UNIT-5

Biomass is organic, meaning it is made of material that comes from living organisms, such as
plants and animals. The most common biomass materials used for energy are plants, wood, and
waste. These are called biomass feedstocks. Biomass energy can also be a non-renewable energy
source. 

Biomass energy is energy generated or produced by living or once-living organisms. The most
common biomass materials used for energy are plants, such as corn and soy, above. The energy
from these organisms can be burned to create heat or converted into electricity.
Availability of bio-mass and its conversion theory

Biomass is a clean, renewable energy source. Its initial energy comes from the sun, and plants or
algae biomass can regrow in a relatively short amount of time. Trees, crops, and municipal solid
waste are consistently available and can be managed sustainably.

If trees and crops are sustainably farmed, they can offset carbon emissions when they absorb
carbon dioxide through respiration. In some bioenergy processes, the amount of carbon that is re-
absorbed even exceeds the carbon emissions that are released during fuel processing or usage.

Many biomass feedstocks, such as switchgrass, can be harvested on marginal lands or pastures,
where they do not compete with food crops.Unlike other renewable energy sources, such as wind
or solar, biomass energy is stored within the organism, and can be harvested when it is needed.

Conversion theory

There are four types of conversion technologies currently available that may result in specific
energy and potential renewable products:

1. Thermal conversion is the use of heat, with or without the presence of oxygen, to convert
biomass into other forms of energy and products.  These include direct combustion,
pyrolysis, and torrefaction.  

 Combustion is the burning of biomass in the presence of oxygen. The waste heat is used
to for hot water, heat, or with a waste heat boiler to operate a steam turbine to produce
electricity.  Biomass also can be co-fired with existing fossil fuel power stations.

 Pyrolysis convert biomass feedstocks under controlled temperature and absent oxygen
into gas, oil and biochar (used as valuable soil conditioner and also to make graphene).
The gases and oil can be used to power a generator and some technologies can also make
diesel and chemicals from the gases.

 Torrefaction is similar to pyrolysis but in a lower operating temperature range. The final
product is an energy dense solid fuel often referred to as “bio-coal”.

2. Thermochemical conversion is commonly referred to as gasification. This technology

uses high temperatures in a controlled partial combustion to form a producer gas and
 charcoal followed by chemical reduction. A major use for biomass is for agriculture
residues with gas turbines. Advanced uses include production of diesel, jet fuel and
chemicals.

3. Biochemical Conversion involves the use of enzymes, bacteria or other microbes to

break down biomass into liquids and gaseous feedstocks and includes anaerobic digestion
and fermentation. These feedstocks can be converted to energy, transportation fuels and
renewable chemicals.

4. Chemical Conversion involves the use of chemical agents to convert biomass into liquid
fuels which mostly is converted to biodiesel.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) uses the ocean thermal gradient between cooler

deep and warmer shallow or surface seawaters to run a heat engine and produce useful work,
usually in the form of electricity. OTEC can operate with a very high capacity factor and so can
operate in base load mode.

The denser cold water masses, formed by ocean surface water interaction with cold atmosphere
in quite specific areas of the North Atlantic and the Southern Ocean, sink into the deep sea basins
and spread in entire deep ocean by the thermohaline circulation. Upwelling of cold water from
the deep ocean is replenished by the downwelling of cold surface sea water.

Among ocean energy sources, OTEC is one of the continuously available renewable energy
resources that could contribute to base-load power supply. The resource potential for OTEC is
considered to be much larger than for other ocean energy forms. Up to 88,000 TWh/yr of power
could be generated from OTEC without affecting the ocean's thermal structure.

Availability (OTEC)

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) generates electricity indirectly from solar energy by
harnessing the temperature difference between the sun-warmed surface of tropical oceans and the
colder deep waters. A signiRcant fraction of solar radiation incident on the ocean is retained by
seawater in tropical regions, resulting in average year-round surface temperatures of about 283C.
Deep, cold water, meanwhile, forms at higher latitudes and descends to Sow along the seaSoor
toward the equator. The warm surface layer, which extends to depths of about 100}200m, is
separated from the deep cold water by a thermocline. The temperature difference, T, between the
surface and thousand-meter depth ranges from 10 to 253C, with larger differences occurring in
equatorial and tropical waters, as depicted in Figure 1. T establishes the limits of the
performance of OTEC power cycles; the rule-ofthumb is that a differential of about 203C is
necessary to sustain viable operation of an OTEC facility. Since OTEC exploits renewable solar
energy, recurring costs to generate electrical power are minimal. However, the Rxed or capital
costs of OTEC systems per kilowatt of generating capacity are very high because large pipelines
and heat exchangers are needed to produce relatively modest amounts of electricity. These high
Rxed costs dominate the economics of OTEC to the extent that it currently cannot compete with
conventional power systems, except in limited niche markets. Considerable effort has been
expended over the past two decades to develop OTEC by-products, such as fresh water, air
conditioning, and mariculture, that could offset the cost penalty of electricity generation.

Theory of OTEC

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is a process or technology for producing energy by
harnessing the temperature differences (thermal gradients) between ocean surface waters and
deep ocean waters.

Energy from the sun heats the surface water of the ocean. In tropical regions, surface water can
be much warmer than deep water. This temperature difference can be used to produce electricity
and to desalinate ocean water. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) systems use a
temperature difference (of at least 77° Fahrenheit) to power a turbine to produce electricity.
Warm surface water is pumped through an evaporator containing a working fluid. The vaporized
fluid drives a turbine/generator. The vaporized fluid is turned back to a liquid in a condenser
cooled with cold ocean water pumped from deeper in the ocean. OTEC systems using seawater
as the working fluid can use the condensed water to produce desalinated water.
The United States became involved in OTEC research in 1974 with the establishment of
the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority. The laboratory is one of the world's leading
test facilities for OTEC technology. The laboratory operated a 250 kilowatt (kW) demonstration
OTEC plant for six years in the 1990s. The United States Navy supported the development of a
105 kW demonstration OTEC plant at the laboratory site. This facility became operational in
2015 and supplies electricity to the local electricity grid.

Other larger OTEC systems are in development or planned in several countries, mostly to supply
electricity and desalinated water for island communities.

Working principle of OTEC

OTEC uses the ocean's warm surface water with a temperature of around 25°C to vaporize a
working fluid, which has a low-boiling point, such as ammonia. The vapor expands and spins a
turbine coupled to a generator to produce electricity. The vapour is then cooled by seawater that
has been pumped from the deeper ocean layer, where the temperature is about 5°C. That
condenses the working fluid back into a liquid, so it can be reused. This is a continuous
electricity generating cycle.
The efficiency of the cycle is strongly determined by the temperature differential. The bigger the
temperature difference, the higher the efficiency. The technology is therefore viable primarily in
equatorial areas where the year-round temperature differential is at least 20°C.

Performance of OTEC

Ocean Thermal Energy also called Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) refers to a
method of using the temperature difference between the deep parts of the sea which are cold and
the shallow parts of the sea which are cold to run a heat engine and produce useful work.
Basically, Ocean thermal energy conversion is an electricity generation system. The deeper parts
of the ocean are cooler due to the fact that the heat of sunlight cannot penetrate very deep into
the water. Here the efficiency of the system depends on the temperature difference. Greater the
temperature difference, the greater the efficiency. The temperature difference in the oceans
between the deep and shallow parts is maximum in the tropics, 20 to 25 o C. Tropics receive a lot
of sunlight which warms the surface of the oceans, increasing the temperature gradient.

 Closed Cycle: Closed cycle Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion systems use a working
fluid with a low boiling point, Ammonia for example, and use it to power a turbine to
generate electricity. Warm seawater is taken in from the surface of the oceans and cold
water from the deep at 5o. The warm seawater vaporizes the fluid in the heat exchanger
 which then turns the turbines of the generator. The fluid now in the vapour state is
brought in contact with cold water which turns it back into a liquid. The fluid is recycled
in the system which is why it is called a closed system.

 Open Cycle: Open cycle OTEC directly uses the warm water from the surface to make
electricity. The warm seawater is first pumped in a low-pressure chamber where due to
the drop in pressure, it undergoes a drop in boiling point as well. This causes the water to
boil. This steam drives a low-pressure turbine which is attached to an electrical generator.
The advantage this system has over a closed system is that, in the open cycle, desalinated
water in the form of steam is obtained. Since it is steam, it is free from all impurities.
This water can be used for domestic, industrial, or agricultural purposes.

Ocean Thermal Energy (OTEC) is a real candidate as one of the future sources of energy.
Its environmental impact is negligible, in fact, the mixing of deep and shallow seawater
brings up nutrients from the seafloor. The deepwater is rich in nitrates and this can also
be used in agriculture.

 Hybrid
A hybrid cycle combines the features of the closed- and open-cycle systems. In a hybrid,
warm seawater enters a vacuum chamber and is flash-evaporated, similar to the open-
cycle evaporation process. The steam vaporizes the ammonia working fluid of a closed-
cycle loop on the other side of an ammonia vaporizer. The vaporized fluid then drives a
turbine to produce electricity. The steam condenses within the heat exchanger and
provides desalinated water.

Working fluids
A popular choice of working fluid is ammonia, which has superior transport properties,
easy availability, and low cost. Ammonia, however, is toxic and flammable. Fluorinated
carbons such as CFCs and HCFCs are not toxic or flammable, but they contribute to
ozone layer depletion. Hydrocarbons too are good candidates, but they are highly
flammable; in addition, this would create competition for use of them directly as fuels.
The power plant size is dependent upon the vapor pressure of the working fluid. With
increasing vapor pressure, the size of the turbine and heat exchangers decreases while the
 wall thickness of the pipe and heat exchangers increase to endure high pressure especially
on the evaporator side.
 Advantages of OTEC system :
 Power from OTEC is continuous, renewable and pollution free.
 Unlike other forms of solar energy, output of OTEC shows very little daily or seasonal
variation.
 Drawing of warm and cold sea water and returning of the sea water, close to the
thermocline, could be accomplished with minimum environment impact.
Limitations / Disadvantages of OTEC system
1. Capital investment is very high.
2. Conversion efficiency is very low about 3-4% due to small temperature difference in
between the surface water and deep water
3. Low efficiency of these plants coupled with high capital cost and maintenance cost
makes them uneconomical for small plants.

Wave and Tidal Energy

Water in the oceans is constantly in motion due to waves and tides, and energy can be harvested
from these kinds of motions. Waves, driven by the winds, make the water oscillate in roughly
circular orbits extending to a depth of one half of the wavelength of the wave (distance between
peaks). Tides, related to the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun on the oceans, are like very
long-wavelength waves that can produce very strong currents in some coastal areas due to the
geometry of the shoreline. In terms of power generation technologies, wave and tidal power have
both similarities and differences. Both refer to the extraction of kinetic energy from the ocean to
generate electricity (again, by spinning a turbine just as hydroelectric dams or wind farms do),
but the locations of each and the mechanisms that they use for generating power are slightly
different.
Tidal power or tidal energy is harnessed by converting energy from tides into useful forms of
power, mainly electricity using various methods.
Although not yet widely used, tidal energy has the potential for future electricity generation.
Tides are more predictable than the wind and the sun. Among sources of renewable energy, tidal
energy has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and limited availability of sites with
sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus constricting its total availability. However,
many recent technological developments and improvements, both in design (e.g. dynamic tidal
power, tidal lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g. new axial turbines, cross flow turbines),
indicate that the total availability of tidal power may be much higher than previously assumed
and that economic and environmental costs may be brought down to competitive levels.

Working principle of tidal energy

Performance of Tidal energy

Tide or wave is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. Tides occur due to the attraction
of sea water by the moon. Tides contain large amount of potential energy which is used for
power generation. When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood tide. When the
water level is below the mean level it is called ebb tide.
The arrangement of this system is shown in figure A. The ocean tides rise and fall and water can
be stored during the rise period and it can be discharged during fall. A dam is constructed
separating the tidal basin from the sea and a difference in water level is obtained between the
basin and sea.
 Figure A
During high tide period, water flows from the sea into the tidal basin through the water
turbine. The height of tide is above that of tidal basin. Hence the turbine unit operates and
generates power, as it is directly coupled to a generator.

During low tide period, water flows from tidal basin to sea, as the water level in the basin
is more than that of the tide in the sea. During this period also, the flowing water rotates the
turbine and generator power.

The generation of power stops only when the sea level and the tidal basin level are equal. For the
generation of power economically using this source of energy requires some minimum tide
height and suitable site. Kislaya power plant of 250 MW capacity in Russia and Rance power
plant in France are the only examples of this type of power plant.

Limitations/ Disadvantages of Tidal Power

 Tidal power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available on the bay.
 As the sites are available on the bays which are always far away from load centres, the
 power generated has to be transmitted to long distances. This increases the transmission
cost and transmission losses.
 Initial construction cost is very high
 Formation of silt behind the barrage
 Effect on animals and plants living near tidal stations
 Very few suitable sites for constructing barrages
 Disturbs migration of living creatures in the ocean
 Water cannot be replenished, and hence dirt gets settled within the coast
 It produces power for only about 10 h of the day when the tide is moving in and out.

Recycling waste material plant

Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects.
The recovery of energy from waste materials is often included in this concept. The recyclability
of a material depends on its ability to reacquire the properties it had in its original state. [1] It is an
alternative to "conventional" waste disposal that can save material and help lower greenhouse
gas emissions. It can also prevent the waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the
consumption of fresh raw materials, reducing energy use, air pollution (from incineration) and
water pollution (from landfilling).
Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, cardboard, metal, plastic, tires, textiles,
batteries, and electronics. The composting and other reuse of biodegradable waste—such
as food and garden waste—is also a form of recycling. Materials for recycling are either
delivered to a household recycling center or picked up from curbside bins, then sorted, cleaned,
and reprocessed into new materials for manufacturing new products.
In ideal implementations, recycling a material produces a fresh supply of the same material—for
example, used office paper would be converted into new office paper, and used polystyrene foam
into new polystyrene. Some types of materials, such as metal cans, can be remanufactured again
and again, indefinitely, without losing its purity. [6] With other materials, this is often difficult or
too expensive (compared with producing the same product from raw materials or other sources),
so "recycling" of many products and materials involves their reuse in producing different
materials (for example, paperboard). Another form of recycling is the salvage of constituent
materials from complex products, due to either their intrinsic value (such as lead from car
batteries and gold from printed circuit boards), or their hazardous nature (e.g. removal and reuse
of mercury from thermometers and thermostats).
Recyclate is a raw material sent to and processed in a waste recycling plant or materials-recovery
facility so it can be used in the production of new materials and products. For example, plastic
bottles can be made into plastic pellets and synthetic fabrics.
The place for the waste recycling plant is not particularly important because the waste collection
will cover at least one city and at any location it is necessary to arrange transportation to you or
your customers.

A waste recycling equipment can be designed to process a certain type of waste or be universal.
According to the first case it is necessary to know exactly what raw materials will be delivered:
for example, tires recycling equipment (crushing lines), plastic recycling equipment (granulation
lines). The enterprise with such equipment will not have the opportunity to further expand the
spectrum of services even if there will be a demand for such equipment. Universal equipment
(for example, heat recycling equipment) is more preferable.