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Review
Received: 11 October 2019 Revised: 15 January 2020 Accepted article published: 30 January 2020 Published online in Wiley Online Library: 17 February 2020

(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jsfa.10302

Exudate gums: chemistry, properties and food

applications – a review
Sheweta Barak, Deepak Mudgila* and Shelly Tanejab

Abstract
Gums are complex carbohydrate molecules which have the ability to bind water and form gels at low concentration. These car
bohydrates are often associated with proteins and minerals in their structure. Gums are of various types such as seed gums, exudate
gums, microbial gums, mucilage gums, seaweeds gums, etc. Exudate gums are plant gums which ooze out from bark as a result of a
protection mechanism upon injury. Exudate gums have been used by humans since ancient times for various applications due to their
easy availability. The main characteristics which make them fit for use in various applications are vis cosity, adhesive property,
stabilization effect, emulsification action and surface-active property. Major applications of these gums are in food products, the paper,
textile, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries, oil-well drilling, etc. In the present paper, the chemistry, properties, processing and
applications of commercially available exudate gums such as acacia gum or arabic gum, karaya gum, ghatti gum and tragacanth gum
are discussed. Recent literature reveals that apart from the above mentioned applications, these gums also have nutritional properties
which are being explored. Other gums cannot replace them because of their certain unique characteristics. © 2020 Society of Chemical
Industry

Keywords: acacia gum; arabic gum; tragacanth gum; ghatti gum; karaya gum

INTRODUCTION natural defense phenomenon of trees, with exudate covering

Gums are high-molecular-weight molecules which are hydro
philic or hydrophobic in nature and produce viscous solutions or
gels when dispersed in specific solvents at very low concentration.
Technically, industrial gums are defined as polysaccharides of
plant and microbial origin which when dispersed in hot or cold
water lead to the production of viscous solutions. As presented in
Table 1, these gums are of several types such as plant seed
gums (guar gum, locust bean gum, etc.), exudate gums (acacia
gum, tragacanth gum, etc.) microbial gums (xanthan gum, gellan
gum, etc.), mucilage gums (psyllium gum), seaweed gums (algi
nates, carrageenan) and animal polysaccharide gums (chitin,
chit osan, etc.). All these gums have numerous applications in
the food and other industries.1–15 Among these gums, exudate
gums have been used since ancient times. Their use as foods is
also mentioned in the Bible.15 In Australia, natives used acacia
exudate gum (wattle gum) along with fish. Exudate gums were
the earliest gums used by humans due to their availability. These
gums could be easily plucked or detached from plants, dried and
transported to other areas where they were not available. No
other types of gums have replaced exudate gums due to their
important charac teristics
and functions.16 Natural exudate gums are typically
polysaccharides which are exuded by plants in stress conditions
such as physical injury (cuts and incisions) and fungal attack.
During stress conditions, trees and shrubs exude gums in tear-
like, smeared buds or lumps or mass which are amorphous in
nature. Upon sun drying, they form glassy and hard exudates
having various colors such as white (arabic gum and tragacanth
gum), amber (arabic gum), pale gray (karaya gum), dark brown (tragacanth
wounds to the bark. When an injury occurs to the bark, many
trees, especially in semiarid areas, exude a gummy liquid which
makes a covering on the injury and becomes hardened to prevent
infection and water loss in the injured area of the plant. The
amount of the exudate or gum production is high in the summer
season meaning a dry and hot environment favors the production
of exudate gum. The yield of these exudate gums can also be
enhanced via making cuts and incisions in the bark of trees or
shrubs. Production of exudate gums requires incision or knocking
the tree, picking of gum (dried/semidried), sorting, packing and
shipping to gum processors. Gum processors receive crude exu
date gum in large chunk form which is then ground, sieved and
purified via air to remove impurities. In some cases, exudate gum
is further purified and spray-dried to remove insoluble impurities.17
Similar to other gums, exudate gums have food applications
due to their stabilization, thickening, gelling and emulsification
actions. Exudate gums such as gum arabic or acacia gum, traz
canth gum, karaya gum and ghatti gum are considered as safe
for consumption as food depending on ancient history of their
uses and also depending on the results obtained from
* Correspondence to: D Mudgil, Department of Dairy & Food Technology,
Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy & Food Technology, Dudhsagar Dairy
Campus, Gujarat, India. Email: dsmudgil@yahoo.com
a Department of Dairy & Food Technology, Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy &
Food Technology, Mehsana, India
b Department of Food Science & Technology, National Institute of Food Technol
ogy,gum), etc. Exudation
Entrepreneurship is a
& Management, Kundli, India

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Exudate Gums www.soci.org

presented in Table 2. Exudate gums have several food applications

Table 1. Types of natural gums and their sources
such as flavor encapsulation, emulsification, thickening and
type Example Source clouding agents in beverages, foam stabilizers, spreadability agents
in cheeses, water binders in bakery and minced meat products,
plant seed gums guar gum Cyamopsis tetragonolobus
etc. (Table 3). Besides their food applications, exudate gums have
locust bean silique keratonia
non-food applications including in pharmaceuticals, textiles,
gum
cosmetics, etc.15 Early engravings by the Egyptians represent the
microbial gums Xanthan Xanthomonas campestris
application of 'kami' (arabic gum) in textile glues, mum mifying
gum
fluids and dye dispersions .16
Gellan gum Sphingomonas elodea
mucilage gums Psyllium plantago ovata
gum GUM ARABIC OR ACACIA GUM Gum
okra gum hibiscus esculentus
arabic or acacia gum is an exudate gum mainly produced (80%)
seaweed gums alginates brown algae by Acacia senegal; however, it is also produced by other species
Carrageenan Red seaweeds of acacia tree in minute quantities.17,31 Gum arabic is the old est
Kappaphycus alvarezii industrial gum among the exudate gums. Its use by humans dates
Eucheuma denticulatum
back about 5000 years. At that time, it was used as an adhesive
Animal Chitin Cell walls of fungi in paints. About 2650 BC, arabic gum was used as an adhesive for
polysaccharide chitosan Shells of shrimp and other wrappings of Egyptian mummies. Acacia trees are generally grown
gums crustaceans
for the prevention of soil erosion and also to obtain gum arabic
exudate gums Acacia gum Acacia senegal which has various applications. Acacia trees can be grown in arid
Karaya gum Sterculia urens conditions and have very extensive roots, and hence can prevent
Ghatti gum Anogeissus latifolia dessert invasion. Around 900 species of acacia trees are widely
Tragacanth astragalus gummifer spread in India, Australia, America and African sub-Sahara regions.
gum Major suppliers of arabic gum in the world market are Sudan,
Senegal, Nigeria, Mauritania, Mali and Chad. Major species of
acacia trees are Acacia senegal, Acacia laetia, Acacia seyal, etc.
toxicological studies. Food-grade exudate gums such as ara bic Gum arabic production in these countries is affected by climatic
gum, tragacanth gum, karaya gum and ghatti gum are available and political conditions and also by labor problems. Hand picking
of this gum is a laborious task and sorting is also a difficult
commercially and their GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe)
operation for finally obtaining a clean and pure arabic gum with
status is established by the US Food and Drug Administration
minimal impurities. Generally, gum arabic is exuded after general
(FDA). Sources and constituents of these exudate gums are
injury to plant bark. However, at a commercial level, gum arabic is
formed via making a 2 ft incision on tree bark in summer and dry
season which then yields 20 g to 2 kg of gum after 1–2 months.
Table 2. Commercial exudate gums, their sources and constituents The average yield of gum arabic is 250 g per tree per year. Gum
yield obtained from a tree chiefly depends on the rainfall during the
exudate
growing season and temperature (hot conditions) during the
gum Source Constituents
summer season. Good rainfall and high temperature are responsible
Acacia gum Acacia senegal 4-O-Methyl-D-glucuronic acid, for good yields of the gum. Nodules of gum arabic are shown in Fig. 1.
acacia seyal D-glucuronic acid, D-galactose,
L-arabinose, L-rhamnose Chemistry
Karaya gum Sterculia urens D-Galacturonic acid, D-galactose, Native gum arabic is generally neutral or slightly acidic in nature. It
sterculia setigera L-rhamnose, D-glucuronic acid contains salts of cations such as calcium, potassium, magnesium,
sterculia villosa etc. Hydrolysis of gum arabic from Acacia senegal indicates that it
Ghatti gum Anogeissus L-Arabinose, D-galactose, contains 16% of uronic acid (4-O-methyl-D-glucuronic acid (1.5%)
latifolia D-mannose, D-xylose, and D-glucuronic acid (14.5%)), D-galactose (44%), L-arabinose
anogeissus D-glucuronic acid (24%) and L-rhamnose (13%). Gum arabic from other species
acuminata contains similar sugars but present in different proportions. In gum
anogeissus arabic, polysaccharide chains are generally attached to protein
bentii molecules via covalent bonds. Gum arabic from Acacia seyal
anogeissus contains lower contents of rhamnose and glucuronic acid whereas
dhofarica higher contents of arabinose and 4-O-methylglucuronic acid as
Tragacanth astragalus Galactose, arabinose, fucose, compared to gum arabic obtained from Acacia senegal. This vari
gum gummifer ÿ-D-galacturonic acid, ation in proportion of different constituents along with variation in
Astragalus ÿ-D-xylopyranosyl specific rotation and molecular mass is the basis of differentia tion
microcephalus among the gum arabic obtained from Acacia senegal and Acacia
Astragalus seyal. Structural studies carried out on gum arabic obtained from
kurdicus Acacia senegal reveal that it has a highly branched structure
Astragalus composed of ÿ-1,3-linked D-galactose units as main chain along
gossypinus
Rhamnose and glucuronic acid are present as chain
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with ÿ-1,3- and ÿ-1,6- linked galactose and 3-linked arabinose units.

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Table 3. Commercial exudate gums and their applications
exudate
gum Application
Acacia gum Flavor encapsulation
Bioactive component encapsulation
Sugar replacer in candies
Emulsification in bakery products
Clouding agent in beverages
Foam stabilizer in soft beverages
Karaya gum Stabilization in dairy desserts, whipped cream, 20–22
fruit ices, etc.
Spreadability in cheeses
Emulsification in salad dressings
Binder in bakery and pasta products
Water binder in minced meat products
Ghatti gum Emulsification in food products 23–26
Stabilization in food products
Tragacanth Thickener in sauce, ice cream, jelly, salad 27–30
gum dressing, candy, mayonnaise, etc.
Suspending agent
Binding agent
terminators at the end of the chains. Its aqueous solutions show
shear-thinning behavior at low shear rates.32
Properties
Essential properties of the gum which makes it useful in various
applications are its viscosity, solubility, emulsifying ability, coacer
vation ability, etc. Arabic gum exhibits the lowest viscosity among
industrial gums at similar concentrations. It shows very low viscosity
at low concentration in aqueous solution, and at very high
concentration (ie up to 300 g kgÿ1 ) it exhibits Newtonian behavior.
At high concentrations, it imparts viscosity, emulsifying, stabilizing
and suspension properties. Arabic gum at higher concentration (ie
above 300 g kgÿ1 ) exhibits pseudoplastic character.
Maximum viscosity of gum arabic solutions is exhibited at pH 6.
At lower pH (ie below 3), gum arabic forms gels via solubility loss.
Solubility of industrial gums in water at higher concentration is
very much less due to their high viscosity. At higher concentration
Figure 1. Gum arabic or acacia gum.
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S Barak, D Mudgil, S Taneja
(ie 50 g kgÿ1 ), they are difficult to handle; but in the case of gum
arabic, solutions can be prepared more easily at this concentration
due to its low viscosity. During storage, gum arabic solution shows
Ref. an increase in viscosity via an increase in the degree of crosslinking
as it is a salt of polycarboxylic acid. This increase in crosslinking can
17–19 be achieved for longer duration at normal tem perature or for short
duration at elevated temperature.
Gum arabic also shows emulsion stability when incorporated in oil-
in-water emulsions. Stability of these emulsions can also be
enhanced via incorporation of electrolytes. An emulsion incorporated
rating gum arabic and sodium salt is more stable and can be
achieved at very low gum concentration (ie 5 g kgÿ1 ). These
emulsions are stable over a broad pH range. Arabic gum also helps
in coacervation. Coacervates are aggregate of macromolecules
containing colloidal droplets of trapped solvents or oils. Gum ara
bic shows compatibility with most of the starches and gums.
Applications
Gum arabic can be used in a variety of food applications due to its
properties such as viscosity, stabilization, thickening, emulsification,
nutrition and surface properties.33 A major use of gum arabic is in
the development of encapsulated products such as flavors, oils,
bioactive components, etc. These encapsulated products have
longer shelf life and can be used in dry mixes as well. Gum arabic
has also been used as carrier agent in drying of fruits for
manufacturing fruit powder from fruit juices. Fruit juices are rich in
sugars, hence difficult to spray dry. Gum arabic as carrier agent
helps in the spray-drying of fruit juice via an increase in glass tran
sition temperature and results in reduced stickiness in the final fruit
powder.34 Another application of gum arabic is in confectionery
products where it restricts crystallization of sucrose and emul ifies
fat components. It is also used in making low-sugar candy.
These candies are soft and contain 50% less sugar as compared to
hard candies. Gum arabic can also be used in the development of
dietetic foods because of its bulking action without increasing the
calories of products. Due to its low viscosity and water solubility,
gum arabic is used in bakery products to provide emulsification,
gloss and flavor release action. Due to its emulsification action, gum
arabic is used in beverages as a clouding agent.
Gum arabic is also used in beer and soft beverages due to its foam
stabilization action. Due to its emulsifying and stabilizing action, gum
arabic is also used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics such as
emulsions, creams and lotions. In paper products, it is generally
used as an adhesive. Gum arabic also has applications in the tex
tile industry in sizing, finishing and suspending.
KARAYA GUM
Karaya gum is an exudate gum obtained from Sterculia urens, which
is a large bushy tree (30 ft high) found in arid hills with rocks of
northern and central parts of India. It was first introduced to replace
gum tragacanth and now it has become second to gum arabic in
terms of uses. Its production can be increased by incision or blazing
of trees like other gum exudates. Gum starts to exude from the tree
just after the incision and almost all of it exudes as irregular droplet-
masses within 24 h of incision (Fig. 2). Gum of best quality is
obtained in hot and dry (summer) season. Second collection can be
made after the monsoon season but it is inferior in quality to the gum
obtained during the summer season because of its low viscosity and
dark color. Other sources of kar aya gum are Sterculia setigera
(Senegal, Mali) and Sterculia villosa (Sudan, India). Production and
export of Indian karaya gum are
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Figure 2. Karaya gum.
declining due to a sharp reduction in the number of gum trees.
Commercial karaya gum is classified into three grades on the basis
of the superiority and purity, ie grade 1, grade 2 and grade 3.18
These three grades differ in appearance (colour) and percentage
of bark and foreign organic matter. From grade 1 to grade 2 and
grade 3, the color of the gum changes from light gray to heavy tan
and foreign organic matter content rises from 0.5 to 3%.
Chemistry
Karaya gum is a substituted form of acetylated rhamnogalacturo
noglycan polysaccharide which occurs as calcium and magne
sium salts. Karaya gum has very high molecular weight which
ranges from 9 × 106 to 16 × 106 Da.19,20,27 Acid hydrolysis prod
ucts of karaya gum are D-galacturonic acid, D-galactose, L
rhamnose and limited amounts of D-glucuronic acid. Sugar pro
portions of karaya gum include uronic acids (37.6%), D-galactose
(26.3%) and L-rhamnose (29.2%).35 Karaya gums contains around
8% acetyl groups which makes it insoluble in water and it just
swells via absorption of water. In aqueous solution, native form of
karaya gum (acetylated form) behaves as a firm and branched
arrangement whereas deacetylated karaya gum forms extra
enlarged conformation which acts as a random coil.21 Karaya gum
contains a higher amount of rhamnose content as compared to
other exudate gums.
Properties
Karaya gum is slightly acidic (acetous) in taste and it may have
color from white to tan which depends on the levels of impurities
present. Karaya gum is the least soluble among exudate gums at
higher concentrations. It forms true solution in water only at very
low concentration, ie 0.2 g kgÿ1 . At higher concentration (ie 50 g
kgÿ1 ), karaya gum produces colloidal solution with high viscosity.
Karaya gum cannot be entirely dissolved in water to form clear
solution due to the presence of acetyl groups and it only swells via
rapid absorption of water to form colloidal solution with high
viscosity. Hydration of karaya gum also depends on the particle
size of the gum. Fine particles of gum tend to hydrate speedily as
compared to coarse gum particles. Also, coarse gum
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particles form a dispersion having a grainy attribute. Deacetylation
of karaya gum is carried out to increase its water solubility.
Aqueous solution of karaya gum shows a viscosity of 400 and 10
000 cP for a concentration of 5 and 30 g kgÿ1 , respectively.
Solution viscosity is also affected by the level of impurities present
in karaya gum. Smooth texture of gum solution can be achieved
via agitation and longer hydration time. Dry powders of karaya gum
lose viscosity during storage which is caused by loss of acetic acid.
Fine particles of karaya gum exhibit higher viscosity loss as
compared to coarse particles due to greater loss of acetic acid in
fine-powdered karaya gum due to increased surface area. Storage
conditions such as temperature and humidity significantly affect
the viscosity of karaya gum.22 Aqueous solution of karaya gum
exhibits greater viscosity when dispersed in cold water as with
pared to hot water. Karaya gum forms thixotropic solutions.
Hydrated karaya gum particles swell via absorption of water and
this swelling is not stable towards mechanical shear. Mechanical
shearing of swollen karaya gum particles causes reduction in vis
cosity. Rheological studies such as oscillatory small-deformation
of karaya solution in the presence of salt have been reported in the
literature.36 The pH of a 10 g kgÿ1 karaya gum solution ranges
between 4.5 and 5.2. Addition of alkali as well as acid to karaya
gum solution reduces its viscosity. Karaya gum solutions are not
heat stable meaning that heating causes irreversible reduction in
viscosity. Water binding ability and adhesive properties of kar aya
gum are very high. Smooth films can be prepared from karaya gum
in the presence of plasticizing agents (glycols).
Applications
Karaya gum has designated GRAS status from the FDA. Karaya
gum is widely used as a stabilizer in various food products such as
ice cream and frozen dairy desserts, sherbets, fruit ices, whipped
cream, etc. It is typically used at a concentration between 0.2%
and 0.4%. In frozen dairy products, it improves the textural charac
teristics via controlling ice crystal formation which further deals with
its sensory quality. It restricts the formation of large-size ice crystals
via water phase management which leads to smooth texture of
frozen dairy products. Its stabilizing action in low-acid bev erages
such as sherbets, fruit ices, etc., is due to its acid-resistant behavior.
Karaya gum also finds application in cheese spread where it not
only improves spreadability but also inhibits syner esis. Karaya
gum enhances aqueous phase viscosity in salad dressings and
hence can be used as an emulsion stabilizer in such dressings. In
bakery and pasta products it can be used as a binder especially
for the development of low-calorie products. It also finds application
in ground or minced meat products due to its good water-holding
and binding properties. In the paper industry, karaya gum is used
as a binding agent. In the textile industry, it is used as a thickening
agent for the dyes used for print coloring of cotton fabrics. In the
pharmaceutical industry, karaya gum is used as an effective
laxative because of its water absorption and swell ing capacity. It
is also used as a binder and drug carrier for several pharmaceutical
preparations. Karaya gum also finds application in textile printing.37
GHATTI GUM This
is an Indian gum obtained from the tree Anogeissus latifolia found
in India and Sri Lanka. This exudate gum is named as ghatti gum
because it is found in the mountains in India which are known as
forest in India and occur in dry deciduous forests and
2831
'Ghats'. The trees from which it is obtained are part of the largest
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are able to grow in severe conditions and limited water supply.
These trees become very large when provided with nutrients and
water. Ghatti gum exudes from the tree when there are stress
conditions. Ghatti gum exudes slowly for several days and may have
weight of about 5 to 50 g depending on the conditions of the tree
such as age, size, etc. External as well as internal conditions of the
tree environment like heat, sunlight, wind, shape/size of fissure,
mass of gum nodule and interior pressure in the tree are responsible
for the shape of the gum nodule. Ghatti gum nodules are mainly
found in two different shapes, spiral shape and round tear shape, as
shown in Fig. 3. Ghatti gum has a somewhat glassy appearance and
its color varies from translucent white to dark red depending on the
age of the exudate gum.23 Similar to the collection of other exudate
gums, it is also collected via making careful incisions on the bark of
trees without making permanent injuries.
Production, harvesting, grading and transportation of ghatti gum are
similar to those of other exudate gums. The gum is exuded at certain
locations of the bark; if not picked, it will block the passage of fresh
gum and prevent its exudation. Ghatti gum is graded into three
grades, ie white, yellow and red grades. It can be further graded on
the basis of the amount of impurities present. Knowl edge of
plantation and cleaning operations produces improved quality of
ghatti gum. Processed and spray dried ghatti gum has good solubility
and persistent color quality and is termed as 'gatifolia'.
38
Chemistry
Ghatti gum occurs as calcium and magnesium salts of uronic acid
units.23 Sugar components of ghatti gum are L-arabinose, D-
galactose, D-mannose, D-xylose and D-glucuronic acid which are
present in a molar ratio of 10:6:2:1:2. Ghatti gum comprises a main
back bone chain of (1 ÿ 6)-linked ÿ-D-galactopyranosyl units, a few
attaching (1 ÿ 2)-D-mannopyranosyl units and a few L
arabinofuranosyl units.39 Ghatti gum is a good source of L arabinose
which is a major component in the gum and can be eas ily
hydrolysed in pure foam via mild acid treatment.40 13C NMR
analysis of ghatti gum revealed that rhamnose (6%) is attached as
side chain to the galactose main backbone chain as ÿ-Rhap-(1 ÿ 4)-
ÿ-galactopyrannose. Similar linkages are present in acacia gum or
arabic gum. Some studies of ghatti gum using methylation and
three successive Smith degradations validated the results revealed
in previous studies.38 NMR studies of ghatti gum reveal that
changes in its color and physical form are not
Figure 3. Ghatti gum.
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S Barak, D Mudgil, S Taneja
due to chemical composition or selective bonding pattern as the
NMR spectra are similar for the gums having different shape and
color. Gel permeation chromatography coupled with multi-angle
laser scattering, refractive index (RI) and ultraviolet (UV) detectors
have been used to study the fractionation and elution profile of
ghatti gum. Results from light scattering and RI response reveal the
presence of two peaks and the second peak is not fully separated
from the first peak, appearing as an adjacent peak. However, UV
response shows three peaks with the third additional peak of low
molecular weight. Weight-average molecular weight and radius of
gyration of ghatti gum molecules are greater than those of gum
arabic. Polydispersity index of ghatti gum is lower as compared to
gum arabic.23 Specific optical rotation of ghatti gum (ÿ56.5°) is
much higher as compared to gum arabic (ÿ30°) which is due to
differences in sugar composition.
The presence of xylose and mannose indicates its presence in any
product, and hence is used for its detection. Protein content in ghatti
gum (34 g kgÿ1 ) is also higher than in gum arabic (20 g kgÿ1 ).
Properties
Ghatti gum naturally exists as calcium and magnesium salt and
comprises both soluble as well as insoluble fractions. In boiling
water, ghatti gum is partly soluble. Ghatti gum forms gel fractions
which can be dissolved by maceration process. These gel fractions
contain higher levels of calcium ions.24 Gel formation is not just
because of calcium ions; it occurs as a result of intermolecular link
ages. The viscosity of gel is reported to be 10–30 times higher than
that of the soluble fraction of ghatti gum.41,42 Intrinsic viscosity is
related to hydrodynamic volume of gum molecules. Intrinsic viscosity
of ghatti gum is higher (three times) than that of gum arabic which
demonstrates the solvation or asymmetry of ghatti gum molecules
with respect to gum arabic. Ghatti gum forms vis cous solution in
water at a concentration of around 300 g kgÿ1 .
Similar to other gums, the viscosity of aqueous solution of ghatti
gum increases with increasing gum concentration in solution. At low
shear rates, ghatti gum solution (50 g kgÿ1 concentration) shows
shear-thinning behavior, whereas at higher shear rates it exhibits
Newtonian behavior. Fresh as well as fully hydrated aqueous
solutions of ghatti gum (50 g kgÿ1 concentration) at room temperature
exhibit maximum viscosity at somewhat basic pH (7.8). Ghatti gum
also shows emulsification action similar to arabic gum due to the
presence of small amounts of protein attached to sugar molecule
and it can be designated as arabinogalactan– protein complex. The
emulsifying behavior of ghatti gum is reduced by the presence of
insoluble impurities. The mechanism of emulsification by ghatti gum
is due to surface activity of protein at oil–water interface and
hydrophilic polysaccharide chains which produce a shielding layer.43
Emulsion stability of ghatti gum is high at high temperature (ie 60
°C), meaning it is resistant towards heat.25
Applications
Ghatti gum has been used since ancient times in India due to its
medicinal and other properties which make it useful for utilization in
food products. There is mention of ghatti gum in ancient texts such
as Indian (Ayurveda) and Greek (Unani) medicinal systems. In
certain places in India, ghatti gum is used as a well-being product as
a symbol of status and richness. It is most popular domestically as
well as commercially due to its adhesive property. It is also used in
hair gel formulations, pharmaceutical preparations, syrup emul
sions, printing formulations, confectionery and oil-well drilling. in
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pharmaceutical preparations, ghatti gum is generally used as an
emulsifier. It is also used for the preparation of powder form of oil-
soluble vitamins. In syrup formulations, it is used as a stabilizer.26
In oil-well drilling, ghatti gum is used to prevent fluid loss in drilling
mud at elevated temperatures. Ghatti gum is also useful in acidizing
of oil wells which helps in formation of extended oil pass ways and
enhances oil-well productivity via free flow of oil.
Recent type of processed ghatti gum, ie Gatifolia SD, forms a que
ous solution with medium viscosity which lies between that of
acacia gum and karaya gum. Due to its high solubility and
emulsification action, Gatifolia SD can be used as an emulsifier in
several emulsion formulations which are not stabilized by acacia gum.
TRAGACANTH GUM
Tragacanth gum is an age-old exudate gum which was first
described by Theophrastus in the third century BC.18 The word
tragacanth came from two Greek words, ie 'tragos' and 'akantha',
which mean 'goat' and 'horn ', respectively. This name may be
given to tragacanth gum because of its shape of curved ribbons
which are commercially available. Tragacanth gum is an exudate
gum obtained from Astragalus gummifer or other species.27 There
are about 2000 species of Astragalus which are found in south
west Asia. Previously, Astragalus gummifer was regarded as a
major source of Tragacanth gum but later Astragalus microcephalus
was reported as a major source. Other species such as Astrag
alus kurdicus and Astragalus gossypinus are considered as
sources of tragacanth gum. These are small shrubs having huge
tap roots together with branches in which root and lower stem
segments are tapped for gum production. Major producers of
tragacanth gum are Iran and Turkey; minor producers include
Afghanistan and Syria. Demand for tragacanth gum has decreased
recently due to its high cost and the availability of xanthan gum.44
In the center of the root, gum is accumulated as mass and swells
in the hot season. The exudes from the bark of the plant and the
yield of the exudate can be increased via making incision in por
tions of the plant such as tap root and lower stem. Suitable weather
conditions for gum production include plenteous rainfall before
tapping and arid environment during gum harvesting time. There
are two natural forms (ie ribbon form and flake form) of tragacanth
gum which are fundamentally obtained from the tree. Ribbon form
is considered superior in quality as compared to flake form. These
two different forms are obtained from differ
ent sub-species of the gum tree. After picking gum from the tree,
hand (manual) sorting of gum is carried out and then the gum is
dispatched to specific grading centers where grading of gum is
carried out in several grades of ribbons and flakes. These graded
ribbon and flake forms are then exported to destination countries.
Higher viscosity value, good color and low microbial loads are the
quality parameters used to define gum quality. An image of
tragacanth gum is shown in Fig. 4.
Chemistry
Tragacanth gum is slightly acidic in nature and exists as calcium,
magnesium and sodium salts.27 Tragacanth gum is of high
molecular weight, ie 8.4 × 105 Da, and has an elongated shape (ie
450 nm by 1.9 nm) and gives highly viscous solutions when
dispersed in water. Tragacanth gum molecules are composed of
two main components, ie Trazocanthin (water-soluble component)
and Bassorin (water-insoluble component). On dispersion in water,
tragacanthin dissolves to form a hydrosol whereas bassorin swells
in water to form a gel because of its insoluble
J Sci Food Agric 2020; 100: 2828–2835 © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry
Figure 4. Tragacanth gum.
nature. Tragacanthin constitutes around 40% of the total gum and
is neutral and water-soluble in nature. It is composed of (1 ÿ 3)-
and (1 ÿ 6)-linked main backbone chain of galactose and arabinose
forming an arabinogalactan. Arabinose units (monomers or
oligomers) as side groups are attached to the main backbone
arabinogalactan chain via (1 ÿ 2)-, (1 ÿ 3)- and (1 ÿ 5)-linkages.45
The second component of tragacanth gum, ie bassorin, is a pectic
constituent containing (1 ÿ 4)-linked ÿ-D-galacturonic acid units
which form a main chain to which ÿ-D-xylopyranosyl molecules (at
O-3 position) are attached and these side chains are mostly
terminated by D-galactose or L fucose. Bassorin molecules are
reported to possess methyl groups in their structure. It is also
reported that the insoluble portion in tragacanth gum contains less
galacturonic acid and methoxyl as compared to the soluble portion.
These structural differences in Tracanthin and Bassorin lead to
differences in their rheological characteristics.
Properties
Ribbon-form and flake-form Tracanth exudates show significant
differences in characteristics when processed into powder. Rib
bon form produces white–light yellow, odorless, bland-taste gum
powder. Gum powders processed from flake form are creamy to
tan in colour. Both types of powder gums are commercially
available in several grades of viscosity and particle size with
respect to their applications. When dispersed in water (hot or cold),
tragacanth gum swells and gives a colloidal solution of high
viscosity, whereas in organic solvents such as alcohol, it is
insoluble. Viscosity in aqueous solution is the most significant
character istic for any type of gum and reflects the quality of the
gum.22 The viscosity of tragacanth gum solution increases with
increasing gum concentration. Depending on the commercial
grade, bring canth gum may exhibit a viscosity of up to 3500 cP
at a gum concentration of 10 g kgÿ1 . This high viscosity means it
can serve as thickener and stabilizer. The shelf life of aqueous
solutions of trag acanth gum is high as compared to that of other
gums as it does not show loss in viscosity with time. The hydration
time to reach maximum viscosity depends on the particle size of
the gum. Fine particle size gum powder requires less time as
compared to coarse particle size gum powder for complete
2833
hydration. With full hydration can be achieved in 24 h at room temperature.
Aqueous solutions of Tragacanth gum exhibit pseudoplastic
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www.soci.org
behavior meaning that their viscosity decreases with an increase in
the shear rate.47 Aqueous solutions of tragacanth gum are slightly
acidic in nature and show a pH of 5–6. Aqueous solution of
tragacanth gum shows stability over a broad pH range and is stable
at highly acidic pH (ie pH 2) which makes it a highly acid-resistant
gum and useful for applications in products with high acidity.28
Tragacanth gum also has the ability to reduce sur face tension of
water when used at low levels, ie >2.5 g kgÿ1 , and hence it can be
used as a surface-active agent in various applications.29 Flake
form has good surface activity as compared to rib bon form of
Tragacanth gum.48 Tragacanth gum has good emulsification
properties especially in acidic oil-in-water emul sions where it
increases the viscosity of the aqueous phase and reduces surface
tension at the oil–water interface. The hydrophilic–lipophilic balance
value of tragacanth gum ranges from 11 to 13.9 with respect to the
different grades of gum. That ous solutions of tragacanth are
generally heat stable with some reversible thinning effect; however,
prolonged heat treatment can cause permanent loss in viscosity.
Tragacanth gum also shows compatibility with other gums, proteins
and fats. Its interaction with acacia gum leads to an unexpected
decrease in viscosity.49
Food applications
Due to its flat flavor, viscosity and heat and acid stability, Traz canth
gum has been used in various industries as emulsifier, stabilizer
and thickener. It is an effective emulsifier because of its dual
functional behavior as it increases the viscosity of aqueous phase
and simultaneously reduces the tension at oil–water interface in
emulsions.22 Tragacanth gum is used as a thickener in various food
products such as sauce, ice cream , jelly, salad dressing, syrup,
candy, mayonnaise, etc. In the presence of water, its molecules
swell and form a network and entrap water molecules in the voids of
the network, hence stabilizing the aqueous and serum phase of food
products and also increasing the viscosity of products. It is also used
as a binder in many confectionery items (candies). In ice cream, it is
used to obtain a smooth texture and, during ice cream storage, it
prevents ice crystal formation via its dual function of viscosity as well
as surface activity. These properties make it a functional additive in
various frozen desserts like ice pops, sorbets, water ices, etc.30
Tragacanth is also suitable for use in creamy salad dressing having
pourable consistency because of its acid stability and durability.
Tragacanth gum also finds application as a thick ener in the
preparation of various types of sauces. It is also used as a stabilizer
in various bakery emulsions and toppings. Xanthan gum can be
used as a substitute for tragacanth gum in many food applications
because of its low cost and consistent quality. In certain food
applications, its replacement is not possible because of its exclusive
characteristics. Tragacanth gum is extensively used as a suspending
agent, adhesive or binding agent and laxative for several
pharmaceutical preparations. Tragacanth gum is used as a
suspending agent in toothpaste and cosmetic items such as creams
and lotions due to its film-forming ability. It is also used in various
types of polishing preparations, printing materials (pastes), ceramics,
insect repellent emulsions, etc.27
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