GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS

 Focus primarily on the earth's geosphere
and the different processes that shape and
reshape over time.
GEOLOGIC FORCES
1. Constructive Geologic Forces
 Build up and create new landmasses.
- Orogeny
- Volcanism
2. Destructive Geologic Forces
 Disrupt or destroy existing landmasses.
- Weathering and Erosion
- Earthquakes
- Mass Wasting
 Extreme natural event in the crust of the
earth that poses threat to life and property.
- Earthquake
- Volcanic Eruptions
- Landslides
- Tsunami
CLASSIFICATION OF GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES
1. Endogenic Processes
 Occur as a result of forces originating
from within the Earth.
- Folding – occurs when tectonic
processes put stress on a rock, and
the rock bend, instead of breaking.

- Faulting – compressional or
GEOLOGIC STRESS ON ROCKS
tensional forces cause relative
 Compressional Stress displacement of the rocks on the
 Tensional Stress opposite sides of the fracture.
 Shearing Stress
 Confining Stress - Volcanism – the phenomenon of
eruption of molten rock onto the
surface of the Earth or a solid-
GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES surface planet or moon, where lava,
 Naturally occurring events that directly or pyroclastic, and volcanic gases
indirectly impact the geology of the earth. erupt through a break in the surface
- Plate Tectonics called a vent.
- Weathering
- Earthquake 2. Exogenic Processes
- Volcanic Eruptions  Occur as a result of forces originating
- Orogeny from outside the Earth’s surface.
- Erosion
- Flooding - Weathering – wearing down or
- Landslides breaking of rocks while they are in
place. It can be biological, chemical
or physical.
 Biological weathering – caused by
the movements of plants and
animals.
Chemical weathering – describes
the process of chemicals in
rainwater making changes to the
minerals in a rock.
Physical weathering – occurs when
physical processes affect the rock,
such as changes in temperature or
when the rock is exposed to the
effects of wind, rain and waves
- Erosion – involves the movement of
rock fragments through gravity,
wind, rain, rivers, oceans and
glaciers.
DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
TYPES OF WAVES
1. Body Waves – travelling/propagating within
the earth.
2. Surface Waves – travelling/propagating on
the surface of the earth.
TYPES OF BODY WAVES
1. Surface – wave/S – wave
 A shear waves.
 It is also a transverse wave.
 It is the second wave to detect by
seismograph (the reason why it is called
"Secondary").
 Cannot travel on fluids.
 Alternating transverse motions
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
 The speed at which P – wave travel
through material is determined by:
- Rigidity
- Density
2. P-wave
 A compressional wave.
 It is also longitudinal wave.
 Also known as primary wave.
 It has the fastest velocity and the first
wave to detect by the seismograph, due
to being called "primary".
 Alternating compression ("Pushes") and
dilations ("pulls") in the same direction
as the wave is propagating.
 Motion travels fastest in material.
 The speed at which P-wave travel
through material is determined by:
- Rigidity
- Compressibility
- Density
TYPES OF SURFACE WAVES
1. Love Waves
 Also known as Q-wave (Quer: German
word for lateral).
 It is named after the mathematician and
physicist whose name is "Augustus
Love".
 Cause the horizontal shifting of the
earth's surface during earthquakes.
 It travels slower than the P-wave and S-
wave but faster than Rayleigh wave.
 Transverse horizontal motion,
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation and generally parallel to
the earth's surface.
2. Rayleigh Waves
 Also known as "Rolling wave".
  It causes the rolling motion of the
particle of the earth's surface during
earthquake.
 Motion is both in the direction of
propagation and perpendicular (in
vertical plane).
 Appearance parallel to the Earth's
surface.
FACTORS INFLUENCING WAVE VELOCITY
1. Wavelength
2. Frequency
3. Medium – the density of the surface, the
higher the density the slower the wave.
Elasticity – waves travel faster through
materials that are more elastic.
4. Temperature – the speed of waves
increases as the temperature increases. This
is due to the increased kinetic energy of the
air molecules and decrease in density.
Dynamic moduli – those calculated from
the elastic wave velocity and density.
Static moduli – those directly measured in a
deformational experiment. It is often used
in wellbore stability and in-situ stress
applications to evaluate the possibility of
breakouts, elevated pore pressure, and
tectonic stress distribution
GROUTING
 In civil engineering, it refers to the injection
of pumpable materials into a soil or rock
formation to change its physical
characteristics.
 It is one of the ways ground water can be
controlled during civil engineering works.
 It is suitable where soil permeability would
create a heavy demand on pumping or
where ground conditions mean it may be
economically inefficient to bore wells.
 Grout may also be used in the formation of
pile foundations, ground anchors, under-
reaming, underpinning, in road
construction, dam construction, and other
applications.
 Different materials may be used for
grouting depending upon factors such as
the soil or rock type and the area to be
grouted. However, the basic process is the
same: the soil or rock is injected with fluid
grout which sets and reduces or acts as a
sealant on the material’s permeability.
GROUTING METHODS AND ITS MATERIALS
1. Cement grouting – mixture of cement and
water.
2. Bentonite grouting – mixture of clay with
additives to create a highly water-resistant
gel which can create a permanent barrier to
water flow. Most commonly used in the
foundation of dams or other water-bound
structures.
3. Chemical grouting – mixture of Sodium
silicate and Calcium chloride in liquid form
and solidified into a gel. It is used in soils
with medium-coarse grade.
4. Resin grouting – relatively have a very low
viscosity and are able to penetrate fine
sands. Opposite of Chemical grouting.
5. Bituminous grouting – using a Bitumen
emulsion that can be injected into fine sand
as an impermeable barrier to water. Soil
strength doesn’t increase.
ROCK MECHANICS
 It is not only limited to rocks/stones but
also soils.
 Soil is defined as the un-cemented
aggregate of mineral grains and decayed
organic matter (solid particles) with liquid
and gas in the empty spaces between soil
particles.
 Soil is used as a construction material in
various engineering projects, and it
supports structural foundations.
 Thus, civil engineers must study the
properties of the rock and soil. Such as the
origin, grain-size, ability to drain water,
compressibility, shear strength, and load-
bearing capacity.
ROCK PROPERTIES
a. Modulus of Deformation or Young’s
Modulus (E)
b. Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus (G)
c. Poisson’s Ratio (μ)
d. Bulk Density (ρ)
STATIC METHOD
a. Modulus of Deformation or Young’s
Modulus (E)
 It is a measure of the resistance of a
solid to transmit load.
 Another useful term is bulk modulus
(K), or modulus of volume expansion is
a measure of the resistance of a solid to
change of volume with no change of
shape or form.
 This is an important measurement in
the design of computer modeling
software for blasting design and
sequencing.
DYNAMIC METHOD
 Using sensor deployed in an array from a
detonating blasthole is preferable to that
done by static measurement.
 The dynamic pattern associated with an
explosive-loaded blasthole from a single
blasthole that has a length to diameter ratio
no larger than 6 and no run-up is shown in
the following figure
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 May be known as Index Properties, which
describes the rock material and helps in
classifying them.
1. Density
 A measure of how compact or
heavy.
 Mass of rock per unit volume.
2. Specific Gravity
 Ratio of the density/unit weight of
solids to the density/unit weight of
water.
3. Unit Weight
 Also known as specific weight,
describes and relate size (volume),
amount (mass), concentration
(density), and force (weight), as well
as specific gravity.
 Weight per unit volume.
 4. Porosity - Tensile Strength
 Tells how densely it is packed. - Shear Strength
 It is the ratio between the volume
of voids to the total volume of soil
mass.

5. Void Ratio
 Ratio between the volumes of voids
to the volume of solids.
 Void/cavities – are open spaces in
the ground that are commonly
encounter as unforeseen ground
conditions in engineering geology.

6. Moisture Content
 How much water is in a substance?
 It is the ratio of the weight of water
to the weight of solid particles.

7. Degree of Saturation
 Denotes the actual relationship
between the weight of moisture
existing in a space and the weight
that would exist if the space were
saturated.
 It can be calculated by dividing the
total volume of water by the
volume of voids.

8. Permeability
9. Structure and Texture

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

 May be known as Strength Properties as

they give information about the
performance of rock materials when
subjected to a particular loading system.
- Compressive Strength (Uniaxial
Compression Test; Triaxial Compression
Test)