Arts Education Policy Review

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vaep20

Music in early childhood teacher education: raising

awareness of a worrisome reality and proposing
strategies to move forward

Alfredo Bautista, Jerry Yeung, Morgan Lisa Mclaren & Beatriz Ilari

To cite this article: Alfredo Bautista, Jerry Yeung, Morgan Lisa Mclaren & Beatriz Ilari
(2022): Music in early childhood teacher education: raising awareness of a worrisome
reality and proposing strategies to move forward, Arts Education Policy Review, DOI:
10.1080/10632913.2022.2043969

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10632913.2022.2043969

© 2022 The Author(s). Published with Published online: 28 Feb 2022.

license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

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Arts Education Policy Review
https://doi.org/10.1080/10632913.2022.2043969

Music in early childhood teacher education: raising awareness of a

worrisome reality and proposing strategies to move forward
Alfredo Bautistaa , Jerry Yeunga , Morgan Lisa Mclarena and Beatriz Ilarib
a
Centre for Educational and Developmental Sciences, Department of Early Childhood Education, The Education University of Hong
Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China; bThornton School of Music, University of Southern California, CA, USA

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
This position paper aims to raise awareness among educational policymakers, teacher Early Childhood Education; music
educators, and school leaders around the world about the urgent need to better prepare education; curriculum; teacher
Early Childhood Education (ECE) teachers in music education. Most countries fail to sufficiently education; professional
development; training strategies
train teachers to meet the music-related expectations of contemporary ECE curricula, which
inevitably affects young children’s learning and development. Our first goal is to describe
this worrisome reality in depth, based on prior literature. We elaborate on the limited music
education (extracurricular, pre-service, and in-service) typically offered to ECE teachers
worldwide. We then highlight the negative consequences that result from having a teaching
force clearly ill-prepared in this area. Based on studies conducted with pre-service and/or
in-service ECE teachers, we summarize what is known about teachers’ learning needs,
motivations, and preferences regarding music education. Our second goal is to propose a
series of low-cost, sustainable, and easily scalable strategies to strengthen teachers’
preparation. Practical and policy-related potential obstacles are discussed. As final remarks,
we urge ECE stakeholders to (a) investigate the specific needs, motivations, and preferences
of their local teachers in music education, (b) design and implement responsive training
strategies, and (c) examine their impact on teachers and/or children.

1.  Introduction awareness, and appreciation of diversity (Ilari, 2018;

The vital importance of music in education has been
recognized for centuries, beginning with classic phi-
losophers such as Aristotle, Pythagoras, and Plato.
Today, educational researchers, policymakers, and cur-
riculum designers around the world concur that music
education should be provided to young children from
the earliest stages of their development (Beaver et  al.,
2017; Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2019; Putkinen et  al.,
2015). This is due to numerous reasons. Music edu-
cation is important in itself because music is an inte-
gral part of the cultural heritage of societies (Young
& Ilari, 2019). Additionally, there is compelling evi-
dence that music engagement enhances our sensory,
cognitive, emotional, and motor skills, which are the
driving forces behind all learning (Bamberger, 2018;
Williams et  al., 2015). Furthermore, engagement in
music provides children with multiple benefits such
as improved motivation and self-esteem, problem solv-
ing, decision making, autonomy, self and cultural
Magsamen & Battro, 2011; Zadnik & Habe, 2017).
For these reasons, music is regarded as a key learn-
ing area in curriculum frameworks around the world,
particularly during Early Childhood Education (ECE)
(e.g., Boletín Oficial del Estado (BOE), 2006;
Curriculum Development Council (CDC), 2017; New
York State Education Department (NYSED), 2019).
Contemporary ECE curricula encourage teachers to
implement music activities daily (Barrett et  al., 2021).
Activity types commonly recommended include sing-
ing, music appreciation, responding to beats and
rhythms with movement, exploring timbre and sound
effects with conventional and unconventional instru-
ments, improvization and creation with sound and
body movements, and integrated learning activities
(Beaver et  al., 2017; Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2019).
Curriculum frameworks argue that, beyond using
music as a classroom management tool (e.g., routines,
fillers, transitions), the ultimate purpose of music
education is to allow young children to express their

CONTACT Alfredo Bautista abautista@eduhk.hk Centre for Educational and Developmental Sciences, Department of Early Childhood Education,
The Education University of Hong Kong, B3-2/F-34 | 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China.
© 2022 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered,
transformed, or built upon in any way.
2 A. BAUTISTA ET AL.
feelings and unleash their creativity, thereby contrib-
uting to foster their holistic development. However,
music education practices in ECE settings—both in
Western countries (Ersoy & Dere, 2012; Garvis, 2012;
Neokleous, 2010) and Eastern countries (Bautista
et  al., 2018; Chen-Hafteck & Zhuoya, 2008; Lau &
Grieshaber, 2018)—seldom reflect the vision outlined
in curriculum frameworks.
2.  Aim and goals
This position paper aims to raise awareness among
educational policymakers, teacher educators, and
school leaders about the urgent need to better prepare
ECE teachers in music education. With limited excep-
tions, such as Japan (Holloway & Yamamoto, 2003),
countries have traditionally failed to recruit and/or
train professionals that are able to meet the
music-related objectives and expectations of curricu-
lum guidelines, which has unavoidably affected the
musical learning and development of countless gen-
erations of children (Trainor, 2005).
The study has two goals. The first one is to depict
this worrisome reality in depth, based on international
studies focusing on ECE teachers’ preparation, diffi-
culties, and training demands in music education. The
second goal is to propose a series of low-cost, sus-
tainable, and easily scalable strategies to move forward
and strengthen ECE teachers’ preparation in music
education, ultimately intended to enhance music
teaching and learning in ECE settings. As final
remarks, we urge ECE stakeholders to (a) investigate
the specific needs, motivations, and preferences of
their local teachers in music education, (b) design
and implement responsive training strategies, and (c)
examine their impact on teachers and/or children.
3.  Music in early childhood teacher
education: A worrisome reality
To address the first goal of this paper, this section is
divided into three sub-sections.
First, we elaborate on the limited music education
training typically offered to ECE teachers around the
world—including extracurricular, pre-service, and
in-service training. Second, we highlight the negative
consequences that result from having ECE teachers
who are clearly ill-prepared in music education.
Finally, based on studies conducted with pre-service
and/or in-service ECE teachers, we summarize what
is known about teachers’ learning needs, motivations,
and preferences regarding music education.
3.1.  Why are ECE teachers worldwide ill-prepared
to teach music?
Studies conducted in a wide range of countries and
jurisdictions around the world—such as United States
(Baum, 2017; Hash, 2010), Australia (Barrett et  al.,
2019), Brazil (Ilari, 2007), Greece (Koutsoupidou,
2010), Kenya (Andang’o & Mugo, 2007), Taiwan (Liao
& Campbell, 2016), and Hong Kong (Chen-Hafteck
& Zhuoya, 2008; Lau & Grieshaber, 2018)—have doc-
umented the limited preparation of ECE teachers in
the area of music education. There are multiple causes
at the root of this problem.
One of the main causes is the weak foundation in
general music developed prior to enrolling in teacher
preparation programs, as part of compulsory educa-
tion and/or extracurricular musical activities (e.g.,
music fundamentals, instrumental lessons, community
music such as bands, ensembles, choirs). For example,
a study conducted with 108 Greek ECE student teach-
ers found that 75% of them had no music background
whatsoever and that only a minority had participated
in music courses during Secondary school
(Koutsoupidou, 2010). Similarly, a study based on 46
Australian kindergarten teachers found that 46% of
them never learned how to sing or play musical
instruments, which resulted in difficulties in conduct-
ing music activities with children (Barrett et  al., 2019).
Consistent findings have been reported in a survey
study conducted with 1,019 Hong Kong kindergarten
teachers (Bautista & Ho, 2022). It was found that only
around half of the sample had learned how to play
a musical instrument, sing, and/or dance for at least
two years, and that teachers with lower educational
qualifications were less likely to have had such prior
music education experiences.
Another cause relates to the limited provision of
music education courses within ECE teacher prepa-
ration programs, which are mainly designed to train
generalists. Many universities and colleges offer no
music training whatsoever to prospective ECE teachers
(Altinkaynak et  al., 2012; Chan & Leong, 2007; Kim
& Kemple, 2011; Lenzo, 2014). Certain programs offer
courses that integrate music with other art forms (e.g.,
visual arts, dance, drama), or that include music as
part of generic creativity courses (Lau & Grieshaber,
2018). The best-case scenario are programs that offer
one semester-long music education course, be it com-
pulsory (García Gil et  al., 2021) or optional (Rajan,
2017; Suthers, 2008). This exposure is not nearly
enough to develop pre-service teachers’ musical
knowledge and skills, let alone inspire their confidence
to conduct creativity-fostering music activities with

children once they enter the professional world
(Ebbeck et  al., 2008; Neokleous, 2010).
A third issue relates to the low quality and limited
applicability of certain pre-service music courses. In
studies carried out in United States (Rajan, 2017),
England (Young, 2007), Greece (Koutsoupidou, 2010),
and Hong Kong (Bautista & Ho, 2021), ECE teachers
have criticized pre-service courses for being too short,
overly theoretical or abstract, and for lacking practical
opportunities—for example, opportunities to observe
how seasoned educators teach music to young chil-
dren, to implement music activities in real classrooms,
or to engage in creativity-fostering music activities.
Research conducted in Turkey has identified the need
to improve the teaching methods, materials, equip-
ment, and assessment procedures utilized in pre-service
courses (Ekici & Bilen, 2010). In New Zealand,
Anderson (2005) described the case of a prospective
teacher whose lecturer required her to play a musical
instrument publicly on the first day of class, and sub-
sequently criticized her negatively in front of her
peers. The feelings of insecurity that first began
during her pre-service course continued to affect this
teacher’s confidence with music nearly 20 years later.
Finally, the provision of music-specific professional
development (PD) for in-service ECE teachers tends
to be limited around the world (Bautista et  al., 2016;
Lenzo, 2014; Yim & Ebbeck, 2011). This is typically
due to factors such the lack of importance attributed
to music education (Barrett et  al., 2019), the existence
of alternative training priorities (Bautista et  al., 2016),
the lack of locally relevant teaching materials and
resources (Barrett et  al., 2021), the limited number of
specialized PD providers (Ebbeck et  al., 2008), and
the impossibility of schools to hire substitutes to cover
for teachers participating in PD (Lenzo, 2014). In
Hong Kong, Bautista and Ho (2021) have reported the
existence of little-to-no school or government support
to foster kindergarten teachers’ continuous learning in
music education. When teachers want to participate
in PD, they often need to so during their personal
time and pay from their own pockets, which seems
unreasonable considering that these professionals have
long working hours and are often underpaid (Lenzo,
2014). Music education is one of the top learning areas
in which ECE teachers need PD support (Bautista
et  al., 2016), hence it seems obvious that this situation
must be urgently tackled by the relevant stakeholders.
3.2.  What are the consequences of ECE teachers’
lack of preparation to teach music?
The widespread lack of preparation of ECE teachers
in music education leads to a series of interrelated
Arts Education Policy Review 3
negative consequences, affecting both teachers and
young children. Firstly, insufficient preparation results
in teachers overlooking—or even underestimating—the
importance of music for child development and learn-
ing, attributing music a secondary role as compared
to other learning areas (e.g., language, literacy, numer-
acy), and therefore allocating it little curriculum time
(Kim & Kemple, 2011; Winton & Bussye, 2005). For
example, teachers in countries like Australia (Barrett
et  al., 2019) and Singapore (Bautista et  al., 2016) con-
sider music to be one of the least important learning
areas, being seen simply as a tool to teach in a more
fun and engaging way, or even as rather unnecessary.
In fact, researchers have reported a significant reduc-
tion in the time devoted to music in ECE settings
(Barry & Durham, 2017; Baum, 2017). In certain
classrooms, music is mainly or even exclusively used
during daily routines, to manage transitions, and to
fill gaps between lessons; activities specifically designed
to foster musical learning are rare (Barrett et  al., 2021;
Bautista et  al., 2018).
Lack of preparation also inevitably results in teach-
ers having insufficient knowledge, skills, and peda-
gogical competencies to teach music, which often
affects their confidence and self-efficacy beliefs (Burak,
2019). Teachers may feel insecure while teaching
music to children (Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014) and
even face severe anxiety in extreme cases (Neokleous,
2010). Researchers in Turkey (Altinkaynak et  al.,
2012), China (Chen-Hafteck & Zhuoya, 2008), and
Australia (Barrett et  al., 2019) have primarily alluded
to ECE teachers’ deficit on basic music theory knowl-
edge and instrumental skills. To compensate such
deficit, teachers tend to resort to activities aligned
with their own musical strengths (i.e., “natural tal-
ents”), which may or may not contribute to achieve
the objectives of ECE curricula (Campbell &
Scott-Kassner, 2019).
There is evidence that preschool educators mainly
focus on singing songs, but frequently not for music’s
sake but as a means to teach children about other
learning areas and/or to introduce new vocabulary
(Garvis, 2012; Liao & Campbell, 2016; Young, 2007).
Some teachers also teach about basic musical elements
and concepts (e.g., beat, rhythm, melody, dynamics)
(Lau & Grieshaber, 2018). However, they rarely pose
instrumental music activities or projects that involve
exploration, improvization, or creation with sound
(Bautista et  al., 2018; Ersoy & Dere, 2012). There is
also evidence that teachers have difficulties to embed
music as part of integrated learning activities (Lau &
Grieshaber, 2018). Furthermore, the pedagogical
approach to music most used in ECE settings—both
in Western and Eastern countries—has been
4 A. BAUTISTA ET AL.
characterized as reproductive and teacher-centered,
hence not conducive to foster children’s creativity and
self-expression (Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2019).
Given teachers’ lack of music preparation, many
ECE centers in countries such as the United States
hire external instructors or teaching artists to lead
music lessons. While some experiences with external
instructors may be positive and enjoyable, for children
and teacher alike, they are not without challenges
(Bautista et  al., 2021). External instructors and teach-
ing artists are typically music majors, who are seldom
trained in ECE or child development. Because their
positions are normally part-time, they come to school
for a limited time (e.g., one or two days per week)
and have few opportunities to interact with children
and understand their interests, motivations, and needs.
Consequently, these instructors may not be in the
best position to teach music to children. Engaging
external instructors may also result in music being
taught in isolation from the other learning areas,
which is inconsistent with the principles of curriculum
integration—globally accepted nowadays in the ECE
field (Beaver et  al., 2017). External music instructors
often feel like outsiders in schools, as they are not
expected to collaborate with the other teachers to plan
and implement curriculum together. All these factors
may negatively affect the quality of the music teaching
provided to young children by these specialists
(Bautista et  al., 2021).
These teacher-related issues unavoidably impact
children’s development and learning. Children’s lim-
ited and oftentimes superficial exposure to musical
experiences is concerning because many musical com-
petencies (e.g., auditory and perceptual skills, sense
of beat and rhythm, ability to sing in tune), as well
as the cognitive functions required for music (e.g.,
self-regulatory skills, executive functions), are best
developed and acquired during the early years
(Putkinen et  al., 2015; Williams, 2018). In fact, there
is evidence to suggest that time of music engagement
is associated with positive musical and extra-musical
outcomes, which are observable in the short term
(Herrera et  al., 2007; Hogan et  al., 2018) and in the
mid-to-long term (Williams et  al., 2015). Music is
intrinsically important as an area of knowledge and
form of art (Ehrlin & Gustavsson, 2015; Young &
Ilari, 2019). As stated in contemporary ECE curricula
(e.g., BOE, 2006; CDC, 2017; NYSED, 2019), music
has the potential to foster not only children’s creativ-
ity and self-expression, but also their holistic and
balanced development (Magsamen & Battro, 2011).
However, the current status of music education in
ECE settings (i.e., low quantity and, in many cases,
low quality) prevents young children around the
world to heap multiple benefits and positive outcomes
associated with music education (Campbell &
Scott-Kassner, 2019).
3.3.  What music education learning opportunities
do ECE teachers demand?
Consistent with socio-constructivist theories of cul-
turally responsive teaching (Gay, 2010), we consider
that teachers’ own voices—needs, motivations, prefer-
ences, etc.—should be carefully taken into consider-
ation when designing teacher learning initiatives, both
pre-service and in-service (Darling-Hammond et  al.,
2017). This ensures that the content, format, and
design of such initiatives are coherent with and
responsive to what teachers themselves demand
(Desimone & Garet, 2015). In the following, we review
the international research literature on pre- and
in-service ECE teachers’ needs, motivations, and pref-
erences regarding music education.
In terms of content knowledge and skills, research
shows that ECE teachers feel the need to improve in
numerous areas. A large-scale study conducted with
early years educators from United States, Australia,
Ireland, Namibia, and South Africa revealed their need
to acquire more rigorous knowledge about music cur-
riculum design, instrumental and singing skills, and
pedagogical competencies to integrate music with
other learning areas (Russell-Bowie, 2009). Similar
findings have been identified in Asian societies, such
as Hong Kong, where ECE teachers expressed the
need to learn about basic music theory, as well as
how to design and implement music appreciation
activities (Bautista & Ho, 2021). Other key areas of
need consistently identified relate to how to foster
young children’s musical creativity and self-expression
(Cheung, 2017; Young & Ilari, 2019), and how to
introduce music improvization and composition in
ECE classrooms (Ebbeck et  al., 2008).
From a pedagogical standpoint, ECE teachers are
highly motivated to engage in practical experiences
of music teaching and learning, including
micro-teaching activities (i.e., activities where teachers
adopt the role of children) (Vannatta-Hall, 2010), live
and video-mediated lesson observations in actual
classrooms (Bautista et  al., 2019; Koutsoupidou, 2010;
Lenzo, 2014), and hands-on implementation of inno-
vative lesson ideas (Barrett et  al., 2021; Kos, 2018;
Rajan, 2017). ECE teachers also highly value mento-
ring as a strategy to improve their music-specific
pedagogies. In a study conducted in United States,
pre-service teachers showed interest in planning and

implementing music education curriculum alongside
musical novices and accomplished musicians, to gain
exposure to different teaching methodologies (Barry
& Durham, 2017). In Taiwan, Chen (2000) found that
pairing pre-service teachers and experienced in-service
teachers was effective to improve music education
practices, as the collaboration allowed the former to
better connect theory and practice. Mentoring by con-
tent specialists (e.g., musicians, curriculum designers,
artists, music pedagogs) is a collaborative learning
activity highly valued by ECE teachers in Australia
(Barrett et  al., 2019). Finally, peer-mentoring activities
where teachers co-design lessons and/or practice new
teaching skills have been found to be highly valued
by preschool teachers in Singapore (Múñez et al., 2017).
ECE teachers highly value participating in
work-embedded music education PD, preferably
during working hours (Bautista & Ho, 2021). They
also value participating in PD initiatives outside
ECE centers, like music seminars, workshops, sym-
posia, and conferences (Rajan, 2017; West, 2020).
However, these one-off PD initiatives are perceived
to be less effective than work-embedded PD and
have a lower impact on teachers’ self-efficacy
(Múñez et  al., 2017). Online PD specific to music
education is also highly valued, as teachers can
flexibly use electronic resources such as e-lesson
plans, video lecturers, and demonstrations at their
own convenience (Lenzo, 2014). Yim and Ebbeck
(2011) investigated the preferred music learning
activities of ECE teachers in Hong Kong and
Australia. Activities such as practicing music per-
formance skills, discussing music-related topics with
colleagues, attending music-related workshops/con-
ferences, reading books/articles/website, and watch-
ing music-related videos/TV programs were highly
valued by teachers in both contexts. Finally, ECE
teachers throughout the world have expressed their
need to receive financial support to attend
music-specific PD and to purchase additional mate-
rials and resources (e.g., instruments, music CD’s,
curriculum packages) (Barrett et  al., 2021; Chan &
Leong, 2007; Rajan, 2017).
4.  Proposed strategies to strengthen ECE
teachers’ preparation in music education
The second goal of this paper is to propose strategies
to strengthen teachers’ preparation and enhance music
teaching and learning in ECE settings. There is wide-
spread agreement that the quality of an education
system cannot be higher than the quality of its teach-
ers (Darling-Hammond et  al., 2017). In view of the
Arts Education Policy Review 5
worrisome reality described in the prior section, we
believe it is imperative to identify low-cost, sustain-
able, and easily scalable strategies to help the field
move forward. In the following, we offer suggestions
for teacher educators within higher education insti-
tutions, school leaders within ECE settings, as well
as PD providers and educational policymakers within
governments.
First, universities and colleges could take multiple
measures to increase the quantity and quality of stu-
dents’ exposure to music education, given the limited
curriculum time typically allotted to this area in
teacher training programs (Altinkaynak et  al., 2012;
García Gil et  al., 2021; Suthers, 2008). Acquiring the
knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to teach
music to young children takes years of study, practice,
observation, and reflection (Vannatta-Hall, 2010). For
this reason, rather than offering music education in
the format of standard courses, it would be more
strategic to divide the provision available into short
modules, spread throughout the teacher education
program. The role of music teacher educators would
significantly change in this paradigm. Rather than
delivering a fixed curriculum to all students in a spe-
cific cohort, they would seek opportunities to engage
all student teachers in the program with music learn-
ing activities, both formally and informally (Naughton
& Lines, 2013). For example, this could involve the
creation of music clubs where students with music
background coach untrained peers in basic instru-
mental or singing techniques, different music ensem-
bles or choirs that perform in school events, or groups
interested in creative composition and improvization
projects.
One strategy could be to identify, at the very begin-
ning of teacher education programs, those students
with formal musical training and partner them with
their untrained peers. Another strategy could be to
partnering ECE student teachers with students major-
ing in music or music education. ECE students would
benefit by gaining music content knowledge and skills,
and in turn, they would share their knowledge about
child development and curriculum design with their
music counterparts. Some of these collaborations
could be presented as compulsory to satisfy the music
education credits, where others could be offered as
voluntary and ungraded activities. These various
peer-learning systems would offer opportunities for
students to collaborate with and learn from one
another (Bainger, 2010). Lecturers would play an
important role in disseminating information about the
different peer-learning systems, motivating students
to participate, providing mentorship and support, and
6 A. BAUTISTA ET AL.
facilitating the logistics of the various music making
and music pedagogy activities conducted (Barrett
et  al., 2019; Chen, 2000). We acknowledge that this
approach to early childhood music teacher education
could be significantly more difficult to plan, imple-
ment, and evaluate than the traditional course-based
approach. Indeed, this approach would surely create
practical challenges for the various stakeholders
involved, especially regarding the assessment of stu-
dents’ learning, as each student could be potentially
involved in different music activities and, hence, the
level of standardization would be lower. However, the
long-term benefits would be significant. Being prac-
tical, hands-on, student led, and somewhat informal,
this approach would foster students’ active and sus-
tained engagement in music making and music ped-
agogy activities, which could lead to higher confidence,
sense of empowerment, self-efficacy, and subsequently
would make a difference in the classroom (Ebbeck
et  al., 2008; Neokleous, 2010; Swain &
Bodkin-Allen, 2014).
It would also be important for universities and
colleges to establish partnerships with ECE centers
that offer high-quality music education, and provide
students with opportunities to observe, analyze, and
reflect on such practices (Greher, 2011). In some
parts of the world (e.g., Brazil), public universities
offer independent and high-quality early music edu-
cation programs for the surrounding communities
(Ilari, 2010). These programs can also provide oppor-
tunities for pre-service teachers to practice teaching
music to young children. One obvious obstacle is
that these centers and programs normally cannot
trained large numbers of students. The health risks
associated with having outside visitors, due to the
current COVID-19 pandemic, is another obstacle. To
overcome these potential difficulties, a sensible
tradeoff would be developing video repositories of
high-quality practices, which could be used within
the context of pre-service music modules or courses
(Bautista et  al., 2019). These video repositories would
be a valuable resource, allowing students to visualize
the connection between music education curriculum
and pedagogy. Expert committees of music teacher
educators and experienced pedagogs could be estab-
lished for quality assurance purposes (Chua & Tan,
2021). They would ensure the variety and quality of
approaches featured in the videos, thereby reducing
the opportunity cost of this strategy. The establish-
ment of school-university partnerships and the devel-
opment of video repositories would guarantee that
ECE majors are exposed to various models of practice
within their own local setting, and potentially within
regional and international settings as well, with the
mediation of video technologies (Wallbaum, 2018).
Subsequently, they should be provided with guided
opportunities to try out lesson ideas in real settings,
tailoring them to the reality of their own practicum
ECE centers.
School leaders (i.e., principal, vice-principal, senior
teachers) play a central role in facilitating the induc-
tion to the teaching profession of beginning teachers;
hence, they must be mindful of beginners’ low level
of self-efficacy with music and ensure appropriate
conditions to develop it further (Kim & Choy, 2008;
Neokleous, 2010). It is essential to guarantee time
and spaces for beginning teachers to engage in men-
toring and peer observation activities, both formally
and informally, to gradually scaffold the development
of their music-specific pedagogical skills (Barrett
et  al., 2019). It is also important for school leaders
to provide the conditions for work-embedded learn-
ing, both collaborative and individual (Múñez et  al.,
2017). Both beginning and experienced teachers
would highly benefit from sharing music education
topics with one another (e.g., music-specific peda-
gogies, innovative activities, knowledge about chil-
dren’s reactions, concerns about teaching problems)
(Yim & Ebbeck, 2011). These forms of informal
learning are less costly and more easily accessible
and sustainable over time than formal music educa-
tion PD courses. ECE policies might therefore con-
sider more flexible working schedules, with protected
time to facilitate sustained teacher collaboration
(Chen, 2000). We acknowledge that this change may
be difficult to achieve, especially in systems where
ECE centers are run by private or commercial oper-
ators (Kagan, 2019). Raising the awareness of school
leaders about the importance of this matter is there-
fore crucial.
Governments and education ministries are in the
best position to offer high-quality formal PD in
music education to ECE in-service teachers, via offi-
cial PD providers in each nation or jurisdiction (e.g.,
teachers training bodies, universities, professional
associations, commercial providers). Teachers
increasingly attend formal PD initiatives to meet
requirements from publicly funded ECE programs,
which may be delivered face-to-face, online, or in
a hybrid mode (Egert et  al., 2018). Educational pol-
icymakers could consider organizing early childhood
music education conferences, professional workshops,
or seminars, which have proven useful for in-service
teachers (West, 2020). However, these types of for-
mal PD have disadvantages (e.g., high cost, short
duration, lack of follow-up support, restrictions
 Arts Education Policy Review 7

related to time and physical location, unsustainabil- 5.  Summary and final remarks
ity), hence are somewhat impractical to benefit ECE
In this position paper, we have reviewed specific bod-
teachers at scale (Lenzo, 2014). To overcome the
ies of literature to raise awareness among policymak-
limitations of face-to-face PD, policymakers may
ers, teacher educators, and school leaders of the need
capitalize on the affordances and advantages of
to better prepare ECE teachers in music education.
online technologies (i.e., flexibility, accessibility,
In response to our first goal, we have shown that
affordability, scalability) (Dede et  al., 2009; Philipsen
countries around the world often fail to provide ECE
et  al., 2019) and provide early childhood practi-
teachers with a solid preparation in this area, as the
tioners with online and blended music education
quantity and quality of music pre-service courses and
PD (Lenzo, 2014). Large-scale seminars, workshops,
PD initiatives tends to be low. This lack of preparation
courses, conferences, mentoring programs, etc. could
leads to a series of interrelated negative consequences
be offered virtually to reach out to high numbers
for teachers (e.g., knowledge deficit, lack of confi-
of participants and disseminate the latest develop-
dence, poor pedagogical practices), which inevitably
ments in the field widely. Online and blended PD
affect young children (e.g., limited and superficial
initiatives are cost-efficient and more sustainable
musical learning, unachieved curriculum objectives,
than face-to-face initiatives and can provide practi-
unbalanced development). We have also reviewed the
tioners with tools to cyclically evaluate, assess, and
research literature on ECE teachers’ needs, motiva-
improve their music pedagogies, as has been shown
tions, and preferences regarding music education. ECE
with teachers of other educational levels (e.g., Stanley
teachers feel the need to improve in numerous areas
et  al., 2014).
such as basic music theory, instrumental and singing
Finally, we recommend countries to design virtual
skills, pedagogies to foster children’s musical creativity
platforms to foster the emergence of online
and self-expression, and competences to integrate
Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) (Lock,
music with other learning areas. They are highly moti-
2006), through which ECE teachers (both pre- and
vated to engage in learning opportunities that are
in-service) can further improve themselves in the
practical, for example live and video-mediated lesson
various learning areas, including music education.
observations, design and implementation of innovative
These virtual platforms may range from local websites
lesson ideas, and micro-teaching. While teachers value
to national or even international platforms. They
formal PD initiatives outside ECE centers (e.g., sem-
should allow ECE practitioners to communicate with
inars, workshops, symposia, and conferences), they
one another (e.g., through discussion forums, chats,
prefer work-embedded forms of collaborative PD (e.g.,
e-mail messages), both synchronously and
mentoring, peer-feedback, discussions). Online learn-
a-synchronously, and share their knowledge and ped-
ing resources (e.g., e-lesson plans, video lecturers,
agogical resources (e.g., music curriculum materials,
demonstrations) are also perceived to be very useful.
e-lesson plans, video demonstrations, music tracks).
In view of this worrisome reality, our second goal
Such platforms would be ideal to reinforce
was to suggest possible strategies to enhance the
center-based informal PD, as described above, allow-
teaching and learning of music within ECE settings.
ing ECE teachers to interact with peers beyond their
Pre-service and in-service teachers urgently need more
immediate circle (e.g., teachers from other schools,
opportunities for music making, skill practice, peda-
districts, regions, countries), and with other music
gogical observation and analysis, guided practice, and
education stakeholders (e.g., music specialists, per-
collaboration. To this end, the proposed strategies
formers, teacher educators, PD providers, researchers)
would require the action of teacher educators, school
(Bautista et  al., 2021). Virtual platforms and online
leaders, and policymakers. We have argued that uni-
PLCs would allow ECE teachers to become the archi-
versities and colleges should take innovative measures
tects of their own music-specific PD (Schmidt &
to increase the quantity and quality of students’ expo-
Robbins, 2011), engaging in self-directed interactions
sure to music education, including the establishment
and exchanges with other professionals for the
of partnerships with ECE centers offering high-quality
enhancement of music teaching and learning in ECE
music education, so that all students can observe and
settings. Key obstacles relate to potential difficulties
analyze good examples of practice (in person/live or
in securing sufficient funds for high-quality PD in
through video). Leaders of ECE centers have been
music education, an area that commonly “gets the
urged to provide all teachers—especially beginners—
short end of the stick”, as well as the recruitment
with formal and informal PD opportunities in music
and/or training of the right professionals to facilitate
education, allowing them time and space to engage
such PD.
8 A. BAUTISTA ET AL.
in mentoring, peer observation, and work-embedded
collaborative learning. We have argued that govern-
ments must urgently offer high-quality music educa-
tion PD. Moreover, we have strongly recommended
the design of virtual platforms to foster the emergence
of online PLCs. Needless to say, ECE teachers would
be required to play an active role to benefit from
these strategies and improve themselves as music edu-
cators. The strategies proposed are neither exhaustive
nor comprehensive, but they aim to suggest
cost-efficient, sustainable, and scalable ways to support
ECE teachers in music education and help the field
move forward. We are cognoscenti of practical and
policy-related obstacles, opportunity costs, and
tradeoffs of the various strategies suggested, as out-
lined earlier.
Teacher learning involves multiple processes,
actions, and mechanisms mediated by cultural, social,
and political factors; hence, it would be unwise to
blindly adopt training strategies without scrutinizing
the characteristics of each ECE system (Kagan, 2019).
ECE researchers in each country or jurisdiction should
therefore investigate the specific needs, motivations,
and preferences of their local teachers, and subse-
quently design and implement responsive training
strategies (Darling-Hammond et  al., 2017; Desimone
& Garet, 2015). Furthermore, researchers should also
conduct studies to measure the impact on such train-
ing strategies, both on teachers (e.g., musical knowl-
edge, skills, confidence, pedagogical competencies)
and children (e.g., musical competencies, creativity,
self-expression, holistic development). This body of
research would be essential for teacher educators,
school leaders, and policymakers to understand how
best to support ECE teachers in music education, for
the benefit of young children (Campbell &
Scott-Kassner, 2019).
We end this paper with a cautionary tale. As the
world begins its recovery from the effects of the
COVID-19 pandemic, a major concern is with chil-
dren’s academic losses during these difficult times.
If history is to repeat itself, we are likely to see
some heightened attention given to literacy and
numeracy in ECE worldwide, and in many cases,
to the detriment of other areas such as music and
the arts. While we acknowledge the importance of
literacy and numeracy in young children’s educa-
tion, we also see an urgent need for music educa-
tion in the post-pandemic world. As noted in the
beginning of this paper, music education has a
central role in children’s development and growth.
Music is also a powerful form of emotional
expression, self-regulation, and social bonding in
the early years. We therefore believe that the time
is ripe to invest in the music education of ECE
teachers worldwide.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This study was supported by the project “Arts and Creativity
in Hong Kong Kindergartens: Towards Glocal Pedagogies”
(grant #04592) funded by the Department of Early
Childhood Education at The Education University of Hong
Kong. The views expressed herein are the authors’ and do
not necessarily represent the views of their institution.
Notes on contributors
Alfredo Bautista is Associate Professor and Associate Head
(Internationalization) in the Department of Early Childhood
Education at The Education University of Hong Kong. He
is interested in the analysis of instructional practices,
teacher professional development, and the factors that influ-
ence curriculum and pedagogy in early childhood settings,
particularly in music and the arts.
Jerry Yeung is PhD Student in the Department of Early
Childhood Education at The Education University of Hong
Kong. Trained as a kindergarten teacher, Jerry is interested
in arts and creativity and teacher professional development
within early childhood education settings. He has been
recently awarded a doctoral scholarship by the Hong Kong
PhD Fellowship Scheme (HKPFS).
Morgan L. Mclaren works as a kindergarten teacher in
Victoria Education Organization (Hong Kong). She has
recently completed her Post-Graduate Diploma in Early
Childhood Education at The Education University of Hong
Kong. She also holds a Bachelor’s of Science from the State
University of New York at Oneonta (United States).
Beatriz Ilari is Associate Professor of Music Education at
the University of Southern California where she teaches
graduate courses in music psychology, the sociology of
music, and research methods. She has conducted extensive
research with babies, preschoolers, and school-aged children.
Beatriz’s research uses a variety of approaches to study
different aspects of musical development and growth of
infants, children, and adolescents.
ORCID
Alfredo Bautista http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5878-1888
Jerry Yeung http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7678-5156
Morgan Lisa Mclaren http://orcid.
org/0000-0002-6297-2898
Beatriz Ilari http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4060-1703

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