580 psig 0.589 x 93 x 5 = 274 psi It can be seen that with regard to kick detection, wet trips are more difficult to monitor than dry trips, and therefore they can be more dangerous, ‘The examples above deal only with drillpipe and assume trips out ofa well Obviously, the numbers change dramatically when considering the langer OD of the bottomhole assembly. Most rigs fill the annulus for every one stand of drill collars removed. It must be remembered that these examples illustrate the theoretical fill-up required. In wells with open hole sections, the actual volume displacement will differ from the calculated values. Com- parisons with previous trips are essential for accuracy and safety. Trip book records should be kept onsite and used to confirm that the hole is taking at least as much mud as on previous trips. | Figure 2.5 Trip log while tripping out of the hole; accurate trip records are a must on every job ess fas is [sss 205 | 205 | Pulbrorrnsnn. mnt | | Trip and check for owItis common fo for swabbing is great. Once space. A he older, larg’ pulling the string as fast as practic it may also ignore other Modern day drilling istics are related to one another: Gel streng’ id’s tendency to The flow properties of a flu density, type and amount of between the solids. The study of fui business of scientists and m be said that is, the more likely swabbing and surging will be a actors that affect swab and s complex solutions. the Mid. These character 1 fhe measurement of or solidlike st whe mening. ny things, among them, are influenced by m ne fluid, and the chemical attraction solids in s is called rheology and that is the nud engineers, not the average rig worker: It cam ss likely it is to cause dis like fresh water, the I ssures. Conversely, the more viscous (thicker) it problem. Drillers seldom240 have control ove tention to the Mud Reports and talk frequently with mud engineers, M; clean before st ~+ the properties of the fluids they use but they can setators condition the fluid by adding chemicals and circulating the ting a trip out of the well Salt formations, w! Figure 2.7 fat Plastic Formation scribed as “plasti are often de- have been known to close in around the string giving it just enough clearance for circulae tion. In addition, many types of clays are water-sensitive and will hydrate or “well” when exposed to water based. drilling mud, The narrowed annular vance increases the swabbing/ surging effects on trips. During a trip out, balled up stabilizers and drill ol srely reduce the annular rs may seve When tipping in soft, sticky forma: tions a well can be swabbed in as the BHA is pulled up into the easing, even though the bit is far off bottom, Con sider a well in which the open hole ly washed out so that during the first part of a trip drag presents no be pulled as fast as the crew can break the connec: tions and stand it back in th k. If the BHA were severely balled with soft clay and pulled into the casing rapidly, excess clay that was stuck (0 it would shear off and the BHA would then have an OD that was roughly the same as the ID of the casing. Swabbing would be likely. Itis considered good practice for drillers to use caution as they pull the BHA into the casing and pay particular attention (o the fillup volume at that point in the trip singe the large diameter drill collars displace much more fluid than the 8! drillpipe or tubing. is seve problem. The pipe ca Special care must be taken when pulling or running pipe in highly deviated wells because the BHA is dragged against the top portion of the wellbore: in the angle-building section, reducing the effective cl ce between the string and the open hol case it may be difficult for the fluid to fall back down around the assembly. Also cuttings will tend to fall or stay om (he: low side of deviated wells, further reducing the annulus ID,OBSTRUCTIONS IN THE WeLLeoRE Many rou ne operations require removing wellbore obstructions. As them, releasing packers, drilling cement p ‘ ng plugs, and fishing, Experienced crews always assume the worst case situation because it is always possible that pressure may be trapped below any annular obstruction, One good practice in preparing for anticipated Consider a gas well that was previously plugged and abandoned, but is now being 1 d_ If the formation pressure were f fensity 0 ¢ ppg Ifa cement plug had been set at 2,000 ft and the plug was drilled with 11 oil base fluid with a density of 7.4 ppg, the hydrostatic pressure at 2,000 x 2,000 = 770 psi) When the bit broke through the cement, the formation pressure of 2,964 would be opposing the fi, would be about 770 psi. (7-4 x 0.01 hydrostatic pressure of only 770 psi. In reality, the density of the formation fluid would reduc the upward force somewhat, but it will surely be much greater than the fluid hydrostatic pressure, in other words, the well would kick CEMENTING OPERATIONS ns have been the Most kicks that have occurred during cementing operat result of reducing the hydrostatic pressure during the operation. There are ped ahead of the cement, The density off A spacer or flush is usually put atly, the height, must be taken into the flush and perhaps more import consideration when planning the job. If the density of the cement is too great it can cause lost cireulation that can lead to a kick FiguJ. With regard to well control, why is the removal of a wellbore tion considered a dangerous time for the rig and the crew?