TEL20104 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT 2

DIGITAL PROTECTIVE RELAY

NAME: ATISH CHAND

ID: 012020071942
NAME: NUR HIDAYAH BINTI ABU BAKAR SIDIK
ID: 012020091935

LECTURER: MOHAMMAD ALI TOFIGH

DATE: 30/11/2021
INTRODUCTION
The first practical commercially available microprocessor based digital/numeric relay was
made by Edmund O. Schweitzer, III in the early 1980s. SEL, AREVA, and Groups were early
forerunners making some of the early market advances in the arena, but the arena has
become crowded today with many manufacturers. In transmission line and generator
protection, by the mid-1990s the digital relay had nearly replaced the solid state and electro-
mechanical relay in new construction. In distribution applications, the replacement by the
digital relay proceeded a bit more slowly. While the great majority of feeder relays in new
applications today are digital, the solid-state relay still sees some use where simplicity of the
application allows for simpler relays, which allows one to avoid the complexity of digital
relays.
In utility and industrial electric power transmission and distribution systems, a numerical
relay is a computer-based system with software-based protection algorithms for the
detection of electrical faults. Such relays are also termed as microprocessor type protective
relays. They are functional replacements for electro-mechanical protective relays and may
include many protection functions in one unit, as well as providing metering,
communication, and self-test functions.
In electrical engineering, a protective relay is a relay device designed to trip a circuit
breaker when a fault is detected.  The first protective relays were electromagnetic devices,
relying on coils operating on moving parts to provide detection of abnormal operating
conditions such as over-current, overvoltage, reverse power flow, over-frequency, and
under-frequency.
Microprocessor-based digital protection relays now emulate the original devices, as well as
providing types of protection and supervision impractical with electromechanical relays.
Electromechanical relays provide only rudimentary indication of the location and origin of a
fault.
In many cases a single microprocessor relay provides functions that would take two or more
electromechanical devices. By combining several functions in one case, numerical relays also
save capital cost and maintenance cost over electromechanical relays. However, due to
their very long-life span, tens of thousands of these "silent sentinels" are still protecting
transmission lines and electrical apparatus all over the world. Important transmission lines
and generators have cubicles dedicated to protection, with many individual
electromechanical devices, or one or two microprocessor relays.
The theory and application of these protective devices is an important part of the education
of a power engineer who specializes in power system protection. The need to act quickly to
protect circuits and equipment often requires protective relays to respond and trip a breaker
within a few thousandths of a second. In some instances, these clearance times are prescribed
in legislation or operating rules. A maintenance or testing program is used to determine the
performance and availability of protection systems.
BACKGROUND OF RELAYS
Since the early days of the onset of electrical power the need of devices to prevent or limit
the undesirable events in power system have been prescribed. The history of protective relays
refers to more than a century ago. Some literatures say that the first protective relay was
produced in 1902 (Singh, 2007; Pathirana, 2004), others refer to 1905 (Lundqvist, 2001;
Rebizant et al., 2011). But whatever the date, the hard fact is that protective relays knew an
important revolution since the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1909, induction disk
type inverse time current relays came into practice and the concept of directional
discrimination of faults was incorporated in these protective relays (Singh, 2007). Differential
relay was developed using pilot wires for conveying information from one end to the other
end of the line (Pathirana, 2004). In 1923, distance relay appeared in the form of impedance.
Later, the induction type mho relays with very high precision came into practice. After that,
polarized dc relays with better accuracy and sensitivity were developed in 1939 (Singh, 2007;
Warrington, 1968). All of the relays developed until the 1940’s were electromechanical relays.
These devices achieved very high precision and sensitivity in the form of induction cup mho
relays and perform well for the missions attributed to them. The early 1940’s showed the way
into the development of relays using electronic devices (Singh, 2007). These relays are known
as static relays or solid-state relays because they didn’t contain a moving part. The advent of
transistor circuits opened the door to the development of several new protection concepts
like block spike comparator, phase comparator, etc. The major advantage of these relays was
that no moving parts were needed for performing their intended functions. The operating
speeds of these relays were also more than the speed of their electromechanical counterparts
and, their reset times were less than the reset times of electromechanical protective relays.
In addition to these benefits, the solid-state relays could be set more precisely (Sachdev et
al., 2009). This generation of static relays became quickly very popular and found a large place
in power system protection. Figure 1: Example of electromechanical relay (disc type time
over-current) Figure 2: Example of a solid-state relay manufactured by Crydom (Crydom,
2012) During the peak famous period of these solid-state relays, another generation of
protective devices was being set in way to see the light; it was the digital technology. The use
of Digital computers and microprocessors for protective relaying purposes has been engaging
the attention of research since the late 1960s (Singh, 2004). The first serious proposals for
using digital computers came from Rockefeller in 1969 (Rockefeller, 1969; Singh, 2004). Much
literature reported digital relays shortly afterwards. But the first microprocessor-based relays
offered as commercial devices was only in 1979 (Sachdev, 1979). In that era, the efforts were
concentrated to obtain a very high-speed fault clearance. Different techniques and algorithms
were proposed for achieving this objective. These include common hardware platforms,
configuring the software to perform different functions (Sachdev et al., 2009). In the late
1980s, Multifunction digital relays were introduced to the market (Sachdev et al., 2009).
These devices reduced the product and installation costs drastically and has converted
microprocessor relays to powerful tools in modern substations. In 1988, the Virginia Tech
research team developed the first prototype phasor measurement unit (PMU) based relay
(Phadke, 2002). This technique allows measuring, beside the magnitudes of the electrical
entities, the phase angles (Zhang, 2010) and could offer new information that can be used to
improve the functional logic of protective relays. In the 1990s, the notion of integrated
protection and control became very popular and benefited full advantage of microprocessor
technology, for protection, monitoring, control, disturbance and event handling, and
communication. The relays’ volumes as well as wiring were significantly reduced due to the
integration of functions and the use of serial communication. Figure 3: Modern multi-
functions numerical relay manufactured by deep sea electronic (DSE, 2014) Perhaps the most
attracting feature of these numerical relays was the ability of communication that offered
new horizons for protection and protection related applications. At the present time, there
are many advanced communication techniques which can be used to improve protection,
control, speed outage restoration, operation analysis, maintenance functions and planning.
This communication facilities allow engineer operating, testing, maintenance and accessing
real-time and historical relay information to the neighbours (Wang et al., 2002; Eissa, 2002).
The information is the basic constituent in the protection scheme. The important issue is
communicating and processing information in an efficient and economical way. The key
element in a communication system is the physical medium used in conveying information
through the system. There are many different types of communication media such as twisted
pair cable, coaxial cable, fibre optic cable and wireless communication (Ali et al., 2007). The
wireless networks are by far the most popular choice for new network algorithm. Nowadays,
modern digital relays draw on the experience and technical resources of the previous series
and also featured compactness and less power consumption along with support for remote
operation based on enhanced communication functions. The use of global positioning system
(GPS) for digital measurement, especially for overhead line protection, gives very encouraging
results. They are more accurate than distance relaying algorithms which are affected by
inadequate modelling of transmission lines and parameter uncertainty due to line aging, line
asymmetry and environmental factors (Bo et al., 2000).
DESIGN AND TYPES OF DIGITAL PROTECTIVE RELAYS
DIGITAL PROTECTIVE RELAY
Digital protective relays were in their infancy during the late 1960s. An experimental digital
protection system was tested in the lab and in the field in the early 1970s. Unlike the relays
mentioned above, digital protective relays have two main parts: hardware and software. The
world's first commercially available digital protective relay was introduced to the power
industry in 1984 by Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories (SEL) based in Pullman, Washington.
In spite of the developments of complex algorithms for implementing protection functions
the microprocessor based-relays marketed in the 1980s did not incorporate them. A
microprocessor-based digital protection relay can replace the functions of many discrete
electromechanical instruments. These relays convert voltage and currents to digital form and
process the resulting measurements using a microprocessor.
The digital relay can emulate functions of many discrete electromechanical relays in one
device, simplifying protection design and maintenance. Each digital relay can run self-test
routines to confirm its readiness and alarm if a fault is detected. Digital relays can also provide
functions such as communications (SCADA) interface, monitoring of contact inputs, metering,
waveform analysis, and other useful features. Digital relays can, for example, store multiple
sets of protection parameters, which allows the behaviour of the relay to be changed during
maintenance of attached equipment. Digital relays also can provide protection strategies
impossible to implement with electromechanical relays. This is particularly so in long-distance
high voltage or multi-terminal circuits or in lines that are series or shunt compensated. They
also offer benefits in self-testing and communication to supervisory control systems.

A digital (numeric) multifunction protective relay for distribution networks. A single such
device can replace many single-function electromechanical relays, and provides self-testing
and communication functions.
NUMERICAL RELAY
The distinction between digital and numerical protection relay rests on points of fine technical
detail, and is rarely found in areas other than Protection. Numerical relays are the product of
the advances in technology from digital relays. Generally, there are several different types of
numerical protection relays. Each type, however, shares a similar architecture, thus enabling
designers to build an entire system solution that is based on a relatively small number of
flexible components. They use high speed processors executing appropriate algorithms. Most
numerical relays are also multifunctional and have multiple setting groups each often with
tens or hundreds of settings.

ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAY
The electrical and electronics circuits are usually operated over a wide range of voltage,
current, and power ratings. For every circuit or equipment or electrical network or power
system protection system is desired to avoid the breakdown or temporary or permanent
damage. Such that, equipment’s or circuits used for protecting are called as protecting
equipment or circuit. In case of a small amount of voltage ratings, protection of the circuit
depends on the cost of the original circuit to be protected and cost of the protection system
essential to protect the circuit. But, in case of high-cost circuits or equipment’s, it is desired
to adopt a protection system or protection circuit and controlling device or controlling
circuit to avoid economical loss and damage.
Electromechanical relays can be classified into several different types as follows:

• attracted • induction • mechanical

armature
• motor • thermal
• moving coil operated

"Armature"-type relays have a pivoted lever supported on a hinge or knife-edge pivot, which
carries a moving contact. These relays may work on either alternating or direct current, but
for alternating current, a shading coil on the pole is used to maintain contact force
throughout the alternating current cycle. Because the air gap between the fixed coil and the
moving armature becomes much smaller when the relay has operated, the current required
to maintain the relay closed is much smaller than the current to first operate it. The
"returning ratio" or "differential" is the measure of how much the current must be reduced
to reset the relay.
A variant application of the attraction principle is the plunger-type or solenoid operator.
A reed relay is another example of the attraction principle.
"Moving coil" meters use a loop of wire turns in a stationary magnet, similar to
a galvanometer but with a contact lever instead of a pointer. These can be made with very
high sensitivity. Another type of moving coil suspends the coil from two conductive
ligaments, allowing very long travel of the coil.

INDUCTION DISC OVERCURRENT RELAY

When the input current is above the current limit, the disk rotates, the contact moves left
and reaches the fixed contact. The scale above the plate indicates the delay-time.
"Induction" disk meters work by inducing currents in a disk that is free to rotate; the rotary
motion of the disk operates a contact. Induction relays require alternating current; if two or
more coils are used, they must be at the same frequency otherwise no net operating force is
produced. These electromagnetic relays use the induction principle discovered by Galileo
Ferraris in the late 19th century. The magnetic system in induction disc overcurrent relays is
designed to detect overcurrent’s in a power system and operate with a pre-determined time
delay when certain overcurrent limits have been reached. In order to operate, the magnetic
system in the relays produces torque that acts on a metal disc to make contact, according to
the following basic current/torque equation.
Where and are the two fluxes and is the phase angle between the fluxes
The following important conclusions can be drawn from the above equation.
• Two alternating fluxes with a phase shift are needed for torque production.
• Maximum torque is produced when the two alternating fluxes are 90 degrees apart.
• The resultant torque is steady and not a function of time.
The relay's primary winding is supplied from the power systems current transformer via a
plug bridge, which is called the plug setting multiplier (psm). Usually, seven equally spaced
tapping’s or operating bands determine the relays sensitivity. The primary winding is located
on the upper electromagnet. The secondary winding has connections on the upper
electromagnet that are energised from the primary winding and connected to the lower
electromagnet. Once the upper and lower electromagnets are energised, they produce eddy
currents that are induced onto the metal disc and flow through the flux paths. This
relationship of eddy currents and fluxes creates torque proportional to the input current of
the primary winding, due to the two flux paths being out of phase by 90°.
In an overcurrent condition, a value of current will be reached that overcomes the control
spring pressure on the spindle and the braking magnet, causing the metal disc to rotate
towards the fixed contact.
Providing the relay is free from dirt, the metal disc and the spindle with its contact will reach
the fixed contact, thus sending a signal to trip and isolate the circuit, within its designed
time and current specifications. Drop off current of the relay is much lower than its
operating value, and once reached the relay will be reset in a reverse motion by the
pressure of the control spring governed by the braking magnet.
STATIC RELAY
Application of electronic amplifiers to protective relays was described as early as 1928,
using vacuum tube amplifiers and continued up to 1956. Devices using electron tubes were
studied but never applied as commercial products, because of the limitations of vacuum
tube amplifiers. A relatively large standby current is required to maintain the tube filament
temperature; inconvenient high voltages are required for the circuits, and vacuum tube
amplifiers had difficulty with incorrect operation due to noise disturbances.
Static relays have no or few moving parts, and became practical with the introduction of
the transistor. Measuring elements of static relays have been successfully and economically
built up from diodes, Zener diodes, avalanche diodes, unijunction transistors, p-n-p and n-p-
n bipolar transistors, field effect transistors or their combinations. Static relays offer the
advantage of higher sensitivity than purely electromechanical relays, because power to
operate output contacts is derived from a separate supply, not from the signal circuits.
Static relays eliminated or reduced contact bounce, and could provide fast operation, long
life and low maintenance.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Input processing
Low voltage and low current signals (i.e., at the secondary of a voltage
transformers and current transformers) are brought into a low pass filter that
removes frequency content above about 1/3 of the sampling frequency (a relay A/D
converter needs to sample faster than twice per cycle of the highest frequency that it is to
monitor). The AC signal is then sampled by the relay's analog-to-digital converter from 4 to
64 (varies by relay) samples per power system cycle. As a minimum, magnitude of the
incoming quantity, commonly using Fourier transform concepts (RMS and some form of
averaging) would be used in a simple relay function. More advanced analysis can be used to
determine phase angles, power, reactive power, impedance, waveform distortion, and
other complex quantities.
Only the fundamental component is needed for most protection algorithms, unless a high-
speed algorithm is used that uses sub cycle data to monitor for fast changing issues. The
sampled data is then passed through a low pass filter that numerically removes the
frequency content that is above the fundamental frequency of interest (i.e., nominal system
frequency), and uses Fourier transform algorithms to extract the fundamental frequency
magnitude and angle.
Logic processing
The relay analyses the resultant A/D converter outputs to determine if action is required
under its protection algorithm(s). Protection algorithms are a set of logic equations in part
designed by the protection engineer, and in part designed by the relay manufacturer. The
relay is capable of applying advanced logic. It is capable of analysing whether the relay should
trip or restrain from tripping based on parameters set by the user, compared against many
functions of its analogue inputs, relay contact inputs, timing and order of event sequences.
If a fault condition is detected, output contacts operate to trip the associated circuit
breaker(s).
Parameter setting
The logic is user-configurable and can vary from simply changing front panel switches or
moving of circuit board jumpers to accessing the relay's internal parameter setting webpage
via communications link on another computer hundreds of kilometres away.
The relay may have an extensive collection of settings, beyond what can be entered via front
panel knobs and dials, and these settings are transferred to the relay via an interface with a
PC (personal computer), and this same PC interface may be used to collect event reports from
the relay.
Event recording
In some relays, a short history of the entire sampled data is kept for oscillography records.
The event recording would include some means for the user to see the timing of key logic
decisions, relay I/O (input/output) changes, and see, in an oscillography fashion, at least the
fundamental component of the incoming analogue parameters.
Data display
Digital/numerical relays provide a front panel display, or display on a terminal through a
communication interface. This is used to display relay settings and real-time current/voltage
values, etc.
Protective relays can also be classified by the type of measurement they make.  A protective
relay may respond to the magnitude of a quantity such as voltage or current. Induction relays
can respond to the product of two quantities in two field coils, which could for example
represent the power in a circuit.
"It is not practical to make a relay that develops a torque equal to the quotient of two AC
quantities. This, however is not important; the only significant condition for a relay is its
setting and the setting can be made to correspond to a ratio regardless of the component
values over a wide range.”
Several operating coils can be used to provide "bias" to the relay, allowing the sensitivity of
response in one circuit to be controlled by another. Various combinations of "operate torque"
and "restraint torque" can be produced in the relay.
Lightweight contacts make for sensitive relays that operate quickly, but small contacts can't
carry or break heavy currents. Often the measuring relay will trigger auxiliary telephone-type
armature relays.
The electromechanical relay consists of various parts such as movable armature, movable
contact & stationary contact or fixed contact, spring, electromagnet (coil), the wire wrapped
as coil with its terminals represented as ‘C’ which are connected as shown in the below figure
to form electromechanical relay.

Electromechanical Relay Construction Electromechanical Relay Working (OFF

condition)
If there is no supply given to the coil terminals, then the relay remains in the off condition as
shown in the below figure and the load connected to relay also remains turned off as
no power supply is given to load.
DISCUSSION
The protective relay functions as a detecting device, sensing the defect, determining its
position, and finally sending the tripping command to the circuit breaker. After receiving the
order from the protective relay, the circuit breaker disconnects the faulty element.
By eliminating the specifically defective part, the damage to the apparatus is reduced, as is
the risk of life, by clearing the fault quickly with the use of a fast-acting protective relay and
related circuit breaker.
However, the continuity of supply is preserved, despite the maintaining active part, because
by clearing the fault quickly, the fault arising time is decreased, and therefore the system may
be returned to a normal state sooner. As a result, the system's transient state stability limit is
substantially increased, permanent damage to the equipment is prevented, and the
probability of turning the simplest fault, such as single phase-to-ground, into the most serious
fault is greatly reduced.
Digital protection relays are a revolution step in changing relay technology. The great majority
of feeder relays in new applications today are digital. Digital relay introduces Analogue to
Digital converter (A/D conversion) of all measured analogue quantities and use a
microprocessor to implement the protection algorithm. The microprocessor used in Digital
Relay have limited processing capacity and memory.
In addition, protective relays can provide information on the locations and types of failures
that occurs this information not only help with equipment repair but also provided the means
for analyzing the effectiveness of the protection scheme. The type and location of the
instrument transform which part is to be tripped by the Protective Relay when it operates.
The digital relays consist of:
1. Analogue input subsystem
2. Digital input subsystem
3. Digital output subsystem
4. Main memory
5. A processor with RAM
6. Power supply
Digital relay involves digital processing of one or more analog signal in three steps:
1) Conversion of analogue signal to digital form.
2) Processing of digital form.
3) Boolean decision to trip or not to trip.

CONCLUSION
Digital protective relay is placed on the system to avoiding equipment from damage and
limiting it to the single component that may be in trouble. The relays quickly locate the fault
and trip circuit breakers and will interrupt the flow of current into the defective component.
Easy to say, this protective relay is a device designed to trip a circuit breaker when a fault is
detected. Digital relays offer much better accuracy and timing characteristics, compared
with E/M and static relays. They also provide much better visibility into what signal relay is
responding to, what relay is measuring and all sequential digital indications about elements
operation from pre-fault to post-fault.
REFERENCES
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