Biology notes Enzymes 14-02-2022 (2nd monthly test s2)

1. What is enzyme?

 Enzymes are biological catalysts that are made of proteins.

2. What is the function of enzyme?

 Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalyst. They can alter or
speed up a chemical reaction. They remain chemically unchanged at the end of
the reaction.

3. What are the characteristics of enzyme?

 Enzymes are specific in action.

 Enzymes are required in minute amounts.
 The rate of enzyme reaction is affected by temperature.
 The rate of enzyme reaction is affected by pH.

Biology 7-3-2022

In nutrients, we have one basic foundation molecule which is protein.

Based on that, enzymes is one of the big molecules using that protein. Enzymes is a catalyst
for our body’s chemical reaction.

We have 2 main keywords in catalyst.

- It’s a substance that speeds up chemical reaction.
- It remains chemically unchanged

Its like you help the chemical reaction but do not join them. Like your helping someone’s
family but you are not part of their family.

Everything we do is a chemical reaction. Chemical reaction is a process that makes living

things live.

Even if chemical reaction works naturally, it takes a long time to happen. We need enzymes
to make the chemical reaction work faster, we will die without the speeding process of
chemical reaction through enzymes.

Basically, enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalyst. They can alter or speed
up chemical reaction. They remain chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction.
Biological catalyst. Enzymes is a catalyst but why is it biological? Biological means that it is
related to organisms. It means enzymes is a catalyst that is taken or made from things to
form organisms. In this case, its protein.

Enzymes only help the speed of chemical reaction.

Enzymes help the chemical reaction? The chemical reaction of what?

- Substrate.

Chemical reaction happens in 2 ways and it can be reversed.

They can be combined from small molecules and big molecules breaking down into small
molecules. It can combine molecules or it can break down molecules.

Enzymes is very specific in everything. For example, enzymes help the chemical reaction of
substance A and B, this makes into substrate C. Enzymes can also break down substrate C
can also be substrate A and B. Enzymes cannot be replaced with other enzymes for a specific
job.

Enzymes that make it work properly is also very specific. Our normal temperature is 36-37
degrees. Enzymes need to be in a specific temperature so if its too cold, it’ll stop and if its
too hot, the enzymes will break down.

Some enzymes, especially the ones in your stomach which is very acidic, there are specific
enzymes that can work in your stomach. Different enzymes have different specific thing
that makes it work.

Enzymes are in 2 theories. Lock and key theory which is as its name, lock and key.

Denatured means a broken shape of enzyme, it is because the temperature is too hot or it is
too acidic or too ‘not’ acidic.

The enzymes is not really active in hot or cold temperature, it works the best in optimum
temperatures which is 36-37 degrees. The rate of enzymes is going down if its too hot. The
amount of enzyme will decrease if its too hot because it is denatured.

Most enzymes are proteins. Enzymes have a specific area called active site and its very
specific for the substrate. Something called induced fit will happen to bind the substrate.
Enzymes can speed up chemical reactions.

Enzymes often end in ase like lactase. With lactase enzyme, they can speed up the chemical
reactions. Some people are lactose intolerant which means that somebody cannot consume
types of lactose, usually its dairy products such as milk, cheese and etc. They cannot
consume because their body cannot consume lactose, their body cannot digest and it will
become diarrhea. Lactase can break down a lot of lactose (substrate).
Enzymes – lipase, amylase, protease.

Enzymes don’t always work alone, they can have some help from cofactors and coenzymes.
Enzymes have certain ideal condition such as enzymes in our stomach has an ideal ph.
Enzymes can become denatured when they don’t have an ideal condition.

Why enzymes need to be very specific?

Acid is not the thing that breaks food, its enzymes. Some enzymes think that the stomach
acid is the ideal place to work in.

What are enzymes and how they work?

- They are proteins that speed up chemical reactions, without them, chemical reactions
can still appear but

Pepsin in stomach, mouth is amylase.

Each enzyme has an active site, substrates are broken apart or combined to form products.
For example, bread is broken down to form glucose but some glucose will be combined into
glycogen.

Enzymes are very specific, only fat cells can stick into lipase. If lipase can also convert
proteins into neuro-chemicals. If the enzymes work for 2 molecules, it needs both molecules
to work and if only 1 molecule is present, it’ll be dangerous. Enzymes are very specific for
different things, if an enzyme is used for different functions, it’ll be dangerous.

When we are taking a rest, we need protein for our brain but since our brain is
Some enzymes are man-made like the enzymes in our detergent. The detergent is an enzyme
used to break down

14-03-2022

introduction of flowers

enzymes and human reproductive organ for next monthly test

enzyme is a bio-catalyst substance, called bio cuz its organic. Comes from living things.
Catalyst is a substance that makes a process faster. So enzyme Is helping but not joining
which is why they can either break down or combine the molecule.

Enzyme works only in a specific substrate. Enzyme needs specific environment such as pH
and temperature. Usually specific temperature like our body temperature, it works most in
out body temperature. 6-7pH. Except for pepsin. Only pepsin cuz it works in our stomach.
Enzyme also have active site which is a specific area in pepside either it will break down or
combine.

21-03-2022
Digestion – mechanical, chemical.

Mechanical digestion of meat, just tear it down and make it smaller.

Chemical needs enzymes, in our saliva, we have amylase, it digest starch and complex
carbohydrates becoming simple carbohydrates.

Digestion, chemical, does not happen instantly. When saliva meets food in your mouth,
it takes time to digest.

Mechanical, peristalsis movement.

In stomach, we have gastric juice, we have acid to kill bacteria and dangerous
organisms in the food, but only 1 type of enzyme is active in that area. This enzyme is
the one processing the proteins, pepsin.

Small intestine divided into 3, duodenum, jejunum, ileum.

Duodenum, we are helped by 2 glands, liver and pancreas.

Pancreas produce a lot of enzymes in the duodenum.

In liver produce bile and it is antitoxic and digest fats.

In jejunum, it allows enzymes to digest the food.

In ileum, we change to the absorbtion phase. The last part of small intestine is
absorbtion phase where everything gets absorbed.

Large intestine divided into colon and rectum. Water absorption happen in large
intestine. It is food fermentation, pembusukan makanan in our large intestine which
makes the faeces.

Gall bladder is actually one w the liver. How is it 1? Its inside the liver.

Liver produces bile and bile will be stored in the gall bladder. From the gall bladder, it
gets delivered to duodenum.

Pancreas has a lot of enzymes, what kind? 3 main enzymes. Amylase, trypsin, lipase.
Salivary glance is the first glance that works in digestion.

Mechanical – chewing, saliva (amylase)

Food becomes bolus and it goes to our stomach w peristalsis movement. It becomes
chyme. Bolus is the starch we digest, the shape is almost like playdough. Chyme’s
structure is almost like porridge.

The ball like mixture of food with saliva also known as bolus, is pushed into the throat
by the tongue and into the esophagus.

The esophageal lumen is very flexible which allows bolus of diff sizes go in.

Esophagus when going through is very flexible because it has many layers. Esophagus
can stretch because its flexible, it can push down your stomach w the peristalsis
movement.

Difference between bolus and chyme is that bolus is still a bit hard like playdough and
when it becomes chyme, its already like porridge.

Water, protein, fats, carbohydrates, minerals.

Water and minerals does not get digested because the shape is already small. The
starch need to change into glucose. Blab la needs to change into amino acid and fat
needs to be changed into fatty acids so we can digest.

Ileum’s hair-like structure is villi. It needs villi to have more surface area, it helps
with effective digestion. More surface area, more effective absorption. Memorise
structure of villi. Outer layer has epithelium, then it has 2 parts. Blood capillaries and
lacteal.

Blood capillaries – to absorb protein, carbohydrates.

Lacteal – to absorb fats.

In liver, Some glucose turns into fat and some turns into glycogen.

Some glycogen will be stored in liver, most will be stored in muscles. Excess Amino
acids will be turned into urea.
BIOLOGY NOTES
A catalyst is a substance that speed up or alters the rate of a chemical reaction. It remain
chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction.

Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts. They can alter or speed up a
chemical reaction. They remain chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction.

1. Enzymes are biological catalysts that are made out of proteins.

2. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions and remain chemically unchanged at the end of
the reaction.
3. In the lock-and-key hypothesis, the enzyme is the lock while the substrate is the key.
4. An enzyme can only act on certain substances. Only those substrates with a 3-D shape
complementary to that of the active sit can be acted upon by enzyme.

1. An enzyme has a specific three-dimensional (3-D) shape. It has a depression called the
active site. The substance on which the enzyme acts is called the substrate.

2. Only the substrate with a 3-D shape complimentary to that of the active site can fit into
the enzyme. This results in a formation of an enzyme-substrate complex. The enzyme is a
like a lock and the substrate fits into the enzyme just like a key fits into a lock. This is
called the ‘lock-and-key’ hypothesis.

3. While the substrate is attached to the active site, chemical reaction occurs. The
substrate is converted to the products.

4. The products then leave the active site. The enzyme remains unchanged and is free to
bind again with more substrate molecules.

- Enzymes are specific in action.

- Enzymes are required in minute amounts.
- The rate of enzyme reaction is affected by temperature.
- The rate of enzyme reaction is affected by pH.

Amylase in saliva : pH 7
Pepsin in stomach : pH 2
Trypsin in small intestine : pH 8

1. Enzymes are specific in action

2. A small amount of enzyme can bring about a large number of chemical reactions.
3. The rate of enzyme reaction is affected by the temperature and pH of the solution.
4. Every enzyme has its own optimum temperature and pH.
 5. High temperatures and extreme changes in the pH of the solution denature the
enzymes.

Nutrition is the process by which organisms obtain food and energy for growth, repair and
maintenance of the body.

Feeding or ingestion : Food is taken into the body.

Digestion : Large food molecules are broken down by enzymes into small, soluble molecules.
These small, soluble molecules can then be absorbed into the body cells.

Absorption : Absorbed food products are converted into new protoplasm or used to provide
energy for cell activities.

A gland is a cell, a tissue, or an organ that secretes a chemical substance. For example,
salivary glands secrete saliva.

Mouth cavity – pharynx – oesophagus – stomach – duodenum – ileum – colon – rectum – anus

Teeth help to break up large pieces of food into smaller pieces.

Salivary glands secrete saliva into the mouth.

Tongue helps to mix the food well with the saliva.

The pharynx lies behind the mouth cavity. It connects the mouth cavity with the oesophagus
(the gullet) and the larynx (voice-box).

Epiglottis blocks food from entering the windpipe which prevents you from choking.

The oesophagus is a narrow, muscular tube. It connects the pharynx to the stomach. Thorax
(chest).

Peristalsis mixes the food with gastric juice.

The stomach has thick muscular walls, it can store food for a few hours and it contains
gastric glands for the digestion of proteins.

The small intestine is about 6 meters long. It consists of :

- The U-shaped duodenum,

- The jejunum, and
- The ileum that is long and coiled, contains intestinal glands which secrete intestinal
juice which contains enzymes for digestion.
It plays a part in digestion and absorption.

The large intestine is wider, around 1.5 meters long. Consists of :

- Colon
- Rectum

The colon absorbs water and mineral salts. The rectum stores undigested matter. Egestion
or defecation is when the rectum contracts the undigested matter or faeces will be expelled
through the anus.

The liver, gall bladder and the pancreas play important roles in digestion.

The liver produces bile, it is an alkaline, greenish-yellow fluid.

The gall bladder stores bile, connected to the gall bladder is a tube called the bile duct,
which transports bile into the duodenum.

The pancreas is a gland attached to the duodenum. It is connected to the duodenum by the
pancreatic duct which transports a digestive juice from the pancreas to the duodenum.
Pancreas produce pancreatic juice that contains enzymes for digestion.

Gastric juice contains :

- A protease called pepsin. Pepsin digests proteins to polypeptides.

- Dilute hydrochloric acid (pH = 2) which provides a suitable acid medium for pepsin to
work. The acid also denatures salivary amylase. No digestion of starch occurs in the
stomach.

The partly digested food then passes from the stomach into the duodenum.

The food in the duodenum stimulates :

- The gall bladder to release bile into the bile duct. The bile duct transports the bile to
the duodenum;
- The pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice into the pancreatic duct. The pancreatic
duct transports pancreatic juice into the duodenum; and
- The epithelial cells in the small intestine to secrete intestinal enzymes into the lumen
of the small intestine.

1. Bile breaks up the fats into small fat globules. This is called emulsification, increases
the surface area to volume ratio of the fats for faster digestion. Bile neutralizes acid
from the stomach which provides a suitable alkaline medium for the enzymes to work.
 2. Pancreatic juice contains trypsin which digests proteins to polypeptides, amylase which
digests the remaining starch to maltose, lipase which digests fats to fatty acids and
glycerol.

3. Intestinal juice contains erepsin/peptidases which digests polypeptides to amino acids,

lipase which digests fats to fatty acids and glycerol and maltase which digests maltose
to glucose.

Region of
Secretion Source Enzyme Action
digestion
Mouth Saliva Salivary glands salivary amylase Starch -> maltose
Proteins ->
Stomach Gastric juice Gastric glands pepsin
polypeptides
Bile salts emulsify
Bile Liver -
fats
amylase Starch -> maltose
Proteins ->
trypsin
Pancreatic juice Pancreas polypeptides

Small intestine Fats -> fatty acids

lipase
and glycerol
maltase Maltose -> glucose
Polypeptides ->
Intestinal enzymes Intestinal enzymes peptidases
amino acids
Fats -> fatty acids
lipase
and glycerol

1. Digestion is the breakdown od large food molecules into small, soluble molecules by
enzymes.
2. Starch is digested by amylase (salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase) to maltose.
3. Maltose is digested by maltose to glucose.
4. Fats are digested by maltase to glucose.
5. Proteins are digested by the proteases, pepsin and trypsin, to polypeptides.
6. Polypeptides are digested by peptidases to amino acids.

How does absorption take place in the intestines?

1. Glucose and amino acids are absorbed by diffusion and active transport into the blood
capillaries in the villi.
2. Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the lacteals.
3. Water and mineral salts are absorbed in the blood capillaries in the small intestine and
the colon.

1. The small intestine has features adapted for absorption :

- A large surface area provided by numerous villi.
 - Long and coiled to provide sufficient time for absorption.
- Epithelium of the villi is only one cell thick to provide a short diffusion distance.
- Villi contain numerous blood capillaries to transport the absorbed nutrients away.

2. Water and mineral salts are absorbed in the ileum and colon.

3. Undigested matter is egested as faeces through the anus.

Uses of glucose :

- Glucose is broken down during respiration to release energy for cell activities.
- Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and the muscles.
- When there is a lack of glucose in the blood stream the liver will convert its glycogen
back into glucose. The glucose then enters the blood stream for use by tissue cells.

Uses of amino acids :

- Amino acids are used for making proteins and enzymes.

- They are assimilates, that is, converted into new protoplasm.
- Excess amino acids cannot be stored in the cells. They are deaminated in the liver.

Uses of fats :

- Fats are a source and store of energy for our bodies.

- They are the main components of cell membranes.
- Fats stored under the skin insulate the body from excessive heat loss.
- Fats stored around certain organs such as the heart protect them from damage.

Functions of the liver :

- Metabolism of fats. The liver produces bile for emulsification of fats.

- Metabolism of glucose. The liver helps to keep the concentration of glucose in the
blood constant. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver. When the blood lacks
glucose the liver converts the glycogen back to glucose.

- Metabolism of amino acids. The liver deaminates excess amino acids. Amino acids
contain an amino group and an acid group. Deamination removes the amino group and
converts it into a molecule called urea. The kidneys will excrete urea.

- Breakdown of alcohol. The liver is able to breakdown alcohol into carbohydrates. The
carbohydrates can be used in respiration to release energy for cell activities.

1. The hepatic portal vein transports glucose and amino acids from the small intestine to
the liver.
 2. The liver plays an important role in the metabolism of glucose and amino acids.
3. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver.
4. Excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver and urea is produced.
5. Alcohol is broken down in the liver.

Human digestive system animation notes

The human digestive system is very complex and has evolved over millions of years.

It basically consists of the rectum, the large intestine, the small intestine, the pancreas, the
stomach, also called gaster and ventriculus, and the liver with the gallbladder. The esophagus is also
part of this syste, as well as various salivary glands near the mouth.

First the food is broken up in the mouth by the teeth, and then mixed with saliva with the help of the
salivary glands.

Saliva contains a digestive enzyme called amylase that already begins to digest carbohydrates in the
mouth. It splits carbohydrates into smaller units. The ball like mixture of food with saliva, also known
as bolus, is pushed into the throat by the tongue and finally into the esophagus which propels the
bolus to the stomach.

The esophageal lumen, that is the opening inside the esophagus, is very flexible, which allows boluses
of different sizes to be transported.

The esophagus consists of several layers. These layers occur throughout the interdigestive tract.

The two outer muscle layers are responsible for peristalsis. Through these two muscles the bolus can
be transported from the mouth to the stomach, even if the person is standing on his head.

The stomach wall contains gastric glands. They produce mucus, which is able to protect the stomach
wall from the secreted gastric acid.

Gastric acid is produced by simply smelling or seeing food, but also spices, and the stretching of the
stomach causes the secretion. That is, the release of gastric acid.

About one to two liters of gastric juice are produced per day.

Since the esophagus does not have a protective mucus layer, like the stomach, stomach and esophagus
are separated by a sphincter. It relaxes when a bolus is pushed from the esophagus
into the stomach, and then contracts to prevent acid and food from going back up.

Gastric juice consists, among other things, of hydrochloric acid, the enzyme pepsin, the intrinsic
factor, and lipase for the digestion of fats.

In addition to nutrients, food also contains bacteria that can damage the body. The components of
hydrochloric acid are able to destroy harmful bacteria.

In addition, hydrochloric acid converts pepsinogen also released by the gastric glands into pepsin.
Pepsin is able to break down proteins in the stomach. For a vitamin B12 absorption in the small
intestine, the intrinsic factor is needed, which is produced by the gastric glands. The vitamin must
combine with intrinsic factor, then it can be absorbed later by the small intestine.

Vitamin B12 helps keep the body's nerve and blood cells healthy, and helps make DNA. It also
contains gastric lipase, an acid resistant enzyme for fat digestion.

In the stomach, gastric lipase splits a triglyceride into a free fatty acid, and a diglyceride whereby
only the free fatty acid can be absorbed by the body.

More effective fat digestion takes place in the small intestine. Through gastric juice and stomach
movements, which take place approximately every 20 seconds, the individual boluses are mixed to a
semi fluid mass of partly digested food the so-called chyme.

The chyme cannot enter the duodenum at first because there is a sphincter at the stomach exit. The
pyloric sphincter resembles the esophageal sphincter. The pyloric sphincter opens only a few
millimeters, so that larger pieces remain inside the stomach.

In the first section of the small intestine, the duodenum bile, and pancreatic secretions are mixed
with the chyme via the ampulla of vater.

Pancreatic juice contains numerous digestive proenzymes and enzymes. In order for these to do their
job, a higher pH value than that in the stomach is necessary. For this reason pancreatic juice contains
sodium hydrogencarbonate.

Hydrogencarbonate is able to neutralize the acid in the chyme and thus produce the optimum pH
value of 7 or 8.

Pancreatic juice also contains proenzymes. It is only through enterokinase released by the duodenum
wall that the proenzyme trypsinogen and becomes trypsin, which can split proteins and activate other
trypsinogens.

We also find alpha amalyse, which we had already found in the mouth. It now does the rest regarding
the splitting of carbohydrates which it converts into maltose and isomaltose.

Furthermore pancreatic lipase is able to split triglycerides into two free fatty acids.

The gastric lipase, as we have seen before, can produce only one free fatty acid.

The pancreatic lipase can cleave triglycerides excellently because the bile breaks the fats down into
tiny droplets. This is called emulsification.

Numerous other enzymes are part of pancreatic juice,

Bile is produced by the liver cells and transported to the gallbladder. The bile is stored in the
gallbladder, and finally added to the food in the duodenum via the ampulla of Vater. The pancreas also
releases juice via the ampulla of Vater.

The small intestine consists of three sections, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
The ileum continues into the large intestine in the right lower abdomen.

The duodenum and the jejunum have circular folds to increase the contact surface with the food.
These circular folds extend about centimeter into the lumen of the small intestine. These folds are
covered with small finger like projections called villi.

Villi increase the surface considerably. Villi I are about one millimeter long. Each villus contains blood
capillaries and a lymphatic capillary called lacteal.

The nutrients are absorbed by the villus and transferred to the blood capillaries. Some nutrients,
such as glucose, do not require a carrier. They are transported freely in the bloodstream. Other
nutrients, such as iron, require transport proteins transferrin.

Fats are transported by chylomicrons, which are lipoproteins.

The triglycerides to be transported are virtually enclosed in the lipoprotein.

Chylomicrons and triglycerides are then transported through the lacteal of the villus.
Each villus is covered by even smaller microvilli. They multiply the intestinal surface considerably.
The microvilli absorb nutrients and transport them to the inside.

The last part of the small intestine is the ileum. It does not have, unlike the duodenum and jejunum,
circular folds. The ileum absorbs electrolytes, such as calcium for building bones, hair, and teeth.

bile acid is transported back to the liver via the bloodstream.

As with the esophagus the food is transported by peristalsis.

In contrast, segmentation contractions served to mix the chyme.

The large intestine is thicker than the small intestine. It is about one meter long and surrounds the
small intestine.

The small intestine is connected to the large intestine via the Bauhin's valve. It opens when chyme is
to pass from the small intestine to the large intestine.

The large intestine does not have any villi like the small intestine, because most digestible substances
have already been absorbed in the small intestine.

However the large intestine has an estimated 100 billion bacteria inside. They are important for many
other tasks, such as the production of vitamins, and the decomposition of fiber for the body's energy
production.

Many of these bacteria are an important part of the immune system by killing harmful germs.

Through peristalsis, the chyme is transported from the ascending colon to the transverse colon to
the descending colon.

On its way through the large intestine water is removed from the chyme.
Furthermore, mucus is added for proper excretion of waste.

Substances that cannot be absorbed through the small intestine or the large intestine remain in the
rectum and are finally excreted through the anus.

Digestive system – notes (amoeba sisters)

Major tasks: ingestion, digestion,  absorption, and elimination.

Ingestion is the taking in of food, eating.

Digestion is when biomolecule polymers are broken down physically or  chemically into their building blocks.

In absorption, they are absorbed. Absorption is important as nutrients will eventually be  delivered with the
help of other body systems to cells as cells need them in order to survive.

In elimination, waste which includes anything that wasn’t digested, will be removed. With ingestion in humans,
food is brought into the mouth. Your mouth can release saliva  even in thinking about food. 

Digestion actually starts in the mouth, because your saliva contains enzymes that can break down some
biomolecules-salivary amylase for example breaks down some carbohydrates. This is a form of chemical
digestion.

But you also have mechanical digestion happening in the mouth! Mechanical digestion is when you have something
physically breaking the food down. That would be your teeth. Your teeth help grind that food up. Saliva is a
very underrated thing. Not only does it have enzymes in it, but it has buffers to counteract acidity in
your mouth---a good thing as that  can help prevent tooth decay. 

A condition known as “dry  mouth” can be hazardous for your teeth. Saliva also helps lubricate food, which
is awesome, because your tongue will help shape that food into a little ball called a bolus.

The bolus will be swallowed, and when it is, it will travel down the esophagus. Your body has this really cool
flap called the epiglottis which blocks your windpipe other wise known as your trachea when swallowing food.
You don’t want food to go down the trachea and it so happens that your trachea and your esophagus are in real
close proximity so that epiglottis is indispensable. 

Peristalsis, which are these wave-like movements made by smooth muscle, happens in the esophagus and helps
moves that down to the stomach. 

An adult human stomach can store an estimated 2 liters of food and liquid. t’s acidic in here; chemical
digestion definitely occurs here with the stomach’s 
gastric juices – which includes HCL - and the enzymes such as pepsin which break down proteins.

There’s mechanical digestion  too, the churning of the stomach which helps bathe the contents in those gastric
juices. 

The resulting substance is known as chyme.

A few interesting things about the human stomach. There’s a sphincter that separates the esophagus from the
stomach and there’s also another sphincter that separates the contents  in the stomach from the intestines. 

Why doesn’t the stomach digest itself?

You have these amazing cells that line the stomach that divide often and make a protective mucus layer. 

The chyme, it’s going to leave that  second sphincter and on to the intestines! 
And digestion is what the  small intestine does best! 

All three major parts of it: the  duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. 

Here there will be significant chemical digestion  of all four biomolecules: carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
acids.

There are enzymes involved here and also digestive juices that are released here from other organs such as the
gallbladder, the liver, and the pancreas. There will also be mechanical digestion too because peristalsis moves
the chyme through this segmented space. 

But after finishing digestion  here, it’s time for absorption. Most nutrient absorption  happens in the small
intestine. 

some things that could be absorbed: a few examples could be glucose and fructose- those are sugars- or amino
acids- those are building blocks of proteins. It could be electrolytes and vitamins and lipids.

Absorption occurs through the lining of the small intestine which has projections called villi, and the villi
themselves have microvilli. Shape is so amazingly significant here, as it often is in biology, because the shape
here allows them to have lots of  surface area for absorbing nutrients. 
They are also very vascular, meaning they have capillaries running through them so the nutrients can be taken
up by  these capillaries and transported. 

As we move along, we eventually enter the large intestine, also known as the colon. The large intestine is home
sweet home to a lot of harmless and beneficial bacteria in our bodies: some of these good  bacteria even make
some of our vitamins! 

But the major function of the large intestine? 

- It involves water. The large intestine’s major role is to reabsorb water so that the body will not lose all of
this precious water involved in digestion. 

Faeces are composed of undigested contents and can contain other substances, and it can include the bacteria.
The very end of the large intestine is the rectum, and faeces will remain here until they are expelled from the
anus. 
6.39

Elimination. 

We mentioned that organs like the gallbladder, liver, and pancreas release digestive juices in digestion. While
they may be called accessory organs, they are not mere accessories. They have extremely important functions.

The liver is your largest internal organ, and it has functions beyond the digestive system. But in the digestive
system, it’s involved  in carbohydrate and protein metabolism. It also produces bile which  helps breakdown
lipids. The gallbladder stores the bile. The pancreas produces pancreatic juices that have important digestive
enzymes and will neutralize acid chyme. 

Celiac disease which often involves an issue with the small intestine, diverticulitis which often involves an issue
with the large intestine, and heartburn -also known as gastroesophageal reflux disease – which often involves an
issue with contents from the stomach entering the esophagus. 
Biology quiz QnA

Nutrients
What is one similarity of starch, fiber and glycogen?

- They are all made of glucose.

What are 2 of the best oils we can consume or have the least bad fat?

- Olive oil and virgin coconut oil.

What is the main function of protein?

- The main function is to build protoplasm and to create antibodies and hormones.

What are macro and micro nutrients? Give examples.

- Macro are nutrients that we need in large amounts. Micro nutrients are the nutrients we need in small
amounts.
- Example of macro nutrient is water and example of micro nutrients are vitamins and minerals.

What is the main material to build cell walls?

- Cellulose.

What is the similarity and difference between the atoms of fats and carbohydrates?

- Fats and carbohydrates are the same because they both contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The
difference is that carbohydrates have more oxygen.

Proteins are needed to make new cells, Why do we need new cells?

- We need to produce new cells for our body to grow and develop, we also need new cells to replace
broken cells if we get hurt or injured.

Some fruits and raw vegetables should be included in the diet because

- Vitamin C present in this food gets destroyed on cooking.

What would happen if a person does not eat sufficient fruits and vegetables?

- They would most likely get a deficiency of vitamin A and Vitamin C.

Enzymes
What if Lipase also converts protein into neurochemicals for the brain?

- If the body doesn’t need anymore fats for energy, the protein conversion will stop and the brain won’t
get any protein and this means that our brain will get damaged if we stop burning fats.

What is Induced fit?

 - Induced fit is when the active site changes the shape a bit to make sure that the substrate fits.

What does enzymes and sugars often end in?

- Enzymes often end in ase (lactase) and sugars often end in ose (lactose).

What are 3 factors that affect an enzyme’s reaction rate?

- Temperature, pH and substrate concentration.

What does enzymes do to the activation of energy to speed up a reaction?

- Enzymes lower the activation of energy to speed up a reaction.

During enzyme reactions, what happens if the product concentration is too much?

- The substrate will have less chance to bond with the enzyme because of too much product and some of
the product will get removed for a higher reaction rate.

What are the 3 major enzymes?

- Amylase, pepsin, lipase.

What is the other name for peptidase?

- Erepsin

Which model did Koshland propose?

- Induced fit model.

Who coined the word enzyme?

- Wilhelm Kuhne.

Which enzyme is mostly used in making baby foods?

- Trypsin.

Nutrition in humans
What is the largest gland in the human body?

- Liver

How is gastric acid produced?

- They can be produced by simply seeing or smelling food and spices The stretching of the of the stomach
will cause the secretion which is the release of gastric acid.

How much gastric juice is is produced per day?

- Around 1 to 2 liters.

What is the difference between bolus and chyme?

 - The difference between bolus and chyme is that bolus is still a bit hard like playdough but when it
becomes chyme, it’s already like porridge.

Explain a bit of the structure of villi.

- The outer layer has epithelium then it has 2 parts, the blood capillaries and lacteal.
- The epithelium contains epithelial cells and the blood capillaries absorb protein and carbohydrates while
lacteal absorb fats.

What destroys the harmful bacteria in our large intestine?

- Hydrochloric acid.

What is saliva and where is it produced?

-saliva is the watery and slippery secretion produced in mouth.

How long does food stay in the stomach?

- Food can stay in the stomach from a few minutes to a few hours,depending on its type.solid food stays
in the stomach for 4-5 hours,but liquid food remains only for a few minutes.

What is the function of taste buds?

- The function of taste buds is to detect the various tastes like sweetness,saltiness,sourness and
bitterness of food.

What are the pointed teeth in your mouth?

- Canines

Why should we not eat too fast?

- We should not eat too fast because if we ingest food in hurry or talk or laugh while eating we
experience hiccups, coughing or choking sensation.