Overlap

12
METAL FLOORING,
STAIRWAYS, LADDERS,
PLATFORMS AND
Fiqure 71.73 JoInts in launders I HANDRAILING
shown in figure 11.13. All connections to gutter outlets should be sealed (i.e. 12.1 General requirements 12.3
no slipjoints) since the system operates under pressure. Air entrainment can be 12.3
I 12.1.1 Scope
a problem at times, requiring air vents to be provided. Bend and shoes need
12.1.2 Regulations and codes 12.3
to be anchored against pressure forces and ihe Weight of the water in vertical
pipes needs to.be considered. 12.1.3 Slopes and proportions 12.4

Blank flanges should be provided at the start of all launder pipes to allow for 12.5
12.2 Metal flooring
rodding or for access to pipes for the purpose of cleaning blockages, etc.
12.2.1 General 12.5
12.2.2 Grating 12.5
12.2.3 Expanded metal 12.7
E References

• Schwartz, H I, and Culligan, P T. Roof drainage of large buildings in South

12.2.4 Profited plank flooring 12.8
12.9
12.2.5 Solid plate flooring
Africa. The Civil Engineer in South Africa, August 1976.
12.2.6 Materials 12.13
• Alexander, W J R, Department of Water Affairs. Technical Note No. $3, 12.14
12.2.7 Protective coatings
June 1975.
12.2.8 Loading and strength 12.14
12.2.9 Tolerances 12.15
12.2.10 Information required with-orders 12.15

12.3 Stairways 12.16

12.3.1 General 12.16
12.3.2 Slope 12.17
12.3.3 Width and headroom 12.17

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11.22 12.1
 12.3.4 Steps 12.17 12.1 General requirements
12.3.5 Treads 12.18
12.3.6 Stringers 12.18 12.1.1 Scope
12.3.7 Landings 12.20 This section gives mandatory requirements, general recommendations and
12.3.8 Handrails and balustrades 12.22 typical details for the design and construction of metal flooring, stairways,
12.3.9 Loading 12.22 ladders, platforms, walkways and handrailing as used in industrial applications,
including factories, manufacturing and processing plants, mining structures,
12.4 Ladders (fixed) 12.22 warehouses, crane gantries, etc.

12.4.1 General 12.22 Many of the requirements concern strength and safety and are therefore
12.4.2 Slopes, dimensions and clearances 12.22 mandatory’, being laid down in the Occupational Health and Safety Act, the
National Building Regulations, codes such as SANS 10160: General Procedures
12.4.3 Stringers 12.23
and Loadings to be Adopted for the Design of Buildings, and SANS 10400:
12.4.4 Rungs 12.23
The Application of the National Building Regulations. Other aspects of design
12.4.5 Safety cages 12.26 relate to ease of use, economics, etc. Such requirements are non-mandatory,
12.4.6 Stepladders 12.26 but recommendations are given with a view to achieving a satisfactory overall
design. In general, mandatory requirements are indicated in the text by
12.5 Platforms and walkways 12.28 reference to the relevant regulations or cotfes
12.5.1 General 12.28
12.1.2 Regulations and codes
12.5.2 Dimensions and clearances 12.28
12.5.3 Protection 12.28 The following regulations and codes should be referred to in respect of the
12.5.4 Kickpla[es 12.29 safety and strength aspects of design.

12.5.5 Loading 12.29

a) SANS 10400
12.6 Handrailing 12.29 a Part B deals with structural design and states under the ‘deemed to satisfy
12.6.1 General 12.29 rules’ that where a design has been carried out in accordance with SANS
12.6.2 Height 12.29 10160 (for loads), and SANS 10162 (for structural steel) the structural and
load-bearing aspects of design may be deemed to have been satisfied.
12.6.3 Hand and knee rails 12.30
12.6.4 Handrail standards 12.30 • Part M deals specifically with stairways and landings and gives safety,
dimensional and clearance requirements.
12,6.5 Angle section handrailing 12.31
12.6.6 Loading 12.31 • Part T deals with fire protection in general, but refers to specific aspects of
stairways, landings and corridors in rules 115,117,1720,1721,1123 and TT27,
12.6.7 Materials and finishes 12.33
when these form part of an emergency or fire-escape route.
12.6.8 Layout 12.33

ANDRE3tEN77S Pfl t.TD -

HEAD OFFICE ThI (Oil) 255 3200
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12.2 12.3
 5) SANS 10160 122 Metal flooring
This code covers the loading requirements of buildings and parts thereof.
Loadings on corridors and stairs for occupancies other than industrial or 12.2.1 General
storage are laid down, but no specific reference is made to loadings for Metal flooring is used extensively in the mining industry, in process and
industrial or storage occupancies. chemical plants, petro-chemical refineries, cement and fertilizer plants, pulp
and paper factories, power-stations and utilities such as sewerage works, water
c) SANS 10162: Part 1 treatment plants, etc. The flooring is generally required to support pedestrian
and light vehicular traffic, but may also be used in regions subject to static
All aspects of the design of structural steelwork in buildings and other
loading, such as warehouse mezzanine floors and other light storage areas.
structures are set out in this code, which therefore has direct relevance to the
structural design of steel floors, stairs and ladders. The main type of metal flooring used in industrial applications comprises
open flooring (grating and expanded metal), profiled planks and solid plates
12.1.3 Slopes and proportions (plain and patterned). A variety of proprietary flooring types are available in
South Africa and detailed descriptive andhnical information is available in
The following diagram gives the ranges of slopes suitable for ramps, stairways, pamphlets pubtished by the various manufacturers.
stepladders and ladders respectively, and indicates certain undesirable
ranges of slopes that should be avoided because of inconvenience of use or The advantages of the open types of flooring are that they represent an
potential hazard. economical, lightweight system that permits the passage of light and air to
areas below, that they are virtually self-cleaning and do not allow dust or rubble
-
Slope degrees to accumulate, and that they allow oil and water to drain off easily. Various
90 75 65 50 45 40
modular panel sizes are available for economical design and quick deLivery.
However, the resistance of open flooring to shear loads in its own plane is low
and it can therefore not be used as bracing to the beams supporting the floor
system, unless specific measures are taken.

Solid plate floors are commonly used where spillage has to be contained or
where a high level of hygiene is required. If properly attached to the supporting
beams, this type of flooring has considerable shear strength and stiffness in
its plane and can thus be employed in the secondary role of bracing, thereby
eliminating the need for a separate structural bracing system.

A more detaiLed description of each floor type follows.

12.2.2 Grating
Also known as open-grid flooring, grating comprises main bearer bars and
round transverse bars uniformly spaced to give a square or rectangular pattern,
Figure 12.1 Slopes for ladders, stepladders, stairways and ramps the bars being either welded together or mechanically locked or crimped.

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12.4
12.5
.1
 It is manufactured with or without non-skid surfaces, kick plates and edge
banding. Stair treads can be manufactured with non-skid upper edges and
nosing or sighting edges. The length (span) of a panel is always measured
along the length of the bearer bars (including cases where the bearer bars
span in the short direction) and the width is measured along the transverse
bar direction. The strength of panels is dependent on the span, size and
spacing of the bearer bars, for which the lateral support is provided by the
transverse bars.
The spacing of the transverse bars may be the same as for the bearer bars or
may be greater, depending on load conditions, smoothness of surface requited
or the desired degree of light penetration to areas below the flooring.
The various manufacturers have their own designations for the types and
sizes of their products, but the essential information relating to any particular
grating is the spacing. depth and thickness of the bearer bars and the spacing
of the transverse bars, the spacing being the distance between bars.
Rgure 12.2 Grating or open grid flooring
The load-carrying capacity of floor grating is determined by the strength
of the bearer bars acting as simply-supported beams over their span at the
appropriate moment resistance (see below).
fixing of the panels to the supporting steelwork is by means of welding,
bolting, studs or clamps. Welding is suitab)e for permanent installations,
but it should be borne in mind that damage to galvanized and other special
coatings will result. Standard fixing clips including bolts and saddle clamps
are available from the flooring suppliers and these avoid the necessity for
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I
drilling holes in the supporting structure. The profiled end of the clip engages
the lower edge of the bearer bats. The saddle clamps engage two bearer bars
and are bolted through the grating into the fixing clips. Recessed transverse
bars with the use of saddle clamps can reduce a tripping hazard typical of clips
straddling the bearer bar.
Open grid floor grating is available in various finishes, including black bitumen
dipped, galvanized and uncoated and is available in various materials such as
commercial quality or Grade 300W steel, 3CR12, stainless steel 304 or 316, and
aluminium. Specialized finishes such as epoxies and other resin based paints
may also be applied.
12.2.3 Expanded metal
Expanded metal and decorative mesh are made from a solid sheet of
material that is slit and expanded in a cold drawing operation into a lattice
of diamond shapes of uniform size. In the flooring range, the strands are set
at a sharp angle, which imparts strength and rigidity and provides a non
skid surface. Additional slip resistance features can be provided. The panels
are manufactured with or without edge flats or angles. Where decorative or
screening applications are required, the mesh can be rolled into a flattened
sheet with no raised edges.
FIgure 12.3 Expanded metal flooring
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 Expanded metal is designated by the nominal short way dimension (SWM) of
the mesh, times the long way dimension (LWM), times the width of the strand,
times the thickness of the strand (i.e. of the sheet from which it is made). A I
range of mesh sizes and strand widths and thicknesses is available. Sheet
sizes are described by giving the dimension parallel to the long way (LWM),
times the dimension parallel to the short way (SWM); note that the long way
dimension is given first, e.g. 1-000 mm LWM x 2-000 mm SWM. The LWM
and SWM dimensions are the distances between intersections of the diamond
pattern in the relevant direction.

In order to optimize the strength of a sheet or panel, it is recommended that the

long way mesh (LWM) runs in the short direction of the sheet (e.g. 1 200 LWM
x 2400 SWM).
Strength ratings of expanded metal are based on tests carried out on typical
sheets on simply-supported spans and are given in the manufacturers’ literature
(see Section 14). Because of the relatively small overall thickness of the sheets,
spans are limited to about 750 mm for the heavier types. Consequently, typical
applications are confined to tight storage floors, narrow walkways, sloping
ramps, window cleaning access walkways, etc. The mesh is usually fixed to
the supporting steelwork by means of welding or bolting.
The readily available finishes in which expanded steel flooring is supplied are
unpainted, sand blasted and painted or galvanized.
12.2.4 Profiled plank flooring
This type of flooring consists of cold-formed metal channels with lipped edges
and with non-slip mesh patterns formed on the upper surface of the webs.
Because of the manufacturing process, the units tend to be long and narrow
and are thus described as ‘planks’, as distinct from panels, but when laid side-
by-side large areas can be covered with a minimum of transverse support. The
planks, placed side by side in two or three widths, are particularly suitable for
tong walkways as no longitudinal stringers are required.
Because of their narrow width, the planks can be used as stair treads when cut
in short lengths with end plates welded on.
The planks are normally made from mitd steel and may be fixed to the
supporting structure by means of welding, bolts or bolted clips. It is not
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FIgure 72.4 ProfIled plank
recommended that handrailings be attached to profiled plank flooring as the
planks are typically too light to resist Joacii
Profiled planks are available in 150, 250 and 305 mm widths. Different widths
can be combined to provide the desired width of floor.
12.2.5 Solid plate flooring
Plain or patterned (such as Vastrap) solid plate flooring is typically made up
by a flooring or steel fabricator into panels of the required shape and size and
supplied as part of the structural steelwork package for a project, similar to
gratings. Panels may be provided with stiffening ribs consisting of flats or
angles welded to the underside to increase their load carrying capacity and
resistance to deflection. Such stiffened plates should be designed to span in the
short direction of the panel.
Plate flooring can be fixed to the supporting structure by means of countersunk
bolts, intermittent welding, or a combination of bolts (for keeping the plate in
position during erection) and welding.
Solid plate flooring is usually supplied painted. Non-slip paint may be used on
plain plate where there is a risk of slipping, whereas with patterned plate the
paint on the tops of the projections soon wears off, leaving a satisfactory non-
slip surface,
Plates supported only on parallel members should be designed like beams,
but for calculating deflections the Young’s modulus E can be replaced by E*,
where
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 E Resistance under concentrated load:
1,1E
1 - p2 =
fl
Where iv and zv1, are in kPa
where v Poisson ratio, equal to 0,3 for steel.
F and F1, are in kN
The deflections and resistances of floor plates consisting of rectangular panels
t = thickness of plate (mm)
supported along all four edges can be calculated with the use of the factors
listed in Table 12.1. Alt these factors were calculated using Pounder’s formulae a and b edge dimensions (mm) with a b
from the Steel Construction Institute’s Steel Designer’s Manual. The formulae
Deflections in mm.
for plates simply supported along all four sides and subject to a uniformly
distributed load are based on the assumption that the corners are not tied down, For material with a yield stress other than 200 MPa the resistances zv, and F5,
which can be somewhat conservative. However, with a simply supported plate can be adjusted by multiplying withf/200.
subject to a concentrated load the corners must be tied down with fasteners
for industrial applications where people may not be very sensitive to deflection
or welding strong enough to resist a force equal to about 10% of the ultimate
applied toad F With ‘fixed’ edges the assumption is that the plate can neither or vibration of the floor and where there are no brittle finishes that may be
damaged by relatively large deflections, the deflection of a floor plate may
rotate about nor deflect along any edge.
be allowed to be as much as b / 100, where 1, is the smaller dimension of a
The factors in Table 12.1 that relate to the resistances of plates are based on panel, but not more than 15 mm. In other situations, the deflection of a floor
a yield stress f of 200 MPa and on a linear distribution of stress through the ,
panel should be limited to b/200 or to_thatever limit is appropriate for the
thickness of the plate, even at ultimate load. Since this last assumption is particular application. These limits should be applied independent of the limits
conservative, the resistance factor q was not included in the factors. for the on the deflection of the floor as a whole.
case with fixed edges the maximum bending moment will not occur in the
The Pounder equations for distributed loads are as follows:
centre of the panel, but in the middle of the long edge (length a).
Resistances and deflections can be calculated as follows using the appropriate Simply-supported edges:
factors from Table 12.1:
4tY
Deflection under uniformly distributed load:
zvu— 20
3kb2 1+(1_k)+(T_k)2j
=

5kwb4 +7 (1-k)+ _7 (1k)2j

Resistance under uniformly distributed load: 36Et’ 1 175 201 a

ivu = ,Bw• Fixed edges:

Deflection under concentrated load:
2t2j
iv,,
= aFT kb2[ 1+ (1_k)+j (1k)2}

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12.10 12.11
 TABLE 12.1
ktubt;+47(lk)+ 200 k)21
4 tV
-
36Et3 210 517 FACTORS FOR CALCULATING RESISTANCES AND DEFLECTIONS OF FLOOR PLATES
Where (continued)

k a4 Factor a(mm)
b(mm) Edges Load
+ b4 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
type 600

Distr -— — — !_ 2_ i2_ L
TABLE 12.1 Pu, 0,230 0,193 0,173 0,161
— —

FACTORS FOR CALCULATING RESISTANCES AND DEFLECTIONS OF FLOOR PLATES Point — — = --— —

— 0j15 0,111 0,108 0,105

1400 —

Load Factor —
b (mm) Edges — L_
Dish —
type 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 — 329 0,282 0,252 0,232
—

—
— 606 662 707 741
_ a-F
31 Dlstr ft. i_ !_ .!_ Point
1,25 0,215 C816 0,778 0,261 0,253 0,248 0,246 PP 0,141 0,137 0,133 0,131
j PL,
-
a-f 226 280 309 317 333 333 333 333 3530
Point — — — —- Dish — — —
0,149 0,140 0137 0,137 0,137 0,137 0,137 — 0,176 0,151 0,135
PF 0,167 — — —
600 I Point — — — i!9_ !!_ ‘1_-
— PF__ 0,110 8,107 0,104
31 i i_. .11L. L. iL. J1L. JiL L 1600
I a- 111 132 142 142 142 142 142 142 —
Point — — — — — o —
PF 0,227 0,205 0,196 0,196 0,196 0,196 0,196 0,196 0,252 °.iL _

tZ, 171 221 248 263 271 276 279 791 856 910
DistT — — — Point —
0,706 0,542 0,480 0,452 0,437 0,438 0,425 0,133 0,130 0,127
Pu PP
404 478 528 557 563 592 592 — 4390 5040
Point F Dish
PF 0,145 0,134 0,127 0,123 0,122 0122 0,122 — Pu, —
0,139 0,121
800 4 Point — —
— L..
— 1,01 0,291 689 641 631 0625 0625
g 1800 —— ——— ———
a10 730 876
Point EL.. L.. i_ L Dish
0,199 0.176
PF 0,188 0,176 0,168 0,166 0,166 0,166 0,166 PU,
31
418 520 584 624 648 663 a-F — 1000 1080
i- Point
0,452 0,360 0,319 0298 0,287 0,280 PP 0,127 0,124
Pu
632 726 798 848 875 880
Point
sF 0,131 0,724 0,119 0,175 0,113 0,112
1000 — — — —
69,5 93,5 112 126 134 136
Dish
f3w 0645 0,526 0,462 0425 0,408 0,404
i a’J- 309 348 375 391 395 395 12.2.6 Materials
Point - — —
PF 0,166 0,188 0,152 0,149 0,149 0,149
As already stated, the materials used for the various types of flooring are as
867 1050 1170 1260 1310
Disir fol]ows:
4S 00,2130,204
d
a) Grating: Generally comntercial quality steel, but can be ordered to comply
PF 0,122 0,117 0,112 0,109 0,107
1200 — — — — — with a particular specification, if quantities are sufficient.
144 186 221 248 268
o 0,290
t3w 0,448 0,376 0,333 0,306
31
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Point ANDREJV,E,W7S1T}7 LTD
0,152 0,146 0,141 0,139 0,137 HEAD OFFiCE: Il: (011)255-3200
Pp
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11 1’)
 b) Expanded metal: Only available in commercial quallly steel.
c) Profiled planks: Generally commercial quality steel. Also aluminium for
special applications.
d) Solid ptate flooring: Generally commercial quality’ Enquire about availability
if a specific quality is required.
12.2.7 Protective coatings
All the flooring types, with exception of non-corrosive ones, are generally
supplied painted with a primer or, in the case of open flooring, with bitumastic
paint. It should be noted that the bitumastic finish is only suitable for indoor
and mildly corrosive outdoor conditions with no exposure to direct sunlight.
Special finishes, such as hot-dip galvanizing, epoxy coatings and specified
painting systems (including non-slip paint), are also available. Reference
should be made to the suppliers for detailed information. All flooring panels
can only be successfully prepared for painting by chemical degreasing or blast
cleaning; wire brushing is not satisfactory
12.2.8 Loading and strength
floors can be designed to carry the nominal superimposed loading laid down
in SANS 10160. Note: For concentrated loads the loading should be spread over
an area of 230 mm x 230 mm. This corresponds to the width of a scaffold plank.
(The British Code BS 4592 specifies a point load of 1.5kN over an area of 200mm
x 200mm) (Loads may be specified by the client,)
With regard to open-type flooring, three test criteria are laid down in
BS 4592-1970: Industrial Type Metal flooring, Walkways and Stair Treads, Part
1: Specification for Open Bar Gratings. These requirements have been generally
accepted in South Africa for metal flooring and are as follows:
a) The maximum deflection under a uniform load must not exceed span / 200
or 10 mm whichever is the lesser, for pedestrian traffic a live load of 1.5kPa
is specified in BS4592. Pedestrians must feel safe and there should not be a
trampoline effect.
b) Yielding must not occur at 1,5 times design load.
c) Collapse must not occur at 3,0 times design load.
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12.14
These criteria are simple and easy to apply. BS4592-1970 has however been
superseded by BS4592: Part 1 1995 and ii sophisticated test and loading
procedures for light, general and heavy duty grating are given in this
specification.
It is not practical to carry out tests in respect of the above on every size of floor
panel manufactured and tests are therefore made on small standardized panels
and the results related to the behaviour of panels of larger size.
In the case of expanded metal flooring, the manufacturers’ tabulated nominal
capacities are usually equal to 50 per cent of the toad causing yield. The
deflection on a 1,0 m simply-supported span at this load is about span/40.
for flooring designed from first principles, the actual yield stress of the specified
steel may be used in the calculations, whilst for unidentified or commercial
quality steel a value of 200 MPa may be used.
12.2.9 Tolerances
The following manufacturing tolerances and erection requirements are typical for
floor grating, but may be considered applicable also to other types of flooring:
a) Length and width (over banding, if any): +0, 10 mm on specific panel
dimensions.
b) Squareness of panel: diagonal dimensions not to differ by more that
5 mm.
c) Bowing or vertical displacement of panel: 5 mm or 1/200 of longest
dimension when measured on the flat surface.
U) Gaps between adjacent panels or supporting steel work, after erection:
a maximum of 20 mm.
e) Landing of flooring on supporting sieelwork: half depth of bearer bar
or 30 mm, whichever is the greater.
f) Flooring pattern generally to remain uninterrupted at joints, except where
the direction of the bearer bars change.
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12.15
 12.2.10 Information required with orders Tread
/‘Slope
When calling for tenders or placing orders for flooring, customers should
provide the following information to ensure that the supplier is fully aware of
the detailed requirements:
Riser, where
a) The appLication and specific loading required (Walkway, Storage or
Ri applicable
Machine Room)
Pitch line
b) The type (and designation, if possible) of flooring, with an indication of any
departures from standard details. In the case of open grid flooring, state the
required size of the bearer bar.
FIgure 12.5 Nomenclature for stairways
c) The number and size of panels, and direction of span, with an indication of
whether or not dimensions take into account clearances. The descriptive terms used in relation to stairways are illustrated in Figure 12.5.

U) The type of banding required, if any, around cutouts and/or the perimeter. Where stairs form part of an emergency route, they should have solid treads
and risers, except that in external staircases the risers need not be solid.
e) The details of curb angles and kick plates.

f) The fixing requirements (bolted, welded or clipped).

12.3.2 Slope
g) The material of the flooring.
One of the most important characteristics of a stairway is a satisfactory slope.
h) The protective coating.
For general and regular use, and especially where two-way traffic is likely, the
1) A clear indication of the work required to be undertaken (i.e. circular slope should not exceed 400. for occasional access purposes, the limit is 42°.
shapes, rectangular panels, rectangular panels with cutouts, etc.). Only in extreme cases, where space is severely limited, should steeper slopes be
used, in which case 50° would be the absolute maximum. The maximum slope
j) Clear working drawings of areas to be covered, showings supports, cut-outs
for fire-escape stairs should be 400.
and divisions.

12.3 Stairways 12.3.3 Width and headroom

12.3.1 General
Steel stairways are used mainly in industrial type buildings and in mining,
process and production plants, but are also often employed as fire-escape
routes in multi-storey buildings. Important aspects of stairway design are ease
of access and use, adequate clearance and safety. In any given building, it is
important that the general design and construction features of alL stairways
should be as uniform as possible.
The width of a stairway, measured as the clear distance between stringers or
handraits, should not be less than 1,0 m for regular two-way traffic, or 750 mm for
occasional access purposes. Stairs forming part of an emergency escape route in
the case of fire must have a width of not less than 1,1 m and the width must not
decrease in the direction of emergency travel.
The clear headroom, measured veTtically from the pitch line, should not be less
than 2,1 m.

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12.16 1217
 12.3.4 Steps going 250 mm.

The rise of any step should ideally be about 190 mm for normal industrial
use, or 175 mm for use by the general public. In any case it must not exceed
200 mm.

The going of any step should ideally be about 270 mm for industrial use, or
280 mm for general use, but it must not be less than 250 mm.

Where steps do not have solid risers, each tread should overlap the next lower Note: Treads ex
Channel or Tread 275 mm Vastrap plate
tread by not less than 25 mm. Steps forming part of an emergency route must fiat stringer —

have solid treads and risers, except that for external stairs the risers may be
omitted. Figure 12.6 Set out of plate treads

The variation in the dimensions of the risers and the goings of treads in any
one flight should not exceed 6 mm and the slope, and risers and goings should
preferably be approximately equal for all flights in a stairway. As a guide, the
recommended combination of rise and going is achieved when the product of
rise and going (in mm) ties in the range of 48 000 to 55 000.

12.3.5 Treads
The main consideration in selecting a suitable material for treads is the
provision of a non-slip surface that will retain its effectiveness during constant
and prolonged use. Treads for steel stairs are almost invariably made from
pattern plate or open grating. Grating-type treads are not suitable for use
by women wearing small heels, e.g. for office fire-escape stairways. The
minimum net thickness of plate treads is 6 mm for internal stairs and 8 mm
for external stairs. With the bulinose type of patterned plate tread, there is
a tendency for the foot to slip off the nose and this should be borne in mind
especially when designing emergency stairs. Details of treads are shown in
Figure 12.6.
Treads should preferably have non-slip sighting edges or nosings at least
25 mm wide with a raised pattern no higher than 3 mm and be self cleaning.
Nosings are essential for treads made from grating. Nosing edges should
have sharp corners ground off to a radius of 5 mm.
12.3.6 Stringers
Figure 12.7 DetaIl of grating tread
The steel sections most commonly used for stair stringers are 180 mm
x 10 mm flats and 178 mm x 54 mm channels, but for the larger spans the
sections should be determined by structural requirements. Cranks in stringers
are invariably welded and treads are—bolted or welded to the inner face of
the stringers (see Figure 12.6). for consideration when using flats instead of
channels should be the availability of suitable handrail standards. With flat
stringers, care should be taken to ensure the lateral stability of the staircase.
At the foot of a flight of stairs where a change in the direction of the stairway
occurs, the top edges of stringers should not be extended to a landing, as shown
in figure 12.9 (a), since this represents a potential tripping hazard. Channel

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 Kick plate
— 130mm
130mm - depth iover

Detail

Figure 12.10 DetaIl at landing

No tread overlap h= 3,Ommax.

required here w 0,9 m miii., or
because floor beam 1,7 m miii. for
acts as solid riser escape stairs

Figure 12.8 Details at top of stairway

stringers should have their ends terminated with a vertical plate, otherwise
the projecting top flange could cause snagging and tearing of trouser legs. In
outdoor situations and where corrosive liquids may be present, it would be
prudent to support the foot of the lowest stringer on a concrete plinth as shown
in Figure 12.9 (b) in order to prevent corrosion of the fixing cleats and bolts.
(a) Stairway with straight landing

Figure 72.6 Set out of plate treads

However, the bottom rise, measured from floor level, must be made equal to
the remaining rises. Alternatively, the plunth may be made the full height and
width of a step and thereby take the place of the bottom tread, as shown in
figure 12.9 (c).

12.3.7 Landings (a) Stairway with 1800 landing

Landings should be used between flights and at changes of direction. The Figure 12.11 Layout of typical itairways
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1Z20
 height of a stairway between floors or landings must not exceed 3,0 m. Where
landings are provided in the direction of the stairway, they must be at least 900
mm long and at least as wide as the stairway (NBR Regulation M4). For fire-
escape stairs the width must be at least 1,1 m. Layouts of typical stairways with
landings are shown in figure 12.11.
Landings should be fitted with kick plates made from angles or flats that
rise at least 100 mm above the flooring. They should extend around all open
sides and under the first step of the rising flight of the stairway, as shown in
Figure 12.10. Where the flooring extends under the first step of the landing, it is
critical that angle lugs are welded to the inside of the stringers to offer suitable
support to the extended section of flooring in these cases.
12.3.8 Handrails and balustrades
Stairways and landings should be protected on both sides by a handrail,
balustrade or wall. Where the width of the stairway exceeds 1,0 m and one side
is protected by a wall, a handrail should be provided on the face of the wall.
12.3.9 Loading
No superimposed loading requirements for stairways in industrial and storage
occupancies are inctuded in SANS 10160. However, it would be good
practice for all components of stairways to be designed for a uniformly
distributed nominal load of 3 k?a and for an alternative concentrated load of
3 kN applied to a square with 0,1 m sides placed in any position.
12.4 Ladders (fixed)
12.4.1 General
Ladders should preferably be used only for occasional access purposes. Ladders
are, however, fairly commonly used for access to the drivers’ cabs of overhead
and other cranes. They are of course essential on chimney stacks or towers for
maintenance and inspection purposes.
12.4.2 Slopes, dimensions and clearances
Ladders may be vertical, but are easier and safer to use if inclined, provided the
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angle of inclination is not less than 75° to the horizontal; below this slope they
are classed as stepladders (see 12.4.6 below).
The General Safety Regulations of the Occupational Health and Safety Act
do not place a limit on the vertical height to which properly fabricated and
secured steel ladders may rise. However, in the case of fixed steel ladders
intermediate rest platforms should break the line of the ladder or otherwise be
offset on alternate sides of the ladder at distances not further apart than 8 m. All
such ladders which exceed 5 m in height are to be provided with safety cages
which extend from a height not exceeding 2,0 m from the lower level to at least
900 mm above the upper level served by the ladder.
Platforms should be at least 840 mm square and be guarded by handrails and
kickplates.
The clear width between stringers should be between 450 mm and 550 mm. The
narrower width is sufficient for normal use. Where the ladder gives access to a
platform from the outside of the platform, the stringers should be opened Out
above the platform to give a clear width of at least 610 mm, sufficient for the user
to turn to face the ladder before descending.
The foot-room clearance at the back of the ladder must be at least 150 mm. The
clearance on the user’s side of a ladder not fitted with a safety cage measured
perpendicularly to the stringers, should not be less than 760 mm for vertical
ladders or 1 000 mm for sloping ladders.
Details of a typical cage ladder are shown on figure 12.12.
12.4.3 Stringers
Stringers may be made from flat bars not less than 65 mm x 10 mm, or from
angles in the case of larger unsupported heights. They should be in one
continuous length wherever possible, but where joints are necessary the
fishplates should be located on the inside of the stringers. If bolted, the bolts
should have countersunk or cup heads on the outside.
It is important that stringers be adequately and firmly attached to the
supporting structure at suitable intervals. Where the stringers are opened
out above platform level, they should be bent over and connected to the
platform handrailing.
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 400

780 Rails welded

610 mm to stringers
Ladder and cage of
all welded construction
1100 900 N
mm
Floor level

Stringers
N N I
65x10 flat
200 rung
Hoops and welded
verticals
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500 1

View A-A

Rung fixing
780j

2000
max. I

Plan B-B
500

Rungs
2000 200 round
max. 250[
to Alternative
300! hoop çqi

at may be on the outside

—t Plan C-C
500 Vet

Figure 12.72 Typical details of vertical ladder Figure 12.12 Typical details of vertical ladder (continued)
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 12.4.4 Rungs
Rungs may be made from round bar with a diameter of not less than 20 mm.
The pitch should be between 250 mm and 300 mm. Rungs may be attached
directly to the stringer inner faces by welding or the stringers may be drilled
to receive the rungs, the rung ends being set in from the outer faces and
welded.

The top rung of a ladder shoutd be at the same level as the floor or landing at
the head of the ladder. Alternatively it may be located at up to 100 mm below 1,0 m
this level, provided there is at least 200 mm toe clearance behind the rung. The
space between the latter and the edge of the platform may be filled in with a
threshold plate with a stiffened edge, which would then replace the top rung.
1
Where a ladder gives access to a platform through an opening in the flooring,
the top rung should be level with or slightly lower than the platform and the
stringers should be carried up above floor level, without change of slope, to the
height of the handrail around the opening. Additional rungs, at the regular
pitch, may be provided within this additional height to act as handl7olds,
provided there is room to move past the ladder. i0
to 255 mm

12.4.5 Safety cages

Ladders with a height of more than 5,0 m must be fitted with safety cages - 750
3,0 m
max.
consisting of hoops at a uniform spacing of not more than 1 000 mm and three
or more vertical straps. Cages must extend from not more than 2,5 m above
the lower level to at least 900 mm above the upper level served by the ladder.
The back of the cage may not be more than 700 mm from the plane of the
rungs. Cages should be attached so as to support their own weight and that
of the user. The connection of the straps to the hoops and the hoops to the 0,9 m
stringers is typically by means of welding. Where bolts are used these should
be countersunk or otherwise recessed so as not to cause obstructions within the
cage.

12.4.6 Stepladders Figure 12.73 Details of stepladder

Ladders with an angle of inclination to the horizontal of between 65° and 750
are classed as stepladders. They are descended with the user facing the ladder

The height of a stepladder should not exceed 3,0 m and the width between
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 stringers should be between 450 mm and 540 mm. Stringers should be at least
90 mm wide and be made from flat bar or channel section.
Stepladders should be fitted with flat treads not less than 100 mm wide,
preferably with nosing bars. Risers should be between 230 mm and 255 mm
and the nose of each tread should overlap the back of the next lower tread by
at least 25 mm.
A single handrail should always be provided on each side of a stepladder,
with a distance between them of not less than 540 mm centre to centre. The
standards are usually placed at right angles to the stringers. The handrails
should be widened out to 610 mm centres at the top to provide access to the
upper level. The perpendicular clearance from the stringers, on the user’s side
of the ladder, should be at least 1,2 m.
12.5 Platforms and walkways
12.5.1 General
By ‘platform’ is meant any floor of small area above the level of the general
surrounding area. It normally provides access to plant and equipment for
maintenance or operation and is not an integral part of the building. A
‘walkway’ is a means of access that is normally elevated above the general
surrounding area.
12.5.2 Dimensions and clearances
Where possible, platforms and walkways should have a width of not less
than 750 mm. for occasional access purposes, the width may be reduced to
an absolute minimum of 600 mm. However, where a platform or walkway
forms part of an emergency escape route, the width must not be less than
1,1 m and the width must not decrease in the direction of emergency travel.
The headroom under any overhead obstacle should not be less then 2,2 m.
12.5.3 Protection
All platforms and walkways should be protected on open sides with handrailing
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as described in Section 12.6, except where protection is afforded by adjacent
walls, partitions or other suitable vertical surfaces. In the case of access
walkways located alongside overhead crane gantry girders, it is not possible
to provide handrails on the crane side of the walkway, but it is essential that
adequate protection be present on the other side. It may be prudent for such
walkways in furnace buildings, where there is a danger of CO or CO2 gas
inhalation, to be made wide enough to accommodate handrailing on both sides,
clear of the crane.
12.5.4 Kkkplates
Kickplates should normally be provided around all platforms and walkways.
Where it is possible for personnel to have access underneath a platform or
walkway, such plates are essential to prevent tools or other items from dropping
or falling off the platform and causing injury. Kickplates should have a height
of not less than 90 mm above the flooring, refer to figure 12.10.
12.5.5 Loading
Unless higher loadings are specified by the client, platforms and walkways
should be designed for a uniform live load of not less than 3,0 kPa. In addition,
they should be designed for an alternative concentrated load of not less than
3,0 kN, applied to a square with 0,1 m sides at any location on the floor. Where
maintenance of plant or equipment can take place on platforms, they should be
designed for the loading imposed by the deposited plant or equipment.
12.6 Handrailing
12.6.1 General
Handrails for industrial and general purposes should normally be of the two-
rail type, i.e. comprising a handrail and a knee rail supported on standards
placed at suitable centres.
Handrailing should preferably, and always in the case of stairs, be continuous,
and should have no obstruction on, above or near to it that might obstruct a
hand moving along it. The recommended clearance between a handrail and any
wall or other object behind or below it is 65 mm.
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12.6.2 Height 0
A
Handraiting to platforms, walkways, landings and unguarded edges of
raised floors should be not less than 1,0 m high above finished floor level. 500
In dangerous or hazardous localities such as chimney gas sampling platforms, a
combination of shoulder, hand and knee railing is recommended. Handrailing
to stairs should have a height of not less than 850 mm and not more than IM m 1000
measured vertically from the pitch line to the upper surface of the handrail.
500
12.6.3 Hand and knee rails
75
Tubular hand and knee rails should be made from steel tube with a wall I ]
thickness of not less than 2,5 mm. Joints should be butted using tubular steel A
ferrules that may be pinned, screwed or spigoted, and they should be located
100 100
at points of minimum stress. Railing should be prevented from rotating or
Varies
moving longitudinally.
‘op Side— Peg
The size of tube generally used is 33,5 mm or 34,0 mm outside diameter by mounted mounted mounted
2,5 mm or 2,65 mm wall thickness. To comply with the 1,0 kN concentrated load
specified below, such handrailing should span not more than 1,4 m between Figure 12.74 BaIl-type handrail standards
standards.
12.6.5 AngIe section handraiing
12.6.4 Handrail standards Instead of utilizing proprietary handrail standards as referred to above,
Handrail standards may be solid forged or fabricated from hollow or other handrailing systems may consist of hot-rolled angle or channel standards, with
tubular or angle handrails and tubular, angle or bar knee rails. Such systems
structural sections. The thickness of hollow sections should preferably not be
less than 3,0 mm. A variety of proprietary handrail standards is available. The would be purpose-made and must be designed to sustain the loading given
majority of them are of the circular tubular type with ball-type nodes at the below.
handrail and knee rail joints, and have flat horizontal or vertical fixing plates or
palms at the base for bolting to the supporting structure. Examples of ball-type 12.6.6 Loading
standards are illustrated in Figure 12.14.
Handrailing and stanchions should be designed to resist the appropriate
Standards should be suitably treated to prevent corrosion and in this regard loadings specified in SANS 10160. The following is a direct extract from
certain types need to be sealed to prevent the ingress of moisture. In no case this code:
should the standard be fixed to the kick flat. All standards, including their
a) For balustrades and rnilings that guard a drop of more thou 750 mm, together ivitlz
fIxing cleats, supports and bolts or welds, must be capable of resisting the
mem bets flint give them immediate support, the following nominal imposed loads
concentrated loads specified below.
zvhich may be assumed to be of short duration, i.e. afew miii ,ttes,l:

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