CHAPTER 3
PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL TRAINING:
IMPLICATIONS FOR MILITARY TRAINING
PREPARED BY
M. JOS VAN DIJK
TRAINING MEDICINE AND TRAINING PHYSIOLOGY
‘ARMED FORCES MEDICAL COMMAND
UTRECHT, THE NETHERLANDS
SUMMARY
The response to a physical training program,
ie., the gain that is derived from physical
training, is based on several well established
principles. The first of these is the principle
of overload. The load or the intensity of
training must be greater than what one is
accustomed to in order for the body to adapt
and show a positive gain in capacity. This
adaptation consists of an initial breakdown
process followed by a buildup or anabolic
process. The second principle is that of
specificity. This principle refers to the fact
that training must be focused on the specific
muscles that are to be developed and on the
specific movements or tasks to be carried
out. The final general principle is that of
ibility. Training adaptations will be
lost unless training is performed on a regular
basis so that the adaptation stimulus is rein-
forced. This chapter describes each princi-
ple in detail and how they can be applied to
thedevelopmentof military training programs.
INTRODUCTION
‘The major objective of physical training is to cause biological
adaptations within the body to improve the capacity to perform
physical activities (in general) and/or to improve performance of
‘specific tasks. Training can be regarded as a series of incremental
loads, each followed by a period of rest, in which subsequent
adaptations of the human body take place. These adaptations, in
turn, caninfiuence the capacity perform physicaltasksorcarry out
physicalactivtes. These changes in physical performance capac-
ity are the result of both structural and physiological changes in a
‘number of organ systems (2). Physical raining may also serve to
increase task skils and improve the ability to ‘dig deeper’ into
reserves of performance.
‘Aerobic fitness, muscular strength and muscular endurance are
considered the most relevant aspects of physical fitness in the
military (41). To a great extent military physical training is directed
towards improving hese fitness components. They canbe defined
astollons:
2. Aerobicfiness ~The abit ofthe body to delverthe oxygen and
nutrients needed forthe aerobicmetabolicenergy generation for
muscular contraction andtoremove metabolic waste prod-
vets;
. Muscular strength - The greatest amount of force a skeletal
muscle, ora group ofskeletal muscles, can exert in a single
efor, determinedby avaliable stored phosphagen energy
stores;
¢. Muscular endurance The ability ofa skeletal muscle, or group
of skeletal muscles, topertorm repeated submaximalcontrac-
tions for relatively short periods of ime, against a moderate to
high resistance.
‘To enhance fitness and performance in an effective way, certain
traning principles should be applied in the design ofa taining
program. The asic principles of taining overload, specificity, and
reversblty-are discussedin the next section. The third ection
discusses a modelo the adaptation process ofthe human body to
training; this model also ilustrates that planning of restis crucial to
{gaining fitness improvements. The three major raining variables -
intensity frequencyand uration of exercise, whicharecicaltothe
effectiveness of a training program - are discussed in the fourth
section. The fith section gives training guidelines for planning
military Finess training. The training program should be periodized
into general fitnesstraining, task specific training andmaintenance
training. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the importance of
Periodic evaluation of programs. An effective and efficent military
training program should both improve finess levels of service
‘members and enhance their ability to perform physical tasks.
PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL TRAINING
Physical rainingin the military can resultinimproved performance
‘and combat readiness through systematic, repeated, general and,
task-speciic physical exercise. This requiresadherence tocarefully
planned and executed training activities. Training science has
Identified several physiological principles of exercise conditioning.
These basie principles, on which a training program should be
based, are overload of training, specificity of training effects, and
reversibility oftraining adaptations.
Overload Principle
‘An exercise overload must be applied to stimulate the adaptation
process n order to bring aboutanimprovementin exercise capacity.
Overloadis defined as exercising ata level above that that which a
persons accustomed. Overioad causesa variely of training adap-
tations that enable the body tofunction more efficiently. The appropri-
ate overload for each person can be achieved by manipulating
‘combinations of raining frequency, duration andintensity (37) This
‘conceptofindividualized and progressive overload applies equally
toathletes and military personnel.
‘Ann Med Mit Belg 1994; 8/3). 16-25/ Principles of physical aiing: implications formiNtary Walning 18‘As the body responds to overloading by improving etficiency and,
Capacity, training load must continue to be increased (loading
progression) in order to maintain the overload. Progression of
loading in pursuit of progression of performance capacity might, in
‘a nutshell, state the whole purpose of training. Progression of
loading can be appliod as either increased frequency, longer dura-
tion, higher intensity, or a combination of these. Loading must be
based on the trainee's current physical fitness and training history.
‘As an untrained person starts to train, the gains in fitness are
‘greatest, because ofthe large potential to be realized. As training
proceeds, gains diminish as one approaches genetic potential.
Individuals will achieve more stable adaptation and, utimately, a
‘greaterimprovementin performance ifloading progressionisraised
cautiously andloading progressions achieved via more extensive
training. Accordingly to Harre (18), the recommended progression
is:
€, Raise frequency of training (e.g., number of consecutive ses-
sions, for example from twice weekly to daly traning).
», Raise duration of loading per training session, while keeping
‘frequency constant
¢., Raise intensity of loading overtraining sessions.
{As a rule, itis not acceptable to bring about these three stages
simultaneously. This would increase the risk of incurring a training
injury, and itprovides insufficient time for optimal physiologicadap-
tations to occur. The firstpriorityisto achieve optimum frequency of
training, with the last priority to increase load by intensity.
‘The training load required o produce an effectincreasesas ness
level improves during the course of training. The required training
load depends, therefore, on the level of fitness of the trainee. The
more fit the trainee, the greater the load or stimulus it will take to
improve thatfitness. The overload principle dictates thatas adapta-
tion toa given load occurs, training load mustbe increasedin order
toachieve further improvement.
‘Specificity Principle
When appiedto traning, specifiy rferstopattemsin adaptations
to the various components of fitness and energy systems which
ddopend on the type of overload imposed. For example, strength
training, characterized by exercising against high resistance,
duces specific strength adaptations (2a), wthlitle rno increasein
‘zerobic endurance (17,21) Aerobic endurance raining, incontras,
elicts specific endurance raining adaptations (40 42), with esser
tally no improvement in strength (21). The nature of the adaptive
response to training is, therefore, specific to the taining stimulus,
‘while nterchange between the separate components of physical
finess (1).
‘The specificity principle, however, goes beyond his because adap-
tations are also specific tothe mode of training. Development of
aerobic fness for marching, raversingan obstacle course, runing,
or aim exercising is most effectively achieved when the exercise
trains the specific muscle groups involved inthe desired perfor-
mance. While swimming andcycling help to develop aerobietiiness
{G4.39),they donot improve the running performance as much as
_arunningprogram does (26). Specific exercises (modes), therefore,
tlic specific raining adaptations in the Involved muscle groups.
Specify oftrainings obviouslyimportantand shouldbe takeninto
‘2ccount when planninga training program. Atrainingprogrammust
be relevant tothe taskfor which he service memberisbeing trained.
A task analysis is required to identify the task demands andhence
toallow the training dbjectves tobe clearly defined. The demands
identiied wil include: a) the predominant components of physical
fitness and energy system(s) involved, and b) the movement
pattems and the specific muscle groups involved
Physical training must be directed toward improving the specific
components of fines: aerobic fitness, muscular strength and
muscular endurance, as identfiedin he analysis ofthe task. Table
3-1 gives an example ofmilitary tasks andidentified components of
physical ness which contribute tothe performance onthese tasks
49).
‘The task analysis shouldalso give information about which energy
_ystem fs predominantly involved in a certain actly ortask. The
‘Table 3-1. Examples of relations between military tasks and
‘components of physicalfitness.
Task ‘Average duration Relatedcomponents.
of task of finess
Casualty Evacuation 47s Muscularendurance
100m, Muscularstrength
‘Ammunition Box Lift 1645 Aerobic fitness
48 boxes of 20.9kg,
height 1.3m
Maximal EtfonCarrying 2428 Muscularstrength
3 Jerry Cans of 21 kg,
distance 3x35 m with and
3x35m withoutload
Maximal Effort Digging 2628 Muscularstrength
0.5m3, Acrobictitness
Weight Load March 145km ——_Aerobicfitness
5.3kmMh,load245kg 2.44mi
energy needed for muscle action canbe produced anaerobically or
aerobically. Three categories ofenergy systemsarediscerned(15,
41):
‘8, Stored energy inthe form of phosphagens:
b. Energy generated by the anaerobic process of glycolysis with
the formation of lactic acid; and
e. Energy produced by (aerobic) combustion of glycogen andtat.
The principle energy system involved depends on the duration and
intensity ofthe activity. Veryintense actviesiasting 110 15seconds
(Geo) rely on energy from stored phosphagens. Intense activities
lasting up to 1 minute (min) primary use anaerobically generated
‘energy from glycogen with the formation of actc acid (anaerobic
‘alycolysis). Prolonged activities lasting from 1 min up to hours or
‘days rely predominantly on aerobic energyinthe formof combustion
of glycogen anda. the exercise intensityis low (duration over 30
min), mainyfatis combusted aerobically; ithe exeriseintonsityis
high (duration up to 30 min) glycogen is the main substrate. When
high intensity exercise continues forlonger periods, the availabilty
‘of glycogen in the body can become the limiting factor for perform
lance. In most (military) tasks, the three categories of energy
systems overlap, thats, energy is generated from more than one
energy system. Tisisilustatedin Table 32.
Based on this classification scheme, the predominant energy
system(s) used in a specific activity of task can be identified.
Maximum performance, for example an obstacle course of about
‘min, willbring nto play anaerobic glycolysis withlactate production
andthe aerobic system by combustion of glycogen. Training should
therefore be directedto enhance energy production from these two
energy systems. Thus, taining intensity, duration and training
‘modules canbe elected and plannedio enhance energyproduction
‘rom the identified energy system(s).
The development of a training program, particularly those with the
objective ofenhancing occupationalperformance, shouldalways be
based ona thorough analysis of taskdemands. Thisisdve othe fact
that physiological adaptations to traning in categories of physical
fiiness and capacity and/or power of energy liberation are specific
to the content, |e, mode, intensity, and duration ofthe training
program.
‘Toennance military physical performance, training must also con-
sist of exercises that include the muscle groups and stimulate the
‘movement pattems most often used during the actual execution of
the performance. A good example o this principle of specfictyis a
military taining study of heavy, prolonged toad cariage by Knapik«
and co-workers (30)
‘They found that, despite the fact that all soldiers performed a
physical training program toimprove the major categories of physi
‘fan Med it Belg 1994, 6(8): 18-257 Principles of physical raining: Implications formiltarywaining 19‘Table3.2. Classification scheme of energy systems according
to duration and intensity of exercise.
Duration of Intensity Predominant
exercise energy system
18-188 ‘Supramaximal _Phosphagens
188-605 Maximal Phosphagens
Tanaerobic glycolysis,
1 min-6 min ‘Submaximal Anaerobic glycolysis,
‘aerobic
6min- 30min Medium: ‘Aerobic
(Over 30 min Low ‘Aerobie
caltitness, only soldiers who practicedroadmarchingatleasttwice
‘month improved their march ability.
‘Task-specific physical training and specific skill and technique
training in combination with general physicalfitness taining appear
tobe optimal to enhance military task performance.
Reversibility Principle
‘The beneficial effects of training are reversible when person stops
exercising on a regular base. Detraining or loss of training state
‘occurs rapidly. Afteronly one tothree weeks ofdetraning, significant
reductions in both metabolic and working capacity can be meas-
tured, Many of the training improvements are lost within several
‘months (7, 25). Detraining can be considered a deconditioning
process due to inactivity which negatively affects performance.
‘The time course fortheloss of training adaptations and performance
‘appears tobe relatedto the individual's traininglevel. The magnitude
‘of performance decay is variable and probably influenced by the
‘exercise mode, and the duration of detraining (38). The more
recently the fitness level has been achieved, the more quickly it will
be affected by reduced training. Long periods of gradual develop-
‘ment are therefore desirable (8, 23). Lengthy transitional periods
without training (e.g., holidays, injuries) are to be avoided. Short
periods of detraining may require longer periods ofretrainingtotully
restore capacities (38).
Inallcases, regulantyoftraningis important. takes atleast several
months to develop a reasonable level of aerobic fitness, muscular
strength or muscular endurance, butitrequires lessefforttomaintain
a certain level of fitness. Thus itis recommended that trainees be
subjected to an initial, relatively intense train-up period which can
then be followed by a less intense (in terms of time spent) mainte-
‘nance program.
MODEL OF ADAPTATION TO TRAINING
‘The aim of tainingis toapply a series of stimuli which willdisturbthe
normal biological state (homeostasis) of the subject's functional
systemsand therefore provide the stimulus for adaptation (35). This
jprocess is called overload training. Itappears that exposure to the
training exercise disturbs homeostasis incells and organs and this,
disturbance is associated with some catabolic processes, such as
molecular breakdown of stored fuel and other cellularcomponents.
‘This may result in decreased performance and fatigue. In the
recovery phase, homeostasis is re-established, and numerous
anabolic processes take place. However, regeneration does not
stopatitsformerlevel, butwillovercompensate toa higherlevel.e.,
the supercompensation phase (18, 19, 32,46).
“The body adapts othe training load such that the homeostasis will
‘notbe displacedio he same degree by anidentical loadin the future
(4, 18, 19, 44). This mechanism is characteristic of
supercompensation (Figure 3-1, panel 1), anditforms the basis for
physical fiiness improvements due to training. The degree of possi-
ble supercompensalion depends upon the magnitude ofthe training
Joadand, hus, the degree ofinducedimbalance inhomeostasis, and
‘upon the recovery (anabolic) capacity of the body.
{As stated, the initial decrease in performance for a short period
resulting from the initial catabolic process of exercise, will be
followed by a recovery period which results in supercompensation
‘and an increased performance capacity. However, itno additional
‘raining load is given during the phase of supercompensation, a
decrease in the degree of adaptation occurs and the training effect
may be lost (4, 18, 19, 35) (Figure 3-1, panel 2).
“The optimal improvement in performance is achieved when new
loading is offered at the highest point in the overcompensation
phase. Ideally, subsequent training should not take place until
‘supercompensation occurs (18) (Figure-1, panel). Asarule, 24
10.48 hoursare requiredto recover from high resistance andaerobic
Joadings, bt the optimal duration ofthe recovery phases variable
‘anddepends onmany factors, suchas flnesslevel, mode ofactivty,
‘and intensity and duration ofthe training load (4, 18, 19). Further
research is necessary toidentiy the optimal amount of recovery in
order tomaximize training effects. Also, measures(e.g.,changesin
hormone levels, amountof tissue damage, subjective fatigue index)
‘mustbe developed to follow more accurately the recovery process.
‘According to Harre (18, 19) itis necessary to provide time for the
‘body to adapt and to benefit from supercompensation. For this
reason, restis considered an important component in the training
process (35, 47). Furthermore, Kuipers and Keizer (32) stress that
Te
Figure 3-1. Model which describes the effect of lo
performance level of soldiers.
‘ham Med Whit Belg 1994; 8(3): 18-257 Painciples of physical waiing: Implications formiltary raining 20in addition to providing an adequate amount of rest inthe training
program, one mustavoid sudden largeincrementsintraining volume
and intensity. When this is ignored and the trainee is exposed to
inadequate rest and/or too great an increment in training load, the
trainee may fail to adapt, indicated by general fatigue and lack of
recovery from raining sessions. Inthis state, continuedtraining may
evenlead toa dectine in performance, referredto.as “overtraining”
(16, 26, 29, 22) (Figure S-1, panel 4).
Itis the purpose of (military) traning to provide the optimal ratio
between the amount (volume) and intensity of training without
exceeding the trainee's exercise tolerance and recovery capacity.
Ifthe demands ofloading exceedthe trainee's capacity, the person's
capacity for adjustment will be impaired and performance will
stagnate
‘This modelo alteration of anabolic and catabolic phases can also
be applied to adaptations that occur in the locomotor system. Due
to the force/orthopaedic stress developed in joints, tendons and
muscles, these tissues will adapt to the increased stress. When
however, the stress is too high or scheduled too often, e.g, every
day running andmarching these tissues do nothave ime to adapt,
‘and accumulation of small lesions in these tissues will result in
injuries. Inthis respectitis importantto remember that tendons and
joints are poorly vascularized and, as aconsequence, the regenera-
tion capacty of these tissues is less than that of muscles. This
‘explains the fact that many tendon overuse injuries occur during
military training. Asarule, 480 72hours are requiredtorecover fom
high torce/orthopaedicstrain, especialy inthe firs phase oftalning.
Longer recovery phases should therefore be plannedin the form of
restandlowintensit training. Another optionis to plan other modes
of activities that do not sirain the same tissues. For example,
between runs (high force/orthopaedic stress to the lower extrem
ties) on Monday and Wednesday, activities ike swimmingorresist-
ance traning shouldbe planned. To classify the force/orthopaedic
stress during miltary training, a classification system has been
developed. This system enables the military training instructors to
plan and evaluate the total strain of the training program on the
locomotor system on a daily and weekly base (12)
‘TRAINING VARIABLES: INTENSITY, FREQUENCY,
AND DURATION
Many factors influence the effects of training. A military training
program should be based on sound principles of training, that is,
‘overtoad, specificity and reversibility. Panning of adequate rest (or
recovery training) between training sessions is crtical to allow the
trainee to adapt to the training load and to improve his physical
performance. In order to apply the overload principle, a training
[program must consider three major factors in determining the load
tobe applied: a) intensity of exercise, b) frequency of exercise, and
‘)duration of exercise. The fourth training factor, mode of exercise,
Is discussed in the section on specificity principle.
Intensity
‘Training-induced physiologic changes depend primary on the
intensity of the exercise. Exercise intensity reflects both the rato of
energy production and the specitic energy systems activated. The
intensity of loading characterized by the severity ofthe stimulus,
Intensity of aerobic/endurance type of exercise training (e.g. run-
ning, swimming, cylin) is generally expressedin terms of speed,
inmeters/second, orthe frequency of movement (0.g,thenumbor
of strokes per minute in rowing exercise).
Exercise intensity for aerobic ness development canbe gaugedby
the extent of maximum oxygen consumption (VOy,_),PetCent of
‘maximum heart rate (HR max) or heart rate reserve (HR reserve),
proportion of maximum speed, blood lactate indices and rating of
Percelved exertion (RPE) (48). To be certain that an optimum
exercise intensity is prescribed, an individual approach is neces-
sary
‘The best method or individual exercise prescriptions based ona
laboratory or field exercise test in which oxygen uptake, lactic acid
concentration in the blood and corresponding heart rate aremeas-
ured. From the testresuls the exerciseintensity (speed) andheart
rate corresponding to aerobic, partly anaerobic and primarily
anaerobic exercise can be determined (28). Changes in lactate
concentration in the bloodin relation to exercise intensity are often,
used as guidelines for training prescription. The functional signti-
‘cance of this approach derives from observations that endurance
‘exercise performance is highly correlated with exercise intensities
atwhicha given lactate accumulation occurs (27).Basedonlactate
concentrations corresponding to certain exercise intensities, a
‘complete training scheme can be developed specifying: (a) active
recovery training, (b) endurance training with no or ite lactic acid
‘accumulation; and (c) interval training with progressive lactic acid
accumulation.
‘Amore simple method of prescribing exercise intensity is basedon
maximum exercise speedover alongdistance, suchas.a5to10km
run. For the average trained person this speed corresponds to a
maximaleexercise intensity without progressive lactate accumulatt-
‘on in the blood. Based on this value a training scheme can be
prescribed.
Heart rate is commonly used as a tool for exercise intensity
prescription. The targetheart rate correspondingtoacertaintraining
intensity canbe calculatedas a percentage otheartratereserve(HR.
reserve = HR max - HR rest)
‘Training HR = HR rest + Training Intensity (HR max - HR res!)
Forexample:
Training Intensity = 60%
HR max = 200 beats-min*
HR rest= 70 beats-min*
Training HR = 70 + 60% (200 - 70) = 148 beats. min*
The American College of Sports Medicine (1) recommendsthe use
of a system of exercise intensity based on HR max, VO,,,,, of HR
reserve and APE (Table 3-3). tis aimed at aerobic fitness training
for 20 10 60 min duration.
Forany given duration and frequency of exercise, there isa minimal
intensity level below which a training effect will not occur. The
‘minimum intensity levelforimprovementin VO,,,,,is approximately
50% of VO,,.,, of HR reserve. There is probably also a celiing
intensity level above which there are no additional gains. For
example, training intensities which exceed 100% VO,.,, are les
effective in improving aerobic fitness because rapid fatigue will
reduce the volume of training (49). The lower and upper limits may
depend on the subject’ initial capacity and state of training
Persons with low fitness levels should start exercising at a lower
training heart rate (training intensity about 50% - 70% of heart rate
reserve) until they reach a desirable fitness lovel. At this intensity
levelno progressive lactate accumulation shouldoccur. As raining
Continues the intensity must be raised to gain additional improve-
‘ments in physical performance.
‘Table3-3. Classification ofintensity of exercise based on 20-60
‘min of aerobic fitness training.
HRmax Vong Of APE Classification of
HAlTeserve Intensity
25% 30% <10 Very light
35-59% 30-49% 40-11 Light
60-79% 50-74% 1213 Moderate
20-89% 75-84% 1416 Heavy
89% >H% >16 Very heavy
Forstrength developing exercises, intensityis generally expressed
inbiomechanicalterms, such as weight ited overtime or distance,
‘or forcedeveloped. Force canbe describedin absolute values, such
‘han Med Mit Belg 1994; 6(3) 18-257 Principles of physical Waling: Implications formiMary Walning at‘as mass moved (newions or newton-meters), orn relative terms
such as the percentage ofthe resistance that can be overcome in
a single maximum effort (% of one repetition maximum). The
intensity of resistance training canbe varied by changing the weight
load, repetitions, restintervals betwoen exercises, and number of
sets completed (14).
For the average person, muscular strength can be enhanced
through a process of progressive resistance training, Training with
resistance between 70 and 95 % of what can be overcome with a
single maximum effort (one repetition maximum or 1-RM) is most
effective
Muscular endurance can be improvedby training withlighterresist-
ance, between 40 to 70% of 1-RM. tis important to recognize that
muscular strength and muscular endurance are closely elated. AS
muscular strength increases, the ability ofthe muscle to perform
repeated contractions with submaximal loads also increases.
Progressively increasing the training resistance from 50 to 95% of
1-RIM will produce gains in both components of finess.
Aclose relation exists between training intensity andthe numberof
repetitions that can be performed:
Percentage ot
maximumforce: 100% 90% 80% 70%,
Number of
repetitions: 1 ee ete. io16
Itis therefore not always necessary to determine 1-RM forstrength
{raining prescription; the intensity can also be based on the maxi-
‘mum number of repetitions that can be performed until falure with
‘asubmaximum resistance or weight.
Frequency
Regularadherence toan exercise programisofutmostimportance
if an adequate level of physical finess is to be reached and
‘maintained, Research indicates that physical inessisboth gained
and lost rather quickly. Therefore, training regularly is a must (45).
Howotten onehas trainin order to attain maximal taining effects
isless clear. The general consensusis hata frequency of2 times
per week can result in improvements in less fitpersons, but wien
fitness improves, exercise frequency ofatleast3times perweek is
Tequited to gain additional improvements in aerobic fitness and/or
‘muscular strengthandmuscular endurance. Above-average phys-
calfitness (.g., needed or special operations) can beattained with
regular workouts 4to 5 times per week.
tTonly 2 training sessions per week are scheduled in the taining
program, one has to combine training modes for diferent compo-
rents of physical fitness in a single training session. Muscular
strength should preferably be plannedbefore aerobicfiness traning
withinasingle traning session. When moretrainingsessionscanbe
Performed, itis best to altemate aerobic training and muscular
strength training. Toimprove performance onataskitis necessary
to combine general physical ness training regulary with task or
skil raining. In this way one optimizes the transfor of improved
general fitness tothe performance ofthe specifi task or activity
Duration
Duration referes to the length of time thatthe training exercise
stimulus (e.g, the length of an aerobic run or the tial time to
‘complete all resistance loading) is applied during any training
session. The duration of the exercise Is inversely related to the
intensity ofthe activity
Improvement in aerobic fitness can be achieved using durations
ftom 1 to 45 min. Maximal gains in VO,,., can be attained with
‘exercise duration of35 to 45 min (49).WWhen the duration of training
sessions is short, training intensity should be high (90 10 100%
VO,,,,) gain maximaltraining effects. Itshouldalso benoted that
short duration training witha lower trainin intensity of 5010 70%
VO,,., an be effective in improving aerobic fitness in less fi
persons (49)
To improve aerobic endurance capacity, ie., capacity to perform
‘over aprolongedperiod of time (onger than 30min), itisnecessary
10 vary the training intensities between 60 and 90% Vs. with
‘substantial training effort in the intensity ange of 6010 80% VO...
where litle or no lactate is accumulated.
Forthe average trainee, aminimumof 1 setot8to 12repetitions wth
‘suficientresistance to cause muscle failure shouldbe performedto
increase muscularstrength. Additional sets or combinations of sets,
and repetitions (reps) will produce larger strength gains, although
the magnitude ofthe additional strength gains is relatively small (14,
23).
Forthe more advanced trainee more specialized resistance training
‘programs can be applied. Muscular endurance can be improvedin
several ways:
Method 1- 3105 sets of 151025 repetitions with loads of 50-70%
1-RM and short rest intervals (0.5 to 1.5 min);
Method2- 4106 sets of25 repetitions with loadof 30 to 50% 1-RM
and shor rest intervals (0.5 to 1 min).
‘Maximal strength for highly trained persons canbe furtherimproved
with near maximal resistance training with high loads (90-10% 1-
FM), 3 to 4 sets of 1 to 3 reps. In addition, more specialized
resistance training routines canbe executed e.9,,eccentriccontracti-
‘ons, plyometric contractions, supersets, pre-exhaustion training,
‘nd forced repetitions [33). is beyond the scope of this overview
todiscuss these methods in detail.
Itis evident that a well balanced training program is necessary 10
Improve physical fitness of service members. The amount and
intensity of training depends on many factors, Such as initial fitness,
level of the trainee, the training objectives, the available time and
equipment. In genera, the following rules can be given to plan a
training program toimprove aerobic fitness, muscular strength and
‘muscular endurance of service members (Table 4),
Table 3-4. Guidelines to improve the major components
of physical fitness
‘Aerobic Muscular Muscular
Fitness Strength Endurance
Intensity §0-100% 70-95% 1-RM 40-70% 1 RM
HR reserve,
50-100% VO,
Frequency 2-timesiweek 2-Stimes/week 2-3times/week
Duration 20-40minutes 1-8 sets/ 35sets/
S-12reps ——15-30reps
Mode Repetitive Majormuscle Majormuscle
dynamicactivies groups ‘groups
using large ‘dynamics -dynamics
. muscle groups
These guidelines can also be used to evaluate current physical
training programs. To train each component of finess separately,
the training program should meet these minimum requirements. it
‘one wants to train more components offitnessatthe sametime, one
has to combine several training modes in one training session.
Training of muscular strength and muscular endurance can be
combined with progressive resistance training,
‘TRAINING GUIDELINES.
‘When discussing training and training principles, itis essential to
keep in mind the specific purpose of the traning. In the military,
‘mission dictates raining. For example, infantry men must be pre-
pared to proceed on foot, carrying heavy loads under a variety of
dificult circumstances (temperature, terrain, protective clothing)
‘Ann Med Mit Belg 1984; 8(3):18-25/ Principles of physical waning: Implications Yor miltary Walning 22Forthese men, ahigh aerobic capacity and strength are important
to their performance and training programs must be directed to
improve these components offitness (41).Asarule, thebesttraining
isachievedby acombination of generaltrainingaimedatimproving
general fitness and task specific training forimproving the spectic
fitness, skills andtechniques that directly supporttaskperformance.
‘The service member often has totrain many different components
of physical performance (aerobic fitness, muscular strength, mus-
cular endurance, skills and technique). It may be practical and
sometimes necessary, because of time limitations, to concentrate
‘onsome of these componentsat certain periods. Thisparticular ype
of training has to be continued, however, even though it may be at
reduced frequency, when the trainee concentrates on the next
‘component.
‘Awelldesigned raining program alsoincludes planning ofrecovery
periods between training sessions. Alternating thetrainingloadand,
recovery petiod forms the basis for physical fitness improvements,
and should therefore be planned together in a training program.
Inadequate rest between sessions wilimpairthe training response
and itcan lead to overtraining and injuries.
‘A physical fitness training program should be scheduled into three
definite phases: general finess training, task specific training and
maintenance training. The mostimportant features of these training
phases are summarized in Table 3-6.
‘Table 3-5. Relevant features of the three phases of military
training,
GeneralFiiness Task Specific Maintenance
Training Training Training
‘Aim: Condon Enhancetask Keep up physi-
aerobicand ——performance, cal fitness and
muscular skills task perfomance
system
Duration: 812weeks 6-10wooks —_Life-time
Frequency: 3-4timesink 3-4 times/nk"—_3timesivk
Mode: Generalcondi-Taskrepetition Combination of
tioningexercises: specific generaland
‘majormuscie task specific
‘groups exercises,
“During the phase of task specifictraining, general fitness shouldbe
trainedatleast2times per week omaintain he acquiredlevel. Task
‘specific training shouldbe planned 1 to2times per week, depending
‘on the complexity of the task.
General Fitness Training
‘Service members mustfrst enhance theirfitness througha general
training program. In this phase the aim of trainingis to condition the
service member's aerobic and muscular system. Through thiskind,
of training, the service member improves their general physical
fitness so that they can handle the physical load of tasks with less
etfort and fatigue. The duration ofthis training phase should be at
least 8 to 12 weeks in order to build up a minimum required level of
‘general physical finess. A good general level of fitness lays the
foundation for more effective task-spectfic training,
Toreachadesiredlevelofphysical fitness, the raining load mustbe
increased to increase muscular strength and aerobic fitness. For
Unfit service members the training load must be moderate in the
beginning. The load progression is carried out primarily by raising
the frequency of the training. Then the duration of the training
‘session is extended, while keeping frequency constant. As a last
step, the intensity of loading is raised. If training load is increased
gradually, a more stable adaptation and, ultimately, a greater
lmprovement in performance willbe achieved.
Forexample, toimprove aerobicritness, untrained service members
should jog at an easy pace for 15 to 20 min, 2 times a week. They
continue a this level until this can be done comfortably and there Is
‘no undue fatigue. Once this point has been reached, they increase
the frequency tothree times aweekand graduallyincrease the time
1030 fo 40 min, Between workouts they should have no more than
‘wo days rest. When they can handle longer runs, they begin to
increase the pace to the desired level for 30 to 40 min. When
selecting training activities for the untrained service member, spe-
cial attention is needed to prevent injuries. A gradual increase in
duration and frequency of training, especially for activities with high
impact forces like running, should be planned.
‘To improve the strength of young service members, itis advisable
tostartwitha generalstrength rainingprogram. The programshould
consist of 80 10 exercises involving the major muscle groups. A
‘minimum of 1 setof 10-15 reps at mediumintensity (50-70% 1-RM)
shouldbe completed. Specialattentionin raining shouldbe directed
to development of the abdominal and back muscles and to a
proportional development of the whole body musculature.
Itis important to emphasize proper technique in resistance exer-
cises, During thefirst3 05 weeks of such training, substantial gains
in strength can be achieved due to neural factors such as an
improvedrecruitment pattem ofthe muscle fibers (13, 31).After Sto
‘8 weeks of strength training, muscle mass will increase and this
training-inducedhypertrophy will resultin further, butslower, gains
in muscular strength (3, 9). As the service member advances and
isbetterable totolerate resistance training the frequency of taining
‘can gradually beincreasedtotimesawoek. When timeppermitsthe
umber of sets per workout should be increased to 2 or 3 to elicit
‘optimal strength gains. At this point, the resistance or weight is
increased to 70-95% of 1-AM.
Task Specific Training
Whenacertainievelof generalfitnessis reached, itis necessary to
introduce more specific training into the program. Task-spectic
trainingis almedatenhancing the particular physiological systems,
skills and techniques that directly support task performance. Gains
in performance will be optimal when the program consists of
activities thatinclude the muscle groupsand simulate the movement
patterns most often used during the actual execution of that task.
‘The trainingmustinclude skill and technique exercises. Toimprove
the ability to lift and carry heavy objects, for example, training
exercises have to simulate iting and carrying tasks. Further exam-
ples of military tasks for which specific traning is required are: to
transverse an obstacle course, digging, marchingwithheavy loads,
throwing, and mountain climbing. To enhance the performance on
these tasks, a service member has to practice and train on these
tasks. An important consideration for military persons who are
responsible forthe planning of traning programs shouldbe thattask
specific training should notbegin untilareasonable level of general
physical fitnessis achieved. Asa rule, task specific training should
be scheduled at least 1 to 2 times per week, depending on the
‘complexity ofthe task
Maintenance Training
‘As a continuation of general fitness and task specific training,
‘maintenance trainingis directed towardkeeping physical fines and
taskpertormance at the desiredlevel. Three workoutsof30t040min,
‘week is sufficient to maintain an acceptable level f the separate
‘components of physical fitness. The intensity of the training load
‘appears to be the regulating factor to maintain a training-induced
increase in endurance and performance (38). An effective mainte-
nance program shouldinclude exercises for aerobicriness, muscu-
lar strength, muscular endurance, and exercises for skill and tech-
nique.
‘Maintenance training should become partof each service member's,
training routine. Thisis simply due tothe fact that within the intial 2
10 4 weeks of the cessation of training, many of the physiologic
“hon Med Mil Belg 1994; 6(3): 18-257 Principles of physical waning: npieatons for miliary Waning 23adaptations to taining are rapidly lost and physical performance