INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
surveys.
SURVEYING
 Those activities involved in the planning
and execution of surveys for the location,
design, construction, operation and
maintenance of civil and other
engineering projects.
SURVEYING ACTIVITIES
 Preparation of surveys and related
mapping specifications.
 Execution of photogrammetric and field
surveys for the collection of required data
including topographic and hydrographic
data.
 Calculation, reduction and plotting of
survey data for use in engineering design.
 Design and provision of horizontal and
vertical control survey networks.
 Provision of line and grade and other
layout work for construction and mining
activities.
GEODETIC SURVEYING
 The curvature of the earth is taken into
account.
PLANE SURVEYING
 The reference base for field work and
computations is assumed to be a flat
horizontal surface.
SURVEYING CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Control Survey
 To establish a network of horizontal
and vertical points that serve as a
reference framework for other
2. Topographic Survey
 To show the natural features of a
country such as rivers, streams, lakes,
forests, hills, etc.
3. Land, boundary, or cadastral surveys
 To establish property lines and
corners.
4. Hydrographic Survey
 To define the shore lines and depth of
water bodies, e.g. oceans, reservoirs,
and lakes.
5. Route Survey
 Conducted as a preliminary to
construction of roads and railways.
6. Construction Survey
 Made to lay out, locate and monitor
public and private engineering works.
7. Photogrammetric Survey
 Made to utilize the principles of aerial
photogrammetry, in which
measurements made on photographs
are used to determine the positions
of photographed objects.
8. Mine Survey
 Done above and below the ground to
guide mining operations.
SURVEYING EQUIPMENT
1. Chain (Gunter’s chain)
2. Transit
3. Theodolite
TYPES OF THEODOLITE 18. Lower plate
19. Lower plate clamping screw
1. Vernier Theodolite
20. Tribrach
 Uses Vernier scale
21. Foot Screw
22. Trivet
2. Optical Theodolite
23. Tripod top
 Uses optical with horizontal and
24. Plumb bob
vertical circles made from transparent
glasses and graduated scale
PARTS OF THEODOLITE
3. Electronic Theodolite
1. Plate level
 It has a screen with digits for angles
 Spirit level with the bubble and
on front and back of the instrument.
graduation on the glass cover.
 The face of the current observation
 The spirit level can be adjusted with
(telescope position) is the side on
the foot screw of the levelling head.
which the vertical circle is, when
viewed from the eyepiece, which is
2. Levelling head
either face left or face right.
 Used to attach the instrument to the
 The telescope has its own clamp and
tripod and attach the plumb bob
tangent screws.
along the vertical axis of the
 The clamp screws require only
instrument.
fingertip pressure.

3. Lower plate/circle plate

PARTS OF A THEODOLITE (VERNIER)  An annular horizontal plate with the
graduations provided all around, from
1. Vertical circle
0 to 360 degrees, in a clockwise
2. Altitude bubble
direction.
3. Horizontal axes
 The graduations are in degree divided
4. Vernier arm
in 3 parts so that each division equals
5. Plate bubble
to 20 min.
6. Graduated arc
7. Levelling head
4. Upper plate
8. Clamping nut
 Horizontal plate of a smaller diameter
9. Vertical axis
provided with two verniers on
10. Telescope
diametrically opposite parts of its
11. Vertical circle clamping screw
circumference.
12. Arm of the vertical circle clamp
 They are used to read fractions of the
13. Standard
horizontal circle plate graduations.
14. Line of sight
 The verniers are graduated in 20 min
15. Upper plate clamping screw
and each minute is divided in 3 to 5
16. Axis of plate bubble
parts.
17. Upper plate
5. Vertical plate
 Circular plate supported on horizontal
axis of the instrument between the A-
frames.
 Vertical circle has a graduation of 0 to
90 degrees in four quadrants.
 Vertical circle moves with the
telescope when it is rotated in the
vertical plane.
6. Vertical circle clamp and tangent screw
 Clamping the vertical circle restrict
the movement of the telescope in the
vertical plane.
7. Altitude level
 A highly sensitive bubble is used for
levelling particularly when taking the
vertical angle observations.
MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
METHODS
1. Distance by Pacing
 Pacing consists of counting the
number of steps or paces in a
required distance.
 Pace – the length of a step in walking.
It may be measured from heel to heel
or from toe to toe.
 Stride is equivalent to two paces of a
double step.
 Pace factor = distance / no. of paces
2. Distance by Taping
 Taping consists of stretching a
calibrated tape between two points
and reading the distance indicated on
the tape.
 Calibrated ropes, cords and lines were
used by surveyors from the past. In
present times, steel tape is used.
3. Distance by Tachymetry
 Tachymetry or tacheometry is based
on optical geometry of the
instruments employed and is an
indirect method of measurement.
a. Stadia method
 A micrometer for
measuring distances.
 The accuracy of the
measurements depends on
factor including:
o Refinement of the
instrument used
o Skill of the observer
o Length of measurement
o Effects of refraction and
parallax
b. Subtense bar method
 A practical device used for
quick and accurate
measurement of horizontal
distances.
 The bar, which is precisely
2-meter-long, consists of a
rounded steel tube through
which runs a thin invar rod.
 At each end of the frame,
the target marks are
housed.
 It is mounted horizontally
on a tripod and placed
perpendicularly to the line
of sight.
 Azimuth vs Bearing
 Bearing – acute horizontal
angle between the
reference meridian and the
line.
 Azimuth – angle between
the meridian and the line
measured in a clockwise
direction from either the
north or south branch of
the meridian.
MEASUREMENTS, COMPUTATIONS AND
CORRECTION OF ERRORS
MEASUREMENTS
 Measurement of distances and angles is
the essence of surveying.
 It is the process of determining the
extent, size, or dimensions of a particular
quantity in comparison to a given
standard.
DIRECT MEASUREMENTS
 Comparison of the measured quantity with
a standard measuring unit or units
employed for measuring quantity of that
kind.
INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS
 The observed value is determined by its
relationship to some other known.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
 Most measurements and computations in
surveying are related to the
determination of angles (or directions),
distance, area, and volume.
ANGLES
 A figure formed by the intersection of two
lines.
 It may also be viewed as being generated
by the rotation of a line about a point,
from an initial position to a terminal
position.
 Vertex – the point of rotation
ANGLES – DEGREES, MINUTES, AND SECONDS
SEXAGESIMAL SYSTEM
 Sexagesimal units of angular
measurement are the degree, minute,
and second.
 The unit of angles used in surveying is the
degree which is defined as 1/360th of a
circle.
 1 rev – 360 degrees
 1 rev - 60 Minutes
 1 rev – 3600 Seconds
ANGLES – GRADS
CENTESIMAL UNITS
 The circumference of a circle (360 deg) is
divided into 400 grads.
 The grad is divided into 100 centesimal
minutes of 0.9 degrees, and the minute is
subdivided into 100 centesimal seconds
or 0 deg 00-minute 32.4 sec.
 Grads are usually expressed in decimals
ANGLES – RADS d. Reading wrong meter mark

 Another mode of angular measurement

programmed into most calculators is the CORRECTIONS
radian, or rad.
1. Tape too long
 One radian is equivalent to the angle
 Add correction when measuring
formed between two radii in a circle,
distances
when the arc length between the radii is
 Subtract correction when laying out
the same as the radius
distances
 1 rev = 2pi

2. Tape too short

 Subtract correction when measuring
MISTAKES AND ERRORS
distances
1. Error  Add correction when laying out
 The difference between the true distances
value and the measured value of a
quantity.
CORRECTION APPLIED FOR MEASUREMENT OF
Error in Measurement of Distance DISTANCES
a. Tape not standard length
1. Temperature Correction: (to be added or
b. Imperfect alinement of tape
subtracted)
c. Tape not horizontal
d. Tape not stretches straight
± Ct =K (T 2−T 1) L1
e. Imperfection of observation
f. Variations in temperature
g. Variations in tension K = 0.00000645 ft. per degree F

2. Mistakes K = 0.0000116 m. per degree C.

 are inaccuracies in measurements T1 = temp. when the length of tape is L1
which occur because some aspect of a
surveying operation is performed by T2 = temp. during measurement
the surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgment, and 2. Pull Correction: (to be added or subtracted)
improper execution. (human-related)

Mistakes in Measuring of Distances (P2−P1) L1

± Cp=
AE
a. adding or dropping a full tape length
b. adding a cm., usually in measuring the
fractional part of tape length at the P2 = actual pull during measurement
end of the line. P1 = applied pull when the length of tape
c. Recording numbers incorrectly
is L1
 A = cross-sectional area of tape temperature, sag and pull

E = modulus of elasticity of tape B’ = sea level distance

h = average altitude or observation

3. Sag Correction: (to be subtracted only) R = radius of curvature

w 2 L2
−C s=
24 P2 6. Normal Tension:
 The tension which is applied to a tape
supported over two supports which
w = weight of tape in plf. Or kg. m.
balances the correction due to pull
L = unsupported length of tape and due to sag.
 The application of the tensile force
P = actual pull or tension applied increases the length of the tape
whereas the sag decreases its length,
the normal tension neutralizes both
4. Slope Correction: (to be subtracted only) corrections, therefore no correction is
necessary.
2
h
−C s=
2S 0.204 W √ AE
P N=
√ P N −P1
H = S – Cs

H = horizontal distance or corrected P = applied normal tension

distance P1 = tension at which the tape is

S = inclined distance standardized

h = difference in elevation at the end of W = total weight of tape

the tape A = cross-sectional area of tape

E = modulus of elasticity of tape

5. Sea Level Correction:

h
Reduction factor = 1−
R

B' =B 1−( h
R )
B = horizontal distance corrected for