CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research Background

Thomas Parker developed the first electric car in 1884, 25 years after the invention of lead-acid
batteries. After that date, many electric vehicle models appeared. However, the development of internal
combustion engine technology and the reduction in mass production costs have left electric vehicles
behind.

T. HOFMAN and C.H.DAI studied the effect of different gearboxes on energy. The powertrain system
has been investigated using fixed gear system, manual gearbox and CVT gearbox. E. Scholtz, designed
and modeled an electric vehicle. This vehicle consumes 148.3 Wh/km of energy. Also explains that a
large part of the energy loss is caused by the auxiliary loads, the lighting system, the security systems,
the comfort systems, and the battery [1]. X. D. Xue, tried to determine the appropriate electric motor
for electric vehicles. Electric motors were compared according to efficiency, cost, safety, and weight
criteria. The study concludes that the permanent magnet synchronous motor is the best motor type.
Mahindra e2o is analytically calculated with the help of its technical specifications. Detailed analytical
calculation of EV is demonstrated in literatures [2]. The EV can be designed in MATLAB/Simulink
environment based on analytical calculation thereby giving intuitive performance results of the
implemented vehicle model.

The energy consumption values of the electric vehicle and their range will be determined for drive
cycles such as WLTP, NEDC, and HWFET. The effect of parameters such as battery’s voltage and
energy capacity, motor’s rated torque and power, and gear ratio of the transmission on vehicle
performance and energy consumption will be examined.In the present scenario, the fuels demand is
high, and their consumption increases. Due to the uses of these fuels in the vehicles Co2 gas dissipated
in the large amount [3].

The carbon dioxide gas effect the environment varies badly. The Co2 reduction is the main challenge,
and it can be achieved by the Eco-friendly vehicle or car called Electric vehicle (EV). Due to the
increasing cost of the fuels in the present days, the fuel cell vehicle is not economical. The EVs are
very economical due to their driven process achieved by an electric motor. They do not pollute the
environment. The cost of the batteries and motors are stable, so EV prefers than the fuel-basedvehicles.
The Electric Vehicle developed by the motor, battery, controller, converters, and wheels. The motor
connected to the differential of the wheels [4]. Figure 1.1 shows the block diagram of the electric
vehicle construction.

1
 Figure 1.1 Electric Vehicle Drivetrain

The electric vehicle’s modelling and simulation in MATLAB-Simulink are of great value in
investigating the energy flow, performance, and efficiency of the EV drivetrain. Modelling and
simulation are important for automotive designers to discover the best energy control strategy and exact
component size, and to minimize the use of energy because prototyping and testing are costly and
complicated operations.

Figure 1.2 EV schematic arrangement

2
Figure 1.2 shows the schematic arrangement of the Electric vehicle drive train configuration. In this
configuration, a battery pack is used to provide the dc energy to the circuit which is further connected
to the inverter circuit.

Road vehicles emit significant air-borne pollution, for example in a country like USA, 18% of
suspended particulates, 27% of the volatile organic compounds, 28% of Pb, 32% of nitrogen oxides,
and 62% of CO. Vehicles conjointly unharness twenty fifth of America’s energy-related dioxide, the
principal greenhouse gas. World pollution numbers still grow even sooner as voluminous individuals
gain access to public and private transportation[5]. The electricity and transportation energy revolution
of the decade has affected many totally different and huge non-overlapping markets.

Electricity is employed extensively within the industrial, industrial, and residential sectors, but it barely
supplies an iota of energy to the transportation markets. On the other hand, oil contributes solely third-
dimensional of the energy input for electricity. Oil consumption for the purpose of transportation
contributes to merely 3% of the energy input for electricity. The present rate of reliance and use of
fossil fuels for electrification or transportation is 100,000 times faster than the rate at which they are
being created by natural forces [6]. As the readily exploited fuels continue to be used, the fossil fuels
are becoming costlier and difficult to extract.

In addition to being less polluting, the electric cars in 1900 were silent machines. As favorites of the
urban social elite, the electric cars were the cars of choice as they did not require the difficult and rather
dangerous hand crank starters [7]. This led to the development of electric vehicles (EVs) by more than
100 EV manufacturers.

1.2Purpose Work/Simulink Model of Electric Vehicle

We developed a four-wheel drive model of an electric vehicle. Two wheels place at the front portion
and the other two placed at the rear portion. Both real and front wheels are controlled by an induction
motor and synchronous motor with the help of the inverter controller circuit. The vehicle body placed
on the four wheels of the drive with initial parameters of environments like wind, inclined and throttle.
Before performing the modeling of the four-wheel electric vehicle drive train, we finalize the
parameters and behavior of the vehicle body. On the front wheel side, we used a synchronous motor
with a controller connected to the battery voltage source. Inverter circuit applied in the controller to
provide enough electric supply to the motors.

The design constraints set on the drivetrain like the initial acceleration time, the value of the cruising at
rated vehicle speed, and the value of the cruising at maximum vehicle speed affects the specification of
the induction motor.

3
For the evaluation of longitudinal nature of electric vehicles some equations are used. The Electric
vehicle model based on motion resistance forces like an aerodynamic drag, rolling and climbing
resistance and vehicle velocity.

The rolling resistance (Rx) is that term which related to the energy losses due to tire deformation and
adhesion of contact area. For small speed, the rolling resistance calculated as

Rx=W(0.01+2.24×10−4V) (1)

Wrepresents the weight of the function and V is the speed of the tire. The coefficients multiplied by the
rolling resistance are the physical properties of the tire.

Other parameters aerodynamic drag (DA) which is estimated as

DA=12ρV2CDA (2)

In equation 2, ρ is the air density which defined the resistance force,A reflects the vehicle frontal area
and CD represents the drag coefficients. The electrical vehicle configuration consists of the electrical
coupled differential system, so the required torque calculated as

Treq=(Max+(IdFNdF2+IdRNdR2+Iw) axr2+Rx+DA) r(3)

Treqthe requested required torque, Idand Nd are the differential inertia and transmission ratio for the
front (F) and rear(R) wheel drive system.

The complete requested torque calculated by power management control (PMC) as per the
configuration studied.

Treq=TF+TR (4)

TF and TRrepresent the torque of the front and rear wheel propulsion system. The electrical vehicle
speed is limited by the available driving power and restricted by tire traction. The weight transferred
during the acceleration and tire ground peak coefficients of friction μ.

TF(Max)=μ(Mgc2L−Mhax2L) r(5)

TR(Max)=μ(Mgb2L−Mhax2L) (6)

Lis the vehicle wheelbase, h represents the vehicle gravity at center height, g assumes the gravitational
acceleration, b is the longitudinal distance between the vehicle front axels and the gravity center and c
also the longitudinal distance of vehicle across real wheel axels and gravity center.

4
5
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Background study

Electric vehicles (EVs) are automobiles that are propelled by electric motors powered by rechargeable
batteries. They are seen as a sustainable alternative to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles
because they emit fewer pollutants and greenhouse gases, resulting in cleaner air and reduced environmental
impact.

The history of electric vehicles dates back to the 19th century, when inventors such as Thomas Davenport
and Robert Anderson created the first electric vehicles. However, it wasn't until the late 20th century that
EVs began to gain widespread attention due to advancements in battery technology and concerns about the
environmental impact of traditional vehicles [1].

Electric vehicles come in different forms, including all-electric vehicles (AEVs) that run solely on
electricity, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) that use a combination of electricity and gasoline or
diesel. The batteries used in EVs are typically lithium-ion batteries, which are lighter and more efficient than
other types of batteries.

One of the main challenges facing electric vehicles is the range of the battery, which determines how far the
vehicle can travel on a single charge. The range of EVs has been improving with advancements in battery
technology, and many newer models can travel more than 200 miles on a single charge.

Another challenge is the availability of charging infrastructure, as EVs require charging stations that are mor
advanced. Private and governments companies have been investing in building out charging networks to
make it easier for EV drivers [2].

Overall, electric vehicles represent a promising technology that could significantly reduce the environmental
impact of transportation. However, further research and development is needed to improve battery
technology, increase the range of EVs, and expand charging infrastructure.

2.2Problem Statement
With the increasing concern for environmental issues , the design of efficient and reliable electric vehicles
has become crucial. The main challenge in designing electric vehicles is to optimize the performance while
maintaining a balance between factors such as range, acceleration, battery life, and energy efficiency. The
goal of this project is to design an electric vehicle that meets or exceeds the performance of traditional
gasoline-powered vehicles while minimizing its environmental impact. The design should take into account
various factors such as battery capacity, motor efficiency, aerodynamics, and weight distribution to achieve
6
the desired performance characteristics. The design should also consider the practical limitations of battery
technology, such as charging time and availability of charging stations. The final design should be validated
through simulation and testing to ensure that it meets the desired specifications for range, acceleration, and
energy efficiency. The ultimate objective of the project is to create an efficient and sustainable electric
vehicle that can replace traditional gasoline-powered vehicles in the long run.

2.3 Project Objective

The main objective of the project is to design an efficient, reliable, and sustainable electric vehicle that meets
or exceeds the performance of traditional gasoline-powered vehicles. The project aims to achieve this
objective by optimizing various factors such as battery capacity, motor efficiency, aerodynamics, and
weight distribution. The design should take into account the practical limitations of battery technology, such
as charging time and availability of charging stations, to ensure that the vehicle is practical for everyday use.
The project also aims to minimize the environmental impact of the vehicle by reducing its carbon footprint
and ensuring that the vehicle is recyclable at the end of its lifecycle. The final design should be validated
through simulation and testing to ensure that it meets the desired specifications for range, acceleration, and
energy efficiency. The ultimate objective of the project is to create an efficient and sustainable electric
vehicle that can replace traditional gasoline-powered vehicles and contribute to a more sustainable future.

2.4 Organization of Thesis

The organization of this thesis is as follows:

Chapter 1 contains the Research background about Multi-level inverter system and some basic information
how we can find number of level of inverter and its works and at last explains why we have to use Cascaded
H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter.

Chapter 2 contains types of multi-level inverter with their features, advantages – disadvantages and their
conclusions with elaborated block diagram.

Chapter 3 contains about the modulation technique which is voltage source method for multi-level inverter,
Simulation of carrier-based PWM scheme using the in phase disposition and relationships between
fundamental and carrier waveform.

Chapter4 contains blocks diagram and working of five, seven, eleven and fifteen level inverter.

7
Chapter 5 contains the simulation with their calculations and results.

CHAPTER 3
MULTILEVELINVERTERSTRUCTURES

Avoltagelevelofthreeisconsideredtobethesmallestnumberinmultilevelconvertertopologies. Due to the

bi-directional switches, the multilevel VSC can work in both rectifier andinverter modes. This is why
most of the time it is referred to as a converter instead of an
inverterinthisdissertation.Amultilevelconvertercanswitcheitheritsinputoroutputnodes(orboth)betweenm
ultiple(morethantwo)levelsofvoltageorcurrent.Asthenumberoflevelsreachesinfinity,theoutputTHDappro
acheszero.Thenumber oftheachievablevoltagelevels,however,islimitedbyvoltage-
imbalanceproblems,voltageclampingrequirements,circuitlayoutandpackagingconstraintscomplexityofth
econtroller,and,ofcourse,capitalandmaintenancecosts.

8
 Fig 3.1 Types Of Multilevel Inverter

3.1 Diode-ClampedMultilevelInverter

The most commonly used multilevel topology is the diode clamped inverter, in which thediode is used
as the clamping device to clamp the dc bus voltage so as to achieve steps in theoutput voltage. The
neutral point converter proposed by Nabae, Takahashi, and Akagi in 1981was essentially a three-level
diode-clamped.

9
 Fig3.2 Topologyof the diode-clampedinverter(a) three-levelinverter, (b)five-levelinverter

balanced condition. The line voltage V ab consists of a phase-leg a voltage and a phase-leg bvoltage.

The resulting line voltage is a 5-level staircase waveform for three-level inverter and 9-level staircase
waveform for a five-level inverter. This means that an N-level diode-clampedinverter has an N-level
output phase voltage and a (2N-1)-level output line voltage. Ingeneralthe voltage across each capacitor
for an N level diode clamped inverter at steady state is V dc/ (N-1). Although each active switching

device is required to block only a voltage level of V dc,

theclampingdiodesrequiredifferentratingsforreversevoltageblocking.

Fig:3.3Outputvoltageinthree-leveldiode-clampedinverter(a)legvoltage (b)outputphasevoltage

In general for an N level diode clamped inverter, for each leg 2(N-1) switching devices,(N-1) * (N-2)
clamping diodes and (N-1) dc link capacitors are required. By increasing thenumber of voltage levels
the quality of the output voltage is improved and the voltage
waveformbecomesclosertosinusoidalwaveform.If
theinverterrunsunderpulsewidthmodulation(PWM),thediodereverserecoveryoftheseclampingdiodesbec
omesthemajordesign challenge.

3.1.1FeaturesofDiodeclampedMLI

1) High-VoltageRatingRequiredforBlockingDiodes:

AlthougheachactiveswitchingdeviceisonlyrequiredtoblockavoltagelevelofVdc/(m-
l),theclampingdiodesneedtohavedifferentvoltageratingsforreversevoltageblocking.
10
Using D1′ of Fig. 2 (5-level diode clamped inverter) as an example, when all lower devices, S 1′-S4′ are
turned on, D1′ needs to block three capacitor voltages, or 3Vdc/4. Similarly, D 2 and D2′needto
block2Vdc/4,andD3needstoblock3Vdc/4.Assumingthateachblockingdiodevoltagerating is the same as
the active device voltage rating, the number of diodes required for eachphase will be (m - 1) x (m - 2).
This number represents a quadratic increase in m. When m
issufficientlyhigh,thenumberofdiodesrequiredwillmakethesystemimpracticaltoimplement.

2) UnequalDeviceRating:

In figure-2 it can be seen that switch S1 conducts only during Vao = Vdc, while switch S4conducts over
the entire cycle except during Vao = 0. Such an unequal conduction duty requiresdifferent current
ratings for switching devices. When the inverter design is to use the averagedutyfor all devices,
theouterswitches may be oversized, and the innerswitchesmaybeundersized. If the design is to suit the
worst case, then each phase will have 2 x (m - 2) outerdevices oversized. In comparison with the
traditional transformer coupling multipulse convertersusingsix-
stepoperationforeachconverter,suchunequalconductiondutyisindeedanadvantageous feature because the
six-step operation needs maximum duty in each device
andcirculatingcurrentsbetweenconvertersthroughtransformers.

3.1.2AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofDCMLI.
Advantages:

1. All of the phases share a common dc bus, which minimizes the capacitance requirementsof the
converter. For this reason, a back-to-back topology is not only possible but alsopractical for uses
such as a high-voltage back-to-back inter-connection or an adjustablespeeddrive.
2. Thecapacitorscanbepre-chargedasagroup.
3. Efficiencyishighforfundamentalfrequencyswitching.
Disadvantages:

1. Real power flow is difficult for a single inverter because the intermediate dc levels
willtendtooverchargeordischargewithout precisemonitoringandcontrol.
2. The number of clamping diodes required is quadratically related to the number of levels,
whichcanbecumbersomeforunitswithahighnumberoflevels.

3.1.3Conclusion

11
Thediode-clampedinverterprovidesmultiplevoltagelevelsthroughconnectionofthephasestoa series of
capacitors. The concept can be extended to any number of levels by increasing the number ofcapacitors.
Early descriptions of this topology were limited to three-levels where two capacitors areconnected across
the dc bus resulting in one additional level. The additional level was the neutral point ofthe dc bus, so the
terminology neutral point clamped (NPC) inverter was introduced. However, with aneven number of
voltage levels, the neutral point is not accessible, and the term multiple point clamped(MPC) is sometimes
applied. Due to capacitor voltagebalancing issues,thediode-clamped inverterimplementation has been
limited to three level. Because of industrial developments over the past severalyears,thethreelevelinverter is
nowusedextensivelyinindustrialapplication.

3.2 FlyingCapacitorStructure

The capacitor clamped inverter alternatively known as flying capacitor was proposed byMeynard and
Foch in 1992 [18]. The structure of this inverter is similar to that of the diode-clamped inverter except
that instead of using clamping diodes, the inverter uses capacitors intheir place. The flying capacitor
involves series connection of capacitor clamped switching cells.This topology has a ladder structure of
dc side capacitors, where the voltage on each capacitordiffers from that of the next capacitor. The
voltage increment between two adjacent capacitorlegs gives the size of the voltage steps in the output
waveform. Figure 2.4 shows the three-levelandfive-levelcapacitorclampedinvertersrespectively.

The "flying capacitor" used to transfer charge in a charge pump, as well as the input and output capacitors,
need to deal with DC voltage biasing and are therefore also susceptible to this phenomenon. Double Flying
Capacitor Multicell Converter Based on Modified Phase-Shifted Pulsewidth Modulation. The need of multi-
level converter is to give a high output power from medium voltage source. The multi-level inverter consists
of several switches. Higher voltage can be generated using the devices of lower rating.

12
Fig.3.4Capacitor-clampedmultilevelinvertercircuittopologies (a)3-levelinverter(b)5-levelinverter.

3.2.1 FeaturesofFCMLI

The major problem in this inverter is the requirement of a large number of storagecapacitors. Provided
that the voltage rating of each capacitor used is the same as that of the mainpower switch, an m-level
converter will require a total of (m - 1) x (m - 2)/2 auxiliary capacitorsper phase leg in addition to (m-
1)main dc bus capacitors. With the assumption that allcapacitors have the same voltage rating, an m-
level diode-clamp inverter only requires (m - 1)capacitors.

In order to balance the capacitor charge and discharge, one may employ two or moreswitch
combinations for middle voltage levels (i.e.,3Vdc/4.Vdc/2, and Vdc/4) in one or
severalfundamentalcycles. Thus, by properselection of switch combinations, the flying-
capacitormultilevel converter may be used in real power conversions. However, when it involves
realpower conversions, the selection of a switch combination becomes very complicated, and
theswitchingfrequencyneedstobehigherthanthefundamentalfrequency.In
summary,advantagesanddisadvantagesofaflyingcapacitormultilevelvoltagesourceconverterareasfollows
.

13
3.2.2 AdvantagesandDisadvantages of(FCMLI)

Advantages:
Compared to the diode-clamped inverter, this topology has several unique and attractive
featuresasdescribedbelow:
1. Addedclampingdiodesarenotneeded.
2. Ithasswitchingredundancywithinthephase,whichcanbeusedtobalancetheflyingcapacitorssothatonlyon
edcsourceisneeded.
3. The requirednumberofvoltagelevelscanbeachievedwithout theuse ofthetransformer.

Thisassistsinreducingthecostoftheconverterandagainreducespowerloss.
1. Unlike the diode clamped structure where the series string of capacitors share the samevoltage, in
the capacitor-clamped voltage source converter the capacitors within a phase
legarechargedtodifferentvoltagelevels.
2. Realandreactivepowerflowcanbecontrolled.
3. Thelargenumberofcapacitorsenablestheinvertertoridethroughshortdurationoutagesand deep
voltagesags.

Disadvantages:
1. Converterinitializationi.e.,beforetheconvertercanbemodulatedbyanymodulationscheme the
capacitors must be set up with the required voltage level as the initialcharge. This complicates
the modulation process and becomes a hindrance to theoperationoftheconverter.
2. Controliscomplicatedtotrackthevoltagelevelsforallofthecapacitors.
3. Pre-chargingallofthecapacitorstothesamevoltagelevelandstartuparecomplex.
4. Switchingutilizationandefficiencyarepoorforrealpowertransmission.
5. Since the capacitors have large fractions of the dc bus voltage across them, rating
ofthecapacitorsareadesign challenge.
6. The large numbers of capacitors are both more expensive and bulky than
clampingdiodesinmultileveldiode-clampedconverters.
7. Packagingisalsomoredifficultininverterswithahighnumberoflevels.

14
3.1CascadedMultilevelInverter

Fig3.5 SinglephasestructuresofCascadedinverter(a)3-level,(b) 5-level,(c)7-level

One more alternative for a multilevel inverter is the cascaded multilevel inverter or seriesH-
bridgeinverter.Theseries H-bridgeinverterappearedin 1975[14].
Cascadedmultilevelinverterwasnotfullyrealizeduntiltworesearchers,LaiandPeng.Theypatenteditandpres
ented its various advantages in 1997. Since then, the CMI has been utilized in a wide rangeof
applications. With its modularity and flexibility, the CMI shows superiority in high-powerapplications,
especially shunt and series connected FACTS controllers. The CMI synthesizes itsoutput nearly
sinusoidal voltage waveforms by combining many isolated voltage levels. Byadding more H-bridge
converters, the amount of Var can simply increasedwithout redesign thepowerstage,and build-in
redundancy againstindividual H-bridge converterfailure can berealized. A series of single-phase full
bridges makes up a phase for the inverter. A three-phaseCMI topology is essentially composed of three
identical phase legs of the series-chain of H-bridge converters, which can possibly generate different
output voltage waveforms and offers thepotentialforACsystemphase-
balancing.ThisfeatureisimpossibleinotherVSCtopologies utilizing a common DC link. Since this
topology consists of series power conversion cells,
thevoltageandpowerlevelmaybeeasilyscaled.Thedclinksupplyforeachfullbridgeconverterisprovidedsepa
rately,and thisistypicallyachieved usingdiode rectifiersfedfromisolatedsecondarywindingsofathree-
phasetransformer.Phase-shiftedtransformerscansupplythecellsinmedium-
voltagesystemsinordertoprovidehighpowerqualityattheutilityconnection.

15
3.3.1FeaturesofCMLI

For real power conversions, (ac to dc and dc to ac), the cascaded-inverter needs separatedc sources.
The structure of separate dc sources is well suited for various renewable
energysourcessuchasfuelcell,photovoltaic,andbiomass,etc.Connectingseparateddcsources
betweentwoconverters inaback-to-backfashionis notpossible because a short circuit will be introduced
when two back-to-back converters are notswitchingsynchronously. In summary, advantages and
disadvantages of the cascaded inverter based multilevelvoltagesourceconvertercanbelistedbelow.

3.3.1AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofCMLI.

Advantages:

1. TheregulationoftheDCbusesissimple.
2. Modularity of controlcan be achieved.Unlike the diodeclamped andcapacitorclamped inverter
where the individual phase legs must be modulated by a centralcontroller,thefull-
bridgeinvertersofacascadedstructurecanbemodulatedseparately.
3. Requires the least number of components among all multilevel converters to
achievethesamenumberofvoltagelevels.
4. Soft-switchingcanbeusedinthisstructuretoavoidbulkyandlossyresistor-capacitor-diodesnubbers.

Disadvantages:

1. Communication between thefull-bridgesisrequired toachievethesynchronizationofreferenceand

thecarrierwaveforms.
2. Needsseparatedcsourcesforrealpowerconversions,andthusitsapplicationsaresomewhatlimited

3.3Conclusion

Theaimofthischapterhasbeentodemonstratethemultilevel convertertopologies.Eachhas its own mixture

of advantages and disadvantages and for any one particular application, onetopology will be more
appropriate than the others. Often, topologies are chosen based on whathas gone before, even if that
topology may not be the best choice for the application. Theadvantages of the body of research and
familiarity within the engineering community may outweightothertechnicaldisadvantages.

16
CHAPTER4
MODULATIONTECHNIQUES FOR MULTILEVELINVERTER

4.1 Introduction ofModulation

Mainly the power electronic converters are operated in the “switched mode”. Whichmeans the
switches within the converter are always in either one of the two states - turned off (nocurrent flows), or
turned on (saturated with only a small voltage drop across the switch). Anyoperation in the linear
region, other than for the unavoidable transition from conducting to non-conducting, incurs an
undesirable loss of efficiency and an unbearable rise in switch powerdissipation. To control the flow
of power in the converter, the switches alternate between thesetwo states (i.e. on and off). This
happens rapidly enough that the inductors and capacitors at theinput and output nodes of the converter
average or filter the switched signal. The switchedcomponent is attenuated and the desired DC or low
frequency AC component is retained. Thisprocess is called Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), since
the desired average value is controlledbymodulating thewidthofthepulses.

For maximum attenuation of the switching component, the switch frequencyfc shouldbe high- many
times the frequency of the desired fundamental AC component f 1 seen at theinput or output terminals.
In large converters, this is in conflict with an upper limit placed onswitch frequency by switching
losses. For GTO converters, the ratio of switch frequency tofundamental frequency f c/f1 (= N, the
pulse number) may be as low as unity, which is known
assquarewaveswitching.Anotherapplicationwherethepulsenumbermaybelowisinconverters which are
better described as amplifiers,whose upper outputfundamentalfrequency may be relatively high.
These high power switch-mode amplifiers find application inactive power filtering, test signal
generation, servo and audio amplifiers.These low pulse numbers place the greatest demands on
effective modulation to reduce thedistortionasmuch aspossible.

The low pulse numbers place the greatest demands on effective modulation to reduce thedistortion as
much as possible. In these circumstances, multi-level converters can reduce
thedistortionsubstantially,bystaggeringtheswitchinginstantsofthemultipleswitchesandincreasingtheapp
arentpulsenumberoftheoverallconverter.

17
4.2 PWMTechniques

Thefundamentalmethodsofpulse-widthmodulation(PWM)aredividedintothetraditional voltage-source
and current-regulated methods. Voltage-source methods more
easilylendthemselvestodigitalsignalprocessor(DSP)orprogrammablelogicdevice(PLD)implementation
.However,currentcontrolstypicallydependoneventschedulingandaretherefore analog implementations
which can only be reliably operated up to a certain powerlevel. In discrete current-regulated methods
the harmonic performance is not as good as that ofvoltage-sourcemethods.AsamplePWM
methodisdescribedbelow.

Fig.4.1Pulse-widthmodulation

4.2.1 Voltage-SourceMethods

18
Voltage-source modulation has taken two major paths; sine triangle modulation in
thetimedomainandspacevectormodulationintheq-dstationaryreferenceframe.Sine-triangleandspace
vector modulation are exactly equivalent in every way. Adjusting some parameters in thesine-triangle
scheme (such as the triangle shape and sine wave harmonics) is equivalent toadjusting other
parameters in the space vector scheme (such as the switching sequence and dwelltime).

Theinverterline-to-groundvoltagecanbedirectlycontrolledthroughtheswitchingstate.For a specific
inverter, the switching state is broken out into transistor signals. However, as acontrol objective, it is
more desirable to regulate the line-to-neutral voltages of the load. In athree-phase system, the
common terms include dc offset and any triplen harmonics. Therearethreealternative PWM strategies
with different phase relationships for the level-shifted multicarriermodulation:

1. In-phasedisposition(IPD),whereallcarrierwaveformsareinphase.
2. Phaseoppositiondisposition(POD),whereallcarrierwaveformsabovezeroreference arein
phaseandare180outofphasewiththosebelow zero.
3. Alternatephasedisposition(APOD),whereeverycarrierwaveformisinoutofwithitsneighborcarrier
by180.

(a)InPhaseDisposition(IPD)

In the present work, in the carrier-based implementation the phase disposition PWMscheme is used.
Figure 3.4 demonstrates the sine-triangle method for a three-level inverter.Therein,thea-
phasemodulationsignaliscomparedwithtwo(n-1ingeneral)trianglewaveforms.

Therulesfortheinphasedispositionmethod,whenthenumberoflevelN =3,are

i. TheN–1=3-1=2carrierwaveformsarearrangedsothateverycarrierisinphase.

ii. Theconverterisswitchedto+Vdc/2 whenthereferenceisgreaterthanbothcarrierwaveforms.

iii. Theconverterisswitchedtozerowhenthereferenceisgreaterthanthelowercarrierwaveformbutlesst
hantheuppercarrierwaveform.

iv. Theconverterisswitchedto-Vdc/2whenthereferenceislessthanbothcarrierwaveforms.

19
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Fig.4.2:SwitchingpatternproducedusingtheIPDcarrier-basedPWMscheme:

(a)twotrianglesandthemodulationsignal

(b)S1ap

(c)S2ap

(d)S1an
(e)S2an.

20
(a)

(b)

Fig.4.3:Simulationofcarrier-basedPWMschemeusingtheinphasedisposition(IPD).(a).

Modulationsignalandin-phasecarrierwaveforms(b)Phase“a”outputvoltage.

21
(a) PhaseOppositionDisposition(POD).

Forphase opposition disposition (POD) modulation all carrierwaveformsabovezero

referenceareinphaseandare180 outofphasewiththosebelowzero.Therulesforthephase
oppositiondispositionmethod,whenthenumberoflevelN=3are

(i) TheN–
1=2carrierwaveformsarearrangedsothatallcarrierwaveformsabovezeroareinphaseandare180
.Theconverterisswitchedto+Vdc/2whenthereferenceisgreaterthanbothcarrierwaveforms.

(ii) Theconverterisswitchedtozerowhenthereferenceisgreaterthanthelowercarrierwaveformbutle
ssthantheuppercarrierwaveform.

(iii) Theconverterisswitchedto-Vdc/2whenthereferenceislessthanbothcarrierwaveforms.

Incaseofalternatephasedisposition(APOD)modulation,everycarrierwaveformisinoutofphasewithitsneig
hborcarrierby180.SinceAPODandPODschemesincaseofthree-levelinverterarethesame,a
fivelevelinverterisconsideredtodiscussabouttheAPOD scheme.

TherulesforAPODmethod,whenthenumberoflevelN=5,are

(i)TheN–1=4carrierwaveformsarearrangedsothateverycarrierwaveformisinoutof phase
withitsneighborcarrierby180.Theconverterswitchesto+Vdc/2whenthereferenceisgreatertha

n allthecarrierwaveforms.
(ii) TheconverterswitchestoVdc/

4whenthereferenceislessthantheuppermostcarrierwaveformand greaterthanallothercarriers.
(iii) Theconverterswitches to 0when the reference is less thanthe twouppermost
carrierwaveformandgreaterthantwolowermostcarrie.
(iv) Theconverterswitchesto-Vdc/

4whenthereferenceisgreaterthanthelowermostcarrierwaveformandlesserthanallothercarrier
s.
(v) Theconverterswitchesto-Vdc/2whenthereferenceislesserthanallthecarrierwaveforms.

22
.

Fig.4.4SwitchingpatternproducedusingtheAPODcarrier-basedPWMschemeforafive-
levelinverter:
(a)Fourtrianglesandthemodulationsignal(b)S 1ap(c)S2ap(d)S3ap(e)S4ap.

4.3CarrierBasedPWMTechniques.(Fundamental&Carrierwave form
relationships)

The carrier frequency is the same as the switch frequency. If the modulation were reduced
tozero or a DC quantity, then the PWM spectrum would consist of the carrier and its
harmonicsalone and the component at zero frequency (DC) if present. As the
amplitude of the modulatingwaveform is increased, sidebands appear and increase in
amplitude either side of the carrier andits harmonics. As the frequency of the
modulating waveform is increased, the sidebands
spreadawayfromthecentralcarrierfrequency.As mentioned, the carrier frequency
should be synchronous, that is an integer multiple ofthe fundamental frequency, if the
pulse number is low (say N < 21). An odd multiple

23
guaranteeshalfandquarterwavesymmetryandthereforenoevenharmonicsinthecarrierspec
trum.If the same carrier signal is used to generate all three phase leg PWM signals in a
threephase inverter, the carrier spectral terms in the phase leg signals will also be
identical (shown infigure-3.16).

24
 Although the phase relationship between the modulating and carrier waveforms can
bearbitrary, it is suggested that the slopes of the triangular carrier and modulating
waveform, ifsinusoidal in character, should be of the opposite polarity at the
coincident zero crossings,especially
forlowN.Thishaspracticalimplementationadvantagesofpreservingtheaccuracyofthe
edges in analog implementations, and easing the transition between different pulse
numbersinsystemswherethismaychangeduringoperation.Additionallythis180degreepha
sedifference(phaserelative tothecarrierperiod)resultsinthe
minimizationoftheharmoniclossesinaninductiveload.

Fig.4.5NaturalPWMinthreephaseinverter;phaselegandlinetolinewaveform

4.4 Conclusion

Multi-level converters can achieve an effective increase in overall switch frequencythrough the
cancellation of the lowest order switch frequency terms. This chapter has explaineddifferent types of
carrier based PWM modulation techniquesPWM method are advantageous
incontrollingtheoutputvoltageandreducingtheharmonics.Therearemanymodulationtechniques for
multi-level inverters. But carrier based modulation technique is easy and

25
efficient.ThePWMoutputspectrawerecalculatedfrombasicoperationexplainedaboveinphasedisposition
methodandsimulatedusingMATLAB(SIMULINK).

26
 CHAPTER5

COMPARISON AMONG 3
MULTILEVELINVERTERSINAPPLICATIONASPECTS

In high power system, the multilevel inverters can appropriately replace the exist system that use traditional
multi-pulse converters without the need for transformers.Allthree multilevelinverterscan
beusedinreactivepowercompensationwithouthavingthevoltageunbalanceproblem.Table1compares the power
component requirements per phase leg among the three multilevel voltage source inverter mentioned below.
It shows that the number of main switches and main diodes, needed by the inverters to achieve the same
number of voltage levels. Clamping diodes were not needed in flying- capacitor and cascaded-inverter
configuration, while balancing capacitors were not needed in diode clamp and cascaded-inverter
configuration. Implicitly, the multilevel converter using cascaded- inverters requires the least number of
components.

TABLE 5.1 - Comparison of Power Component Requirements Per Phase Leg Among

Three multilevel-Inverters

Inverter Diode Flying Cascaded

Configuration Clamped Capacitors inverters

Main switching devices 2 (m–1) 2(m–1) 2(m–1)

Main diodes 2 (m–1) 2(m–1) 2(m–1)

Clamping diodes (m–1) (m–2) 0 0

DC capacitors bus (m – 1) (m – 1) (m – 1)/2

Balancing Capacitors 0 (m – 1) (m –2)/2 0

27
In very high power application especially with very high input voltage, traditional two-level VSIs could not
avoid to sue the series connected semiconductor switches so as to cope with limitations of device rating
utilized and it may be very cumber some and even problematic mainly due to difficulty of device matching
deteriorating utilization factor of switching devices.

To operate a cascade multilevel inverter using a single DC source, it is proposed to use capacitors as the DC
sources for all but the first source. Consider a simple cascade multilevel inverter with two H- bridges as
shown in Fig. 8 The NPC inverter uses a series string of capacitors to subdivide a single high voltage DC
bus into the required number of voltage levels, and each phase leg output can be switched to any one of
these levels. In comparison the Cascaded inverter uses the series connection of a number of full bridge
inverters to construct each multilevel phase leg.. The output voltage of the first H-bridge is denoted by v1and
the output of the second H-bridge is denoted byv2so that the output of this two DC source cascade multilevel
inverter is v(t)=v1(t)+v2(t) By opening and closing the switches of H1 appropriately, the output voltage v1
can be made equal to - Vdc , 0, or Vdc while the output voltage of H2 can be made equal to - Vdc/2, 0, or Vdc/2
The need for these DC supplies has generally restricted the use of Cascaded inverters to the high power
range of operation where several output voltage levels are needed and the Neutral Point Voltage balancing
problem for a NPC inverter complicates the use of that structure. A further attraction of the Cascaded
inverter is that the control and protection requirements of each bridge aremodular.

More recently, a new inverter topology (derived from the Cascaded structure) called the Hybrid inverter has
been proposed, where the cascaded series inverters have different internal DC bus voltages, use different
switching devices (IGCT’s and IGBT’s) and are modulated quite differently.

Fig. 5.1 Single-phase structure of a multilevel cascaded H-bridges inverter

28
The DC source for the first H-bridge (H1) is a DC power source with an output voltage of Vdc, while the DC
source for the second H-bridge (H2) is a capacitor voltage to be held at Vdc/2. The output voltageofthefirstH-
bridgeisdenotedbyv1andtheoutputofthesecondH-bridgeisdenotedbyv2sothat the output of this two DC source
cascade multilevel inverter is v(t)=v1(t)+v2(t) By opening and closing the switches of H1 appropriately, the
output voltage v1 can be made equal to - Vdc , 0, or Vdc while the output voltage of H2 can be made equal to -
Vdc/2, 0, or Vdc/2 by opening and closing its switches appropriately Different types and levels of multilevel
inverters are shown inbellow

5.1 Five levelinverter

Assuming that all DC side capacitors have the same voltage E, different switching modes provide different
output voltages. Table 1 lists five modes for the 5-level diode-clamped multilevel inverter. The voltage Vout
in the table is the line-to-neutral voltage. The number of inverter level comes from the voltage levels. In
every operating mode, four switches are in “on” state and the other
fourarein“off”state.Iftheinverteroutputvoltagechangesonlybetweentwocontiguousmodes, the main switch
voltage and main diode voltage will not exceed E. Some of the clamped diodes, however, do need to have
higher rating than E. For example, the DB2 voltage rating should be 2E. From the five modes switching
operation, another advantage of multilevel inverter over the series switches 2-level VSI is that there is no
possibility of simultaneous operation of the series switches (“shoot through”).

29
Fig. 5.2 Five level diode bridge inverter
Switching strategy the fundamental requirement for the diode-clamped multilevel inverter switching scheme
is to ensure that the switches operate in the contiguous modes listed in Table 1. The most popular and
simple methods are step modulation and sinusoid pulse width modulation (SPWM). In step modulation, four
voltage levels are compared with the sinusoid reference waveform as shownin

30
 Figure 5.3 Step Modulation switching strategy.

Fig. 5.4 Five level H Bridge inverter

31
 Fig. 5.5 Switching strategies for five level H-Bridge inverter

5.2Seven levelinverter

The advantage of this topology, shown in Figure 13, is a reduction in switch count (36 down to 24 devices
for a 7 level inverter) and more effective usage of the natural switching speed and voltage blocking
characteristics of the different types of power electronic devices that are required. Furthermore because the
number of full bridge inverters required is reduced the design of the multi winding transformer for the DC
supplies is considerably simplified.

Fig. 5.6 Seven level diode inverter

32
Fig5.7 Structure of a Seven Level Cascaded Inverter.

33
 Fig5.8 Structure of a Seven Level Hybrid Inverter.

5.3 Nine levelinverter

The DC source for the first H-bridge (H1) is a DC power source with an output voltage of V dc, while the DC
source for the second H-bridge (H2) is a capacitor voltage to be held at V dc/2. The output voltage of the first
H-bridge is denoted by v1 and the output of the second H-bridge is denoted by v 2 so that the output of this
two DC source cascade multilevel inverter is v(t)=v1(t)+v2(t) By opening and closing the switches of H1
appropriately, the output voltage v1can be made equal to - Vdc , 0, or Vdc while the output voltage of H2 can
be made equal to-Vdc/2,0,orVdc/2 by opening and closing its switches appropriately. Therefore, the output
voltage of the inverter can have the values -3Vdc/2,- Vdc,-Vdc/2,0,Vdc/2,Vdc, 3Vdc/2, which is seven levels and
is illustrated in Fig. 15(a). Table I shows how a waveform can be generated using the topology of Fig.

34
 Fig. 5.9 Nine level diode inverter.

Fig. 5.10 Nine level H-Bridge inverter and switching strategies

35
4

5.4Eleven levelinverter

A cascade multilevel inverter consists of a series of H-bridge (single-phase full bridge) inverter units in
each of its three phases Fig.18 shows an 11-level phase-neutral (21-levelline-line) cascade inverter
connected in a configuration. Each H-bridge unit has its own dc source, which for an electric vehicle would
be a battery unit. The combination of the 180° conducting method and the pattern-swapping scheme make
the cascade inverter’s voltage and current stresses the same and battery voltage balanced. Identical H-bridge
inverter units can be utilized, thus improving modularity and manufacturability and greatly reducing
productioncosts.

Fig. 5.11 1l -level Wye-configured cascade inverter.

36
 Fig. 5.12 Thirteen level H-Bridge inverter

5.5Fifteen levelinverter

Consider now a 15-level inverter with three H-bridges as shown in Fig. 20. The corresponding waveform is
shown in Fig. 21. The DC source for the first H-bridge (H1) is a DC power source with an output voltage of
Vdc , the DC source for the second H-bridge (H2) is a capacitor voltage to be held at Vdc/2, and the DC
source for the third H-bridge (H3) is a second capacitor voltage held at Vdc/4. As in the 7-level inverter, the
capacitor voltages are chosen in this way so that the difference between levels is the same. However, this is
not essential. The output voltages of each of the H-bridges are denoted v1, v2 and v3 , respectively, so the
output voltage of the 15-level inverter is given by v(t)=v1(t)+v2(t)+v3(t).The possible ways in which the
voltage wave form of Fig. can be achieved are given in Table.

37
Fig. 5.13 15-level (3 DC sources) inverter

38
 Fig. 5.14 Output Voltage Waveform For A 15-Level Inverter.

Table 5.2 Output Voltages For A 15-Level Inverte

39
 CHAPTER 6
SIMULATION RESULTS

A prototype of Cascaded H bridge fifteen level inverter is simulated using Matlab/ Simulink. The
simulation is done in open loop. Here the input voltage can be selected as 10V, 20V and 40V to get an
output voltage as 70V. The MATLAB/ Simulink model is as shown below.

Figure below shows the simulation diagram of a Cascade H bridge fifteen level inverter. Three different
input voltages are given as input. 10v,20v and 40v. These voltages are given to the 12 different switches
which are connected in Cascaded H Bridge shape. And an output voltage of 70v is obtained. The output
voltages have different levels. About fifteen levels output is obtained.

Fig. 6.1 Simulation Model of 15-level Cascaded Multilevel Inverter

40
(a)

(b)

41
 (c)

Fig. 6.2 (a) Phase A (b) Phase B (c) Phase C of simulation model

42
(a)

43
(b)

44
 (c)

Fig. 6.3 (a) Phase a (b) Phase c (c) Phase c of simulation model
45
 Fig. 6.4 Voltage measurement of simulation model

Fig. 6.5 Simulation of 15-level Cascaded Multilevel Inverter Output Voltage waveform

46
Fig. 6.6 THD and FFT Analysis of output voltage of 15 level CHB MLI

47
 CHAPTER7
CONCLUSION&FUTURESCOPE
7.1 CONCLUSION

This thesis has provided a brief summary of multilevel inverter circuit topologies (3-level,5-level,7-
level, 15-level)andtheiranalysiswithrespecttoinductionmotordrives.
EachMLIhasitsownmixtureofadvantagesanddisadvantagesandforanyoneparticular application, one
topology will be more appropriate than the others. Often, topologiesare chosen based on what has gone
before, even if that topology may not be the best choice forthe application. Multilevel converters can
achieve aneffective increase in overall switch frequency through the cancellation of the lowest order
switchfrequencyterms.Asdiscussedin this
thesis,amongthemultilevelconvertertopologies,theCMCisthemostpromisingalternativeforindustryapplic
ation.

In the thesis, we have discussed different types of carrier based PWM modulationtechniques. There are
many modulation techniques for multilevel inverters. But carrier basedmodulation technique is easy
and efficient. The PWM output spectra were calculated from basicoperationsimulatedusing MATLAB.

The simulation results for three-level, five-level and seven-level cascaded inverters arepresented in
chapter-4. Their harmonic analysis is also discussed. ThesimulationresultsshowthattheCMCInduction
Motor drives has a satisfactory performance. To verify the simulation results, a CMC,using separated
DC sources is used as a hardware prototype.Both simulation and experimentalresultsarein
closeagreement. Today, worldwide research and development of multilevel inverter-related
technologiesare going on. The focus of this thesis is limited to fundamental principle of different
multilevelinverters,modulationtechnique, andharmonicanalysisofinductionmotordrives.

7.2FUTURESCOPE

AlthoughthisdissertationhascoveredmostoftheinterestingissuesandchallengesoftheCascaded multi-
level inverter induction motor drives, additional work has been left for futureresearch.

The first part is the fault-protection study for the cascaded multi-level inverter inductionmotor drives.
Due to the excessive number of semiconductor devices and passive components,how to design a fault

48
protection scheme to enhance the ride-though capability in various faultscenariosremainsasan
importantchallenge.In industrialapplications,thefaultymoduleistobereplaced,whiletheconverteris
running. Therefore an additionalswitch is required attheterminal points of the module connections.
Experimental tests have shown that when such anerror occurs, the voltage is equallydistributed
amongthe remainingmodules,suchthatitmatchestheDC-link voltage,asbefore.Inthiswaythe
stabilityofthesystemundermodulefaultconditionsisensured.Furtherinvestigationistobemadeinthisfieldasw
ell.

The second part is the redundancy of the cascaded multi-level inverter induction motordrives. Due tothe
identical HBBBs [H-bridgebuildingblock] used in the CMC, the N+1 rule may be applied, where N isthe
number of HBBBs per phase. The seven-level cascaded converter,for example, can havefour HBBBs
instead of three. In case of a semi-conductor failure in one HBBB in the same phaseleg. The next step in
the three-phase experimentation procedure is testing the converter on aninduction motor drive using
conventional torque and speed control structures. Decisions on theswitching frequency and the
capacitor dimensioning are to be reached and the implementationsoftwarestillisto bebuiltSince one of
the assets of the specific converter is that it can operate in low switchingfrequencies, a comparative
study of the power losses is interesting to be carried out for high-powerapplications,includingswitching.

49
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