Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018
800252
Oxidation in Diesel Engines
DIESEL ENGINES BECAUSE OF better fuel economy
are rapidly gaining a larger share of the
market for light load automotive application
in addition to their more traditional use for
heavy duty trucks. However, the use of the
diesel engine in light duty vehicles, if it
cannot meet the expected future particulate
emission standards might be ruled out. Most
of the previous work concerning particulates
in diesel engines has been limited to the
measurement of their total mass, size dis-
tribution and chemical structure after they
are emitted in the exhaust, (1 to 14)*. A
summary of the general effects of the design
and operating parameters on diesel exhaust
particulates has been given by Khan (15). In
the above cited literature, there is a severe
lack of information on particulate formation
different stages of during the combustion
process. The cause of this lack of information
has been due to the complexity of the diesel
combustion process and the difficulty in
*Numbers in parentheses designate References
at end of paper
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ABSTRACT------------------
In order to obtain a fundamental under-
standing of how soot forms and burns up during
combustion in diesel engines, the relation
between exhaust smoke level and combustion
duration in direct injection diesel engine was
measured. The effect of different injection
timings, engine speeds and loads on combustion
duration are presented and discussed.
Combustion experiments in the less complex
environment of a continuous spray open flame
were performed from which soot samples were
collected at various locations in the flame.
By use of a special technique were obtained
SAE/P-80/86/S02.50
Copyright © 1980 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
Soot Formation and
H. Hiroyasu, M. Arai, and K. Nakanishi
Dept. of Mechanical Engrg.
Univ. of Hiroshima
(Hiroshima/Japan)
instrumenting the engine to obtain data that
would be meaningful to study the particulate
formation on temporal and spacial basis in the
combustion chamber. (16 to 19) The combustion in
both the spray open flame and in a diesel engine
are probably essentially diffusion flames.
Hydrocarbon flame from a premixed mixture is
blue-green in colour, while on the other hand,
from a diffusion case the flame is luminous, 1. e.
yellow due to the radiation from incandescent
carbon particles. Radiation from premixed
hydrocarbon and air is mainly banded emission
spectra due to simple molecules, t"'ith some weak
continuous radiation, due to chemical processes
or a recombination of ions. But the typical
emission from a diffusion flame is due to carbon
,"'hich gives a yellowish luminous flames. (20,21)
From a open spray flame, it is usually
possible by using a quenching probe to obtain
soot in the luminous zone, but soot generally
does not collect on the quenching probe at the
top of flame in the case of turbulent diffusion
flame.
The photographs of spray combustion in a
direct injection engine show that a spray flame
information on the mechanism of soot formation
and oxidation could not be obtained from engine
experiments. The similarity of soot formation
and oxidation within diesel combustion chamber
and continuous spray open flame are discussed.
An analysis of these results shows that the
exhaust smoke level is mainly determined by
the concentration of soot at the time of
exhaust valve opening,Le. combustion duration
is very important. The net soot release in a
diesel engine cylinder, for a given fuel, is
controlled by the amount of soot oxidation and
the rate of combustion.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018

206

in a combustion chamber represents quite Table 1 - The Engine Specifications

complicated features, but is fundamentally
similar to the diffusion spray open flame. The Bore x stroke (nun) 135x130 (5.3 x 5.1 in)
results of measuring soot on both temporal and
Displacement (ell em) 1861 (113.6 cu in)
spacial basis using sampling probe and other
techniques show that a fair amount of soot is Compression ratio 15.5:1
obtained during the middle of the combustion 230
Connecting rod length (nun)
period, but this soot is burnt up during the
latter part of the combustion period, which Clearance volume (Cll em) 128.3
explains why we can not obtain soot at the 78
Pis ton bowl diameter (mm)
end of combustion period under some engine
operating conditions. Intake valve opening (CA) 7 BTDC
It seems that the mechanism of soot closing (CA) 35 ABDC
formation is important but combustion of soot
is a more important factor, since it determines Exhaust valve opening (CA) 35 BBDC
the exhaust smoke level in diesel engines. closing (CA) 5 ATDC
In this study, we have chosen as our
object the obtaining a fundamental understanding Injection pump Bosch AP
on how soot forms and burns up during combustion Plunger diameter (mm) 10
period in diesel engines. To this end we have
performed combustion experiments in the less Diameter of nozzle hole (mm) 0.35
complex environment of a continuous spray open Number of nozzle holes 4
flame. Soot samples collected at various
locations using a nitrogen cooled quenching Nozzle opening pressure (~Wa) 22
probe provides information on soot formation
locations and oxidation locations indicating
the burn-up of soot that could not be obtained Flame Luminosity
from engine experiments. The relationship etector
between soot release from the exhaust and
combustion duration in direct injection diesel Injection Nozzle
engine is discussed. Also the similarity of
soot formation and oxidation in diesel com-
Exhaust va~e ~
bustion and continuous spray open flame will
be discussed.

EXPERI~ffiNTAL DETAILS
/,
A four cycle single cylinder direct-
injection diesel engine with 135mm~x130mm
(5.3in~x5.lin) with a toroidal combustion
7 .u.x~",transistor
Photo-

chamber was used. Some basic specifications Glass Window

of this engine are listed in table 1. For the
measurement of combustion duration in a
cylinder, we made a flame luminosity detector
with a photo-transistor. The details of this
flame luminosity detector and its position on
the cylinder head are shmvn in Fig. 1.
This detector was set up in the observed
Fig. 1 - The flame luminosity detector location
window with a diameter of lOmm (O.4in) which
in cylinder head
makes an inclination angle of 45 degrees, and
the visual angle of the detector was about 13
degrees. In order to protect the detector from Intake Valve ... ---
destruction by the combustion pressure and
temperature, a glass window was installed in
front of the photo-transistor. The sensible Piston
wavelength of this photo-transistor is from
O.3l.1m to 1.1}Jm, and the mos t sensible wavelength
is at 1.O}Jm. The wavelength of the visible ozzle
light ranges from 0.41Jm to O. 711m and the light;. Direction
from the luminous flame of the sprayed com- Toroidal
bustion ranges from visible to infra-red. Swirl Direction
Therefore, this detector could detect with
Exhaust
accuracy the flame luminosity during combustion. Valve
The plane of delineation of the visual direction
of the flame luminosity detector and of the fuel Spray
spray injected into the combustion chamber are Fig. 2 - Plane delineation of visual direction
shrnvn schematically in Fig. 2. It is clearly of flame luminosity detector and injected fuel
spray
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018

207

seen from Figs.1 and 2 that the flame luminosity

detector could detect the flame lttminosity from
the start of ignition in the injected spray to
the end of combustion period. Experiments were
performed with a number of different injection
timings, loads and engine speeds. During these
experiments soot was measured by using a Bosch
smoke meter at an exhaust mixing chamber lOGcm
from the exhaust valve.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Figures 3, 4 and 5 show the diagram of
measured cylinder pressure, needle lift of
nozzle, and flame luminosity and also slow the
result of the calculated rate of heat release.
Figure 3 shows the case of low load when the
brake mean effective pressure (BNEP) was 0.35MPa
and Figs,4 and 5 sho\VthecasesofO.5l HPa and -50 o 50 100 150 200
0.73 }Wa. It is seen from these figures that Crank Angle 8 deg
the maximum pressure was getting higher and the
Fig. 4 - Cylinder pressure, needle lift of
end of comb us tion determined by the rate of heat
nozzle, flame luminosity and rate of heat
release was getting longer 'tvith an increase of
release (BMEP=0.5l~Wa)
BHEP. The end of combustion determined by the
rate of heat release was 40~60 degrees ATDC.
The \vave signal of flame luminosity fluctuated 10 BOO
greatly. However, the end of flame luminosity
detected by the photo-transistorwas longer than 8 n; 1000 rpm '"
~
:!2
~
the end of the heat release. A strong relation- 8inj;-28 deg 600
ship was observed between the end of flame Pe ; 0.73 MPa
luminosity and B}ffiP, i.e. the end of flame
06
"- s = 4.0 ~Fu
;;:
luminosi ty changed from 50 to 200 degrees ATDC 4 400 ~
with an increase of BNEP. In the cases 'Ivhere Ul
"- 0
B}ffiP were 0.51 }Wa and 0.73 }~a, which were 2 a;
~

middle and high load, the flame luminosity \Vas 200 a:

still detected after the exhaust valve opening. ~O '0
This phenomenon indicated the flame, which :> ~
Ul Luminosity :I:
involved the last stage of the combustion with '"
~ 0
very little heat release, existed after the ~
;I '0
"- ~
exhaust valve opening. At all speeds, the
effect of injection timing on smoke is similar,
0 '0
a:
i.e. the smoke level increased both with an 0 EVO'
increase of the load and with retarding the -50 0 50 100 150 200
injection timing as sho'lvu in Figs. 6, 7 and 8. Crank Angle e deg

Fig. 5 - Cylinder pressure, needle lift of

10 BOO:? nozzle, flame luminosity and rate of heat
"0 release (B~ffiP=O. 73~Wa)
8 n ; 1000 rpm ~

einj; -28 deg 00

0 6- Pe ; 0.35 MPa !gr-t5
"- s ; 0.6 ~
;;:4 00'"
,I 0 The relationship between the end of flame
~
"- :I 0; luminosity and exhaust smoke level are shown
a:
2
d 200 _
0
in Figs. 9 and 10. From these figures it can
be seen that the change in luminosity duration
~ 0 ~ from 50 to 150 degrees AIDe caused an increase
:> :I:

''"" , in the Bosch smoke number of approximately 1

~ ,! 0 '0 while the change in duration from 150 to 200
"- Flame Luminosity degrees ATDC caused a change in the Bosch
~

0 0 smoke number of at least 2. As the duration

Needle Lift a:
TOC EVO'
of the flame luminosity extends to the exhaust
0 valve opening the soot release increases
-50 0 50 100 150 200
rapidly. Especially, there \Vas a very high
Crank Angle e deg
value of smoke level when the end of flame
Fig. 3 - Cylinder pressure, needle lift of luminosity exceeded the opening timing of the
nozzle, flame luminosity and rate of heat exhaus t valve.
release (B~ffiP=0.35~Wa) Figure 11 shows the relation between the
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018

208

5.-----,----.---.-----, 6.-----.----.---.-----,
n = 1000 rpm

5 n =1500 rpm
4
(/)
'" (/)

... ... 41--- Pe =O.73MPa

253 Js
E E
:J
z
:J Pe = 0.73 MPa Z
<11 31--------J-----l------,'----1------I
Pe =0.59 MPa
""~
~2 (/) Pe =0.63 MPa
0
(/)
E -5 21------t--=O"'I-+-----Jj,;:lj------1
III
o
J:: co
il: 1
0
co 8 o
e
8 OL-_ _-!-,-_ _-!-,-_ _+,,-_--=
<2 40 -30 -20 -10 TOC -40 -30 -20 -10 TOC
Injection Timing Binj deg Injection Timing Binj deg
Fig. 8 - Effects of injection timing and load
Fig. 6 - Effects of injection timing and load on exhaust smoke (n=1500r?m)
on exhaust smoke (n=lOOOrpm)
5
5.----,---~----y--------,
n=1000 rpm
n :1200 rpm Pe =0.73 MPa
4 I-
'"
EJ Pe= 0.59 MPa ~I!
I.

0 P = 0.35 MPa 8.
4 e
Pe=O.73 MPa
(/)

Qj3
) Ie.

I'
~

... 31---+-----:-+-7&-1-------1 .0
<11
E
::l
.0 Z
E
:J
z ~2
<11
2
Pe =0.63MPa
o 1/
E
""oE
J/
(j) EJ
(/) EJ

---
J:: EJ EJ EJEJ
-5 1 1----1--,;;;(;J[r::::==t----+-------1 ~ 1
o 0
~ Pe =0.35 MPa til m
co "0 b
oL.-_ _..L.-_ _..L.-_ _..L.-_ _ 0
EVOI
-40 -30 -20 -10 TOC o 50 100 150 200
Injection Timing Binj deg
End of Flame Luminosity eend deg
Fig. 7 - Effects of injection timing and load Fig. 9 - Relation between end of flame
on exhaust smoke (n=1200rpm) luminosity and exhaust smoke (n=lOOOrpm)
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018

209

5 I I BMEP and. the combustion duration determined by

the flame luminosity detector at various
n = 1200 rpm injection timings and engine speeds. The co~
bustion duration increased with B~ffiP. It is

4 I- '" Pe =0.'73 MPa already known that the ignition delay changes
with injection timing, Le. the ignition delay
0 Pe =0.63 MPa is reduced by retarded injection timing. This
/}, phenomenon was observed also in our engine test
lfl 0 P =0.35 MPa
e 14 and the start of the flame luminosity detected
with photo-transistor was almost constant.
Figure 12 shows the relation between the
'-3 exhaust smoke level and the end of flame
~ luminosity with various injection timings and

l~
E engine speeds. The effects of injection timing
:::J and engine speed on the exhaust smoke level are
Z
important 7 but it can be deduced from Fig. 12
that the exhaust smoke level change with the
Q)
2
~o
-'" end of flame luminosity is a better represen-
0 tation than changes ~Yith injection timing and
E engine speed.
lfl El
In the range where the end of flame
..c ./
luminosity did not exceed the opening timing
u 1 of exhaust valve 7 that is, 145 degrees ATDC,
(f)
0
m
0
0 V it can be seen from Fig. 12 that the Bosch
smoke number was less than 2 and the effect of
~ 0
injection timing on the exhaust smoke level
was minimal. As the end of flame luminosity
EVO, exceeded this critical point, the exhaust smoke
o 50 100 150 200
level increased strikingly and the effect of
injection timing began to have a strong effect.
End of Flame Luminosity Send deg In the case that the injection timing and the
end of flame luminosity were both late, i.e.
Fig. 10 - Relation between end of flame
luminosity and exhaust smoke (n=1200rpm)
10
300.------~---~--__._-____,
Binj dog

il' dog n -30 -20 -'5 -11

u I~ -30 -20 -'5 -11 Pm 0 [) <>
1lJ.~pm 0 [] <>
600
" q
.~ B. "
t>.. U 8 '000 'Q
0 'fl" "P
12
1000
0 B
'" 1200

il
1200 i!<
'" l/l
<D2001---+---+---,-~..<L-----1 8inj = -11 deg
...
Q) 6
.0
c E -15 deg
.Q ::J

e
::J
o o
z
Q)
..x 4 -30 deg
-20deg

'"
C E
l/l
:§ 1001f-----f-------"l1---+-----I
~ .r:
.0 u
2 0
~
lJ1
0
en

~·!:'D""C..2..-=-::1.f00~E:::V"'O""---:2"!'O"'"O---=300
o 025 05 0.75 10
BMEP Pe MPa End of Flame Luminosity 8E'1ld deg
Fig. 11 - Relation between B~mp and combustion Fig. 12 - Relation between end of flame
duration at various kinds of injection timing luminosity and exhaust smoke at various
and engine speed injection timings and engine speeds
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018
210
8inj=11 degrees BTDe and 8end=200 degrees ATDe,
the exhaust smoke level was fairly high, i.e.
Dosch smoke number 6. In the case where the
injection timing was early, the exhaust smoke
level increased only to the range that experi-
enced when the end of flame luminosity exceeded
the opening timing of the exhaust valve, i.e.
145 degrees ATDe, but the increase of smoke was
small compared with the case of reterded in-
jection timing. For example when 8inj=30
degrees BTDC and 8end=200 degrees ATDe, the
Bosch smoke number was only 2. The explanation
of the experimental phenomenon where the exhaust
smoke level strikingly increased under the
operating conditions where the end of flame
luminosity exceeded the opening timing of
exhaust valve is as follows: The exhaust smoke
level from diesel combustion was caused by soot
formation and soot oxidation during combustion
period. Soot, which was also called pre-soot
in flame, was formed mainly from the early to
middle stages of combustion duration and burned
mainly from middle to final stages of combustion.
Therefore, it can be considered that the exhaust
smoke level was the remainder of formed soot
from soot oXidation. The flame luminosity,
which was measured in this experimental study,
was the detection of luminous or yellow flame,
that is to say, the detection of soot combustion.
In the case that the end of flame luminosity did
not exceed the timing of exhaust valve opening,
the luminous flame, that is soot combustion, did
not exist at the time of exhaust valve opening,
therefore, the soot combustion was already
complete before the time of exhaust valve
opening. After that, the amount of exhaust
smoke level was small. On the other hand, in
the case that the end of flame luminosity
exceeded the time of exhaust valve opening, the
decrease of pressure and temperature caused by
the opening of the exhaust valve, during the
period of the continuing soot combustion, which
froze the soot combustion process. Additional,
quenching of soot combustion occured when the
flaming exhaus t gases flowed through the narrO\<1
clearance between the exhaust valve and the
valve seat at a very high speed causing a rapid
reduction in temperature and pressure due to
the expansion process and due to heat transfer
to the valve seat and valve. The result of both
mechanisms freezing in the combustion chamber
and the heat transfer and expansion during
exhaust, the amount of exhaust smoke level was
high.
Therefore, from these experimental
findings, in order to reduce the exhaus t smoke
level from diesel engines, it is necessary to
complete all combustion processes in the
cylinder which involves soot combustion before
the exhaust valve opens.
In general, the exhaust smoke level can
be reduced by advancing the injection timing
or by adding air sivirl. These effects, enhance
the combustion so that it is complete before
the exhaust valve opens.
SOOT CONCENTRATION IN CONTINUOUS SPRAY OPEN
FLAHE
There are so many factors affecting diesel
combustion, therefore it is a very difficult to
elucidate how individual factors effect diesel
combustion because of the complexity of the
combustion process. For these reasons, the
special experimental systems, for example, the
constant volume combustion vessel (22) or the
rapid compression machine (23) which limits
some of the variables are used, so that the
analysis of the combustion phenomenon can be
made some what simpler. Physical factors
influencing soot release in fundamental
hydrocarbon flame have been studied such as
a continuous diffusion flame (24, 25) and
a single droplet flame (26,27). These studies
have been performed so that a better under-
standing of soot formation mechanism could be
obtained. Now, if diesel combustion can be
simulated with continuous spray diffusion
flame, then the knowledge gained ivith continuous
spray diffusion flame studies can be applied to
diesel combustion. This makes it easier to
interprete the diesel combustion process. In
spite of the difference of ambient pressure
and temperature, an element of diesel spray
combustion is identical to the combustion of
continuous spray.
Neasuring apparatus for soot concentration
in the continuous spray flame is shown in Fig.13.
Pressure Soot Sampling Flow Control
Regulater Probe Valve
Orifice
Row CorMol
Valve
Orifice
Strainer
Vacuum
Flame Pump
Probe Corrier
Atomizing Air Fuel Atomizer
liquid Fuel
Fig. 13 - Experimental apparatus for measuring
soot concentration in the continuous spray open
flame
An air blast atomizer was used for atomizing
kerosene fuel. The experimental procedures
included the quantitative extraction of soot
from various locations in the spray flame and
the measurements of oxygen concentration and
temperature distribution. The measurement of
soot in the spray flame was performed by the
sampling probe as ShOHU in Fig. 14. The
burning gas which contained soot was sampled
and was quenched by nitrogen gas through the
narrow sampling port. Soot contained in
sampling gas was collected on a glass fiber
filter paper which had been installed in the
sampling probe. The mass of soot Has derived
from the difference between the mass of filter
before and after sampling of soot. The flow
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018

211

t To Suction Pump M
E
12
x1O-7

;;'
!<
'" '2!
u '" x

Fit t er Holder c: 8 .§20

e ce
.2

Press Ring
c:
~
u
:::c:
§4
u
810
Wire Net c:
NZ ~

-=-;,. 0a
If)
'",.,x
0
0
0 100 200 300 400
Filter Axiol Distance z mm

Inner Probe Fig. 15 - Axial distributions of soot, oxygen

7 maximum temperature did not correspond to that
Fig. 14 - Soot sampling probe
pattern around the location
port was affected only slightly by this method
of sampling since the sampling probe was made
as an inverse cone shape and the sampling was
performed under nearly iso-kinetic conditions.
This method of sampling soot had enough
sensivity to measure the soot distribution in
flames. Soot concentration C was defined by
the following equation, 5
m mined by the balance of soot formation rate and
C = 5 (1)
5 (Q -QN )t
5 2 5
where, IDS is mass of
sampling gas flow rate containing nitrogen gas,
Q is nitrogen gas flow rate and t is a
N 5
2 x1Q-7
sampling time.
Figure 15 shows the distribution of soot
concentration along a flame axis. The axis of
the abscissa shO'ivS the axial distance from the
and temperature
Outer Probe
the turbulent diffusion of the flame \-1hile the
soot concentration decreased. The location of
of maximum soot concentration but corresponded
to the location of soot decrease.
Figure 16 shows the relation between the
soot concentration and density of fuel droplets
measured by the impression method using HgO
of the sampling
powder. From this figure, liquid fuel almost
evaporated within the region \-1here the soot
concentration increased. So, it can be con-
sidered that soot was formed from vapour fuel
at the early stage of combustion period. The
reason that maximum soot concentration appeared
in the flame can be considered as follo\-1s. In
the same way, as the diesel comb us tion mentioned
before, soot concentration in flame tvas deter-
soot combustion rate. In the spray flame tvhich
Has measured in this study, the soot formation
rate is greater than soot combustion rate in
sampled soot, Qs is the range from the atomizer to 200mrn, therefore
x10 5
12 12 m
"'E OJ = 0.3 eels
Eo
.!i ;:!
0 0 =153 eels
'"m
U Z
-0

atomizer, and the ordinate shows the soot

concentration C, and in this case the flame c: 8 8 m
5 0 a;
15.
length was about SOOmm. It can be understood 2 e
from these results that there ""as a considerable c~
0

amount of soot in the flame in spite 6f little u

c:
a 15
soot observed at the flame end. The distri- u 4
bution of the soot concentration had the ~
/Nd .0
maximum value at the location of 200mm from 00 E
~
the atomizer and the oxygen distribution had If)
Z
the minimum value at the same location. From
0 0
the atomizer to this location, the oxygen 0 100 200 300 400 500
concentration decreased and the soot concen- Axial Distance z mm
tration increased. In contrast, from that
location to the flame end, the oxygen concen- Fig. 16 - Axial distributions of soot and
tration increased by air entrainment owing to fuel droplets
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018

212

the soot concentration increases. At 200mm,

soot formation rate almost equals soot com-
xlO-7
10 25.-------,----,----,14oo
bustion rate, and over 200mm, soot combustion
rate exceeds soot formation rate. Then the
soot concentration takes the maximum value and
after that it decreases. 'E
Experimental results according to the ~ 8 20b-.----"ld'''----+~----j1200
radial distance
Figs. 17, 18 and 19.
of the flame, are shown in
It can be said from
'"
Ul N
these figures that the region of soot formation U o
was limited from the atomizer to 200mm along x
the axis and in comparatively low temperature 6 150'o«W---j---\--+----l1000
areas inside the turbulent flame front, and the c '"
-
~
region of soot combustion was, in the following § o :J
area, of comparatively high temperature. :g -o 0~

-E 4 ~ 101----+----\-!f-----l800 ~
xl0-7
10 25 1400
'"
u
§
'"
u
c
E
'"
....
T U 8
"- 2 a; 5\!;::-::::::::2=~,...,:.'-::-:_::-~1600
i5o
'" Qf = 0.3 eels
"l:u lfl
~
-'" 8
•~
20 1200
U
•
o
0L.-.!d0~--_,J;,---,!,,---~400
Qa = 153 eels
z =200mm
S N
0
0
.... o 10 20 30
x Radial Distance r mm
6 15· 1000
c c Fig. 18 - Radial distributions of soot, oxygen
0
c;
~

1: 4 '::10
c
-
.2
0
Cs
800 ~ -'"
~
:J
and temperature (z=200mm)

'c"
u
'c"
u
X0 2,
'E"
0.

u
0
8 ....'"
X10-7
2 c5 600 10 25 1400
00
lfl
'>-"
'" Of = 0.3 eels
<5 °0=153 eels T
z =150 mm '1u
0 0
0
Radial
10
Distance
20
r
30
mm
400
-'" 8
~
•
20 1200
U
•
Jl 0
x
N 0
....
Fig. 17 - Radial distributions of soot, oxygen 6 1000
and temperature (z=lSOmm) Cs
c c 0 '"
~

--
:J
.2 0
c;
0 c; ~

800~
~ ~

c 4 1:10 E
SI~rrLARITY
DIESEL CO~rnUSTION
OF SOOT FOR}~TION
AND
AND OXIDATION IN
CONTINUOUS SPRAY OPEN 'c"
u
0
'c"
u
0
....'"
FLANE U U
The mechanism of exhaust smoke was con-
sidered based on the experimental results of
diesel and continuous spray open flame com-
bustion. This consideration was based on the
-0
0
lfl
2 c 5
'>-"
'"
Of = 0.3ee/s 600
0a =153 eels
z =300 mm
general opinion that the exhaust smoke level <5
was detennined by the balance of soot formation 0 400
and soot oxidation. Khan stated in his report 0 10 20 30
(15) that the soot formation is very important Radial DistancE' r mm
and the soot oxidation effect is relatively un-
important. But we considered that, conversely,
the soot oxidation is very important. This Fig. 19 - Radial distributions of soot, oxygen
consideration is based on the experimental and temperature (z=300mm)
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018

213

results of the continuous spray open flame as
ShONll in Fig.16 and the following assumptions.
The mass of formed soot was determined in the
early and the middle stages.of combustion period
and it did not change with the condition of the
final stage of combustion period as long as the
fuel spray burned with luminous flame. The con-
dition of the final stage of combustion period
only effected the soot oxidation. Then, the
amount of exhaust smoke level was changed
according to the amount of unburned soot.
Figure 20(a) gives a schematic illustration
of the expected variation of soot formation
and soot oxidation in the diesel combustion
chamber with crank angle, and its relationship
to flame luminosity, heat release and injection
rate. Figure 20(b) shows the measured soot
concentration in spray open flame along a flame
axis, and also give the expected variation of
soot formation and soot oxidation. The case
which is shown in Fig. 20 is the example of a
low exhaust smoke level. The combustion
duration of the diesel combustion corresponds
Rate of Heat Release
to the flame length of the spray open flame in
this figure. In this case, the end of flame
luminosity does not exceed the opening time of
the exhaust valve, and the formed soot almost
burns up before the exhaust valve opens. This
condition corresponds to the situation where
soot is sampled at the end of the continuous
spray flame. Figure 21 shows the example that
exhaust smoke level is high. The flame lumi-
nosity exists after the opening time of the
exhaust valve in diesel combustion, in other
words, soot oxidation still continues during
the exhaust process. The quenching effect due
to the exhaust valve opening, the soot, which
ought to burn, essentially is exhausted from
the exhaust pipe as net soot release. Thei·efore
the exhaust smoke level increases in comparison
to the situation of Fig. 20. This case of
diesel combustion corresponds to the situation
that soot is sampled from the inside of the
continuous spray open flame.
If the diesel combustion is similar to
the continuous spray open flame by this method,
the effects of many complex parameters on the
exhaust smoke level from diesel engines by
using spray open flame can easily be predicted.
For example, the combustion duration in a diesel
combustion chamber corresponds to the flame

Flame Luminosity
Injection Rate \-_-.---Hate of Heat Release
<1J
Flame Luminosity
E
o Injection Rate
i:L DC EVO SDC /"

Qj
Ul
<1J
o Soot Formation
Soot Oxidation
Soot Formation
Soot Concentration "/~-Soot Oxidation

TOC EVO SOC Soot Concentration

(a)
TOe (0)
EVO SOC

C
<1J
'"
E
a ~~~~~ -~~­ :--__s--
a. Soot Formation iL -----..--.......-
o c Soot ------
2i Formation /-::..-------
Soot Oxidation o Soot Oxidation
Soot Concentration
Soot Concentration
Axial Distance from Nozzle Axial Distance from Nozzle
( b) (b)
Vie. 20 - Illustrations of soot formation and Fig. 21 - Illustrations of soot formation and
soot oxidation in the diesel flame and spray soot oxidation in the diesel flame and spray
open flame (At low exhaust smoke level) open flame (At high exhaust smoke level)
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018

214

length of spray open flame. The effect of air 80 0 ,

swirl corresponds to the effects of the air
entrainment and so on. The effect of exhaust Atomizing Air 0a=153cc/s
gas recirculation (EGR) is easily simulated by Fuel: Lig ht Oil
adding burned gas into the ambient air of spray Of =0.245 eels
flame. The effect of injection duration is
simulated by the alteration of the flame length
of spray flame. And the change of injection 60IL
timing corresponds to the change of the location E
of soot sampling from the nozzle in the spray E CO2

- ~\
flame.
It is already known that in diesel com-
...J
bustion the effect of EGR caused the increase
of the exhaust smoke level. But the reason 40
why is not yet clear. By adding carbon dioxide
gas or nitrogen gas into the ambient air of
spray diffusion flame, the effect of EGR was
-
.!:
en
c
C1J
\N2

tested. It is seen that the flame length ...J

increased with an increase in the additional
gas concentration of diluent as shown in Fig.
22. Based on the similarity between diesel
combustion and continuous spray open flame as
mentioned before, the tendency for the smoke
to increase is due to the delay of flame lumi-
nosity ending in the diesel combustion chamber,
as was predicted. In other words, when the
combustion duration was extended by the intro-
duction of EGR, so that at the time the exhaust o 5 10 15
valve opened, soot combustion was still in Concentration of Diluent Gas 010
progress, which caused the soot combustion
prosess to stop for reasons presented previous- Fig. 22 - Relation between diluent gas
ly. The result in the exhaust smoke level is concentration and flame length
increased.

~mTHODS FOR REDUCTION OF THE COMBUSTION DURATION Pressure Flow Control

It was sho'\m in the preceeding section that Regulater Valve Flame
variations in the exhaust smoke level largely Cylinder Orifice Nozz Ie Tpermocou pie
1 /

reflected changes in the soot combustion, i.e.

the combustion duration is very important. The r!Pl\ '
oxidation of the soot still continued after the
end of heat release w'ith sufficient oxygen. It
must be necessary to control the combustion
duration as to finish all the combustion period Air
before the exhaust valve opens in order to or
reduce the exhaust smoke level from diesel N2
combustion. The flame length of the spray Probe mV Meter
diffusion flame was mainly determined by the Carrier Fuel
fuel vaporization rate, air entrainment and Atomizer
mixing of air and fuel vapours. We tested the Atomizing Air
effect of air jet on the spray open flame by Liquid Fuel
paying attention to the air entrainment and
mixing. The experimental apparatus is sho,vn Fig. 23 - Experimental apparatus for tested
in Fig.23. The atomizer was the same one that the effects of air entrainment and mixing in
,vas used before. The jet nozzle which injected spray open flame
air or nitrogen gas into the flame is shown in
Fig. 24. This jet nozzle consisted of eight
stainless pipes with an inner diameter of 1. 7mm. with a closing of the injection distance to the
As the tip of the jet nozzle was completly atomizer as shown in Fig. 25, that is, the
inserted into the flame, the outer configuration combustion duration of each element of spray
of the spray flame was not changed on a large was shortened. The same experimental study lolas
scale and the ambient air did not enter into made with nitrogen gas instead of air. The
the flame by the injection of air. flame length was also shortened as shown in
The effect of air jet on the flame length Fig. 26 by a nitrogen gas jet. It showed the
was measured for the various air injection rates same tendency as the air jet but the decreasing
and injection locations. The flame length was ratio was not as large as with air.
shortened with an increase of the air jet and The difference of the shortened flame
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018

215

600
Added Gas = Nitrogen
0

A~.J1j,
0 0
A
-B. '.,

zad=350mm
~/ ~A~
..
.AA
~

250mm
/
400
/
-
..c
Ol
C
150mm

'"
....J

'"
E 300
.Q Fuel: Kerosene Q f =0.43 eels
I.L
Fig. 24 - The jet nozzle Atomizing Air Q a = 207 eels

6!'lr1r----,----~---~
I I
200 400 600
Added Gas = Air Added Gas Qad eels
Fig. 26 - Relation between added gas flow
rate and flame length (Nitrogen)
5001-----;~k----I-----!
E 0
E 0
0
0 flame axis affected by the air jet is shown in

-
....J
400J.----+..,.,'--.....:s.~_+_--=::=_I
0
0
Fig.27. Though the flame temperature dropped
just after the location of the air injection
due to low temperature of the air, but after

-
that, it rose up the higher value than the
..c 265mm original flame temperature. This phenomenon
Ol showed an increase of the combustion rate of
C
spray by the air jet. Therefore the reduction
'"
....J 165mm of flame length by the air jet was due to the
increase of the combustion rate and tolaS not due
tPOOII-------+----f-----I to the quenching of the flame. The air swirl
a in the cylinder is one of the effective methods
i:L Fuel: Kerosene Q f = 0.43 eels of applying the reduction of flame length in
the spray open flame to diesel combustion.
Atomizing Air Qa = 207 eels A shrouded valve was used to measure the
effect of induction swirl on the combustion
duration and the exhaust smoke level. The
200 400 600 relationship between a swirl ratio and the
combustion duration which determined with the
Added Gas Qad eels end of flame luminosity was shown in Fig. 28.
In the case where the load was high,i.e. B~ffiP
Fig. 25 - Relation between added gas flow was 0.76 MFa, the combustion duration changed
rate and flame length (Air) little with the swirl ratio, but in the cases
where the loads were middle and low,i.e. B~lliP
were 0.63 ~Wa and 0.48 }Wa, the increase of
length between the air jet and the nitrogen gas swirl ratio results in the reduction of the
jet showed the effect of air entrainment of combustion duration. Figure 29 shows the
injected air itself. The reduction of the relationship between the swirl ratio and the
flame length appearing for both gases showed exhaust smoke level. In the case where the
the effect of the promotion of the turbulent load t.ras high, tvhich the end of flame luminosity
mixing. The temperature distribution along the timing exceeded the timing of the exhaust valve
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018

216

1500,------.-----,--,---,-----, 10 I
Added Gas=Air
Qad = 512 eels
150mm n =1000 rpm
8 I-- Binj= -16 deg
1250f-----kf-r.r--,f--4~t.+----Ic__-__I

6
~
<lJ
f-10001--H-r'rll-~f+-_!;,Lj+__h1~--_I .0
E !e=0.76 MPa
::J
QI Z 4
-
~

::J
o
~ 750f-_ _f-_ _t-°_r-=igc..in_a_I+-Fl_a_m_e-+_--\..--I
~
E
<f) 0.63 MPl-
Q /
8 0
0
0
E .c 2
u
~
I~~~.
Ul
Fuel: Kerosene Q f =0.43 eels o
OJ 0.48MPa ~

I~·
El
Atomizing Air Q a =207 eels
CJ
5000~-.,Jl0:-=0---::2~0-:-0--"30L O--"'40L,0--5..J00 o 2 4 6
Axial Distance Z mm Swirl Ratio

Fig. 27 - Temperature distribution along the Fig. 29 - Effect of swirl ratio on exhaust
flame axis affected by air jet smoke

300',-----,-----,-------, open in spite of the increase of the swirl

ratio, the effect of the swirl ratio on the
exhaust smoke level was not appeared. But in
n= 1000 rpm the case where the load was middle, which the
Binj = -16 deg end of flame luminosity timdug decreased and
crossed over the exhaust valve opening timing
with increase of the swirl ratio, the exhaust
smoke level decreased with the swirl ratio.
Pe = 0.76 MPa In the case where the load was low, which the
combustion involve the soot oxidation was
completed before the exhaust valve open, the
exhaust smoke level was low and changed little
with increase of the swirl ratio. In diesel
EVO combustion, air entrainment or turbulent
mixing in the combustion chamber is promoted
by air swirl, and as the number of related
reports were shotvn, the exhaust smoke level
QI
E 1001--------'f--.i~-_j~'""""'--j is decreased by air stvirl. But, another method
of promoting air entrainment or turbulent
.9 mixing in combustion chambers,for example, by
u.

-o
-0
0.48MPa
[)
[)
air injection by force during the middle stage
of combustion which should result in a further
reduction of soot by reducing the period of
flame combustion duration.
C
W
CONCLUSIONS
Combustion duration was measured by using a
o 2 4 6 flame luminosity detector with photo-transistor
Swirl Ratio in a direct injection diesel cylinder. Close
relation was observed between the combustion
Fig. 28 - Relation between swirl ratio and duration and the exhaust smoke level. The
the end of flame luminosity combustion duration detected by the flame lumi-
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018
nosity detector is quite a bit longer than the
one that detected by the rate of heat release.
In the case of high load, the wave signal of
flame luminosity is continues after the exhaust
valve opens. It was found that the longer the
end of flame luminosity resulted in a higher
level of exhaust smoke.
In order to apply the useful knowledge
concerned \oJith continuous spray diffusion flame
to diesel combus tion, the concentration of soot
by using a nitrogen gas quenching probe in the
space of continuous spray open flame was measured
and used. The experimental data show that
maximum soot value and minimum oxygen concen-
tration is in the same position, and the lo-
cation of maximum temperature did not correspond
to that of maximum soot concentration but
corresponded to the location of soot decrease.
It has been shmoJTI by the schematic illus-
tration given that the expected variation of
mass of soot formation and oxidation in the
diesel combustion chamber with crank angle is
similar to the soot formation and combustion in
a spray open flame along a flame axis.
The effects of exhaust gas recirculation,
injection duration or load and air swirl on soot
release in diesel combustion can be explained
by the experimental results obtained from spray
open flame.
It must be necessary to control the com-
bustion duration to end before the exhaust valve
opens in order to reduce the exhaust smoke
level in diesel engines.
In order to reduce the flame length of
spray open flame, that is, to shorten the com-
bustion duration, the air jet forced into the
flame is effective. Considering these results,
it can be predicted that the air jet forced
into the diesel combustion flame during the
middle stage of combustion period would be
effective to reduce the exhaust smoke level in
diesel engines.
ACKNO\o/LEDGEHENT
The authors wish to thank National Science
Research Foundation of Japan for their fi-
nancial support of this research. We wish to
give special thanks to graduate students
K. Atarashiya, and Y. Oda who assisted in
taking the data.
REFERENCES
1. I.M. Khan, G. Greeves and D.M. Probert,
"Prediction of Soot and Nitric Oxide Concen-
trations in Diesel Engine Exhaust", Proc.THE,
C142, p.20S, 1971.
2. I.M. Khan, C.H.T. Wang and B.E.Langridge,
"Coagulation and Combustion of Soot Particles
in Diesel Engines", Combustion and Flame,
Vo1.17, p.409, 1971.
3. D. Broome and I.H. Khan, liThe Nechanism
of Soot Release from Combustion of Hydrocarbon
217
Fuels with Particular Reference to the Diesel
Engine", from "Air Pollution Control in
Transport Engine", Institution of Hech. Eng.,
London, p.18S, 1971.
4. R.J. Harmes, D.F. Herrion and H.S. Ford,
"Some Effects of Fuel Injection System
Parameters on Diesel Exhaust Emissions lJ ,
SAE Paper NO.710671, August 1971.
5. R.E. Lee, Jr., R.K. Patterson, W.L.Crider
and J. Hagman, "Concentration and Particle Size
Distribution of Particulate Emissions in
Automobile Exhaust", Atomospheric Environ.,
Vo1.S, p.22S, 1971.
6. K. Habbi, "Characterization of Particu-
late Matter in Vehicle Exhaust", Environ. Sci.
and Tech., Vol.7, p.223, 1973.
7. R.C. Bascom, '1oJ.S. Chiu and R.J. Padd,
"Heasurement and Evaluation of Diesel Smoke",
SAE Paper NO.730212, January 1973.
8. J.T. Ganley and G.S. Springer, "Physical
and Chemical Characteristics of Particulates in
Spark Ignition EXhaust", Environ. Sci. and Tech.,
Vo1.8, p.341, 1974.
9. C.T. Vuk, H.A. Jones and J.H. Johnson,
"The Heasurement and Analysis of the Physical
Character of Diesel Particulate Emissions l l ,
SAE Paper NO. 760131, February 1976.
10. H. Bryzik and c.o. Smith, "Relation-
ships between Exhaust Smoke Emissions and
Operating Variable in Diesel Engines",
SAE Paper NO. 770718, September 1977.
11. A. Laresgoiti, A.G. Laos and G.S.
Springer, "Particulate and Smoke Emission
from a Light Duty Diesel Engine", Environ.Sci.
and Tech., Vo1.11, p.973, 1977.
12. H.H. Lipkea, J.H. Johnson and C.T.Vuk,
"The Physical and Chemical Character of Diesel
Particulate Emissions - Measurement Techniques
and Fundamental Considerations ll , SAB Paper
NO. 780108, 1978.
13. D.F. Dolan and D.B. Kittelson, "Diesel
Exhaust Aerosol Particle Size Distributions -
Comparison of Theory and Experiment", SAE Paper
NO. 780110, 1978.
14. N.J. Khatri, J.H.Johnson and D.G.Leddy,
liThe Characteristic of the Hydrocarbon and
Sulfate Fractions of Diesel Exhaust Particulate
Matter", SAE Paper NO. 780111, Feb.1978.
15. 1.1'1. Khan, "Formation and Combustion
of Carbon in a Diesel Engine", from "Diesel
Engine Combustion", Proceeding-Int. of Mech.
Engineers, Vol.184, Part 3J, p.36, 1969-70.
16. G. Greeves, and J.O. Meelian,
"Neasurement of Instantaneous Soot Concentration
in a Diesel Combustion Chamber", Paper of THE,
1975.
17. V.K. Duggal, T. Prided and I.H. Khan,
"A Study of Pollutant Formation within the
Combustion Space of a Diesel Engine", SAE Paper
NO. 780227, 1978.
18. K. Hiwa, Y. Nakano and H. Ikegami,
lIFormation of Carbon and Soot in Swirl Chamber
Diesel Engine", Paper No.102, JS~ and JSAE
Joint Heeting in Tokyo on Aug. 2, 1979.
19. Y. Aoyagi, T. Kamimoto, Y. Hatsui and
S. Hatsuoka, "Study on NO and Soot Formation
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of British Columbia, Wednesday, September 26, 2018

218

in Direct Injection Diesel Engine by Using Gas H. Hiroyasu, "Soot Formation from Liquid Fuel
Sampling Hethodl l , Paper NO.I03, JSME and JSAE Atomizing Spray Free Flames II , Paper presented
Joint Meeting in Tokyo on Aug. 2, 1979. at the 16th Symposium (Japan) on Combustion,
20. A.G. Gaydon and H.G. l101fhard, "Flames" p.137, 1978.
3rd ed., Chapman and Hall, p.llS, 1970. 25. T. Kadota and H. Hiroyasu, "Soot
21. R. Echigo, R. Nishiwaki, and N. Hirata, Formation from Gaseous Fuel Diffusion Flame",
"A Study on the Radiation of Luminous Flames" JS}ffi Paper NO.790-16, 1979.
11th Symposium (International) on Combustion, 26. T. Kadota, H. Hiroyasu and
p.381, 1967. A. Farazandehmehr, IlSoot Formation by
22. K. Atarashiya, Y. Wajiki, M. Arai, Combustion of a Fuel Droplet in High Pressure
T. Kadota and H. Hiroyasu, liThe Effect of Air Gaseous Environments lT , Combustion and Flame,
Swirl on the Diesel Combustion by Constant Vo1.29, p.67, 1977.
Volume Combustion Vessei l l • JSHE Paper NO. 790-16, 27. T. Kadota, K. Nakanishi and H.Hiroyasu,
1979. liThe Effects of Oxygen Concentration and
23. H. Kamikubo, "Experimental Study on Temperature on the Soot Formation by Combustion
Analysis the Diesel Combustion with Rapid of a Fuel Droplet", Paper presented at the
Compression l:-1achine", Haster Thesis of the 16th Symposium (Japan) on Combustion, p.126,
University of Hiroshima, 1979. 1978.
24. Y. Tadokoro, H. Arai, T. Kadota and