DENTAL MATERIAL 302

CHAPTER SEVEN
DENTAL AMALGAM
BY
DR: MOHAMED MESAED
MOBILE: 01007060099
YEAR: 2022

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 Amalgam
- Definition of dental amalgam: - Direct metallic posterior restoration or filling material widely used
- What is the difference between amalgam, dental amalgam alloy and dental amalgam?
1- Amalgam: - It is any metal or alloy mixed with any mercury.
2- Dental amalgam alloy: - Special dental alloy or metals of (Ag – Sn – Cu – Zn) and may contain other minor metals
3- Dental amalgam: - Special alloy or metals (Ag – Sn – Cu – Zn) mixed with special mercury (Pure Hg)
- N.B: Mercury used with dental amalgam is triple distilled (Pure Hg)
- Uses of dental amalgam:
1. Posterior restoration for class I & II & V. 2. Palatal pits and cusp rebuilding
3. Retrograde material (History) replaced by MTA 4. Core builds up (Post and core in endodontic treated tooth)
- Advantages of amalgam:
1- Ease to use or insert or manipulated (Not technique sensitive). 2- High or adequate compressive strength
3– Decreasing marginal leakage 4- High durability or long serviceability (Longevity).
5– Adequate wear or abrasion resistance 6– Cost effectiveness (Low cost).
- Disadvantage of amalgam:
1- Metallic silver dark color (None esthetics – limited posterior). 2– Suffer from creep
3– Corrosion & galvanism. 4- Good thermal conductor Brittle (Low toughness)
5– Marginal ditching or breakdown (V notch). 6– Not bond chemical to tooth (Macro mechanical or mechanical)
- Composition of amalgam:
- Powder or alloy: Ag – Sn – Cu – Zn - Liquid: Hg - Mode of supply: A. Powder and liquid ratio B. Capsules
- Role of constituent element:
Properties 1. Silver (Ag) 2. Tin (Sn) 3. Copper (Cu) 4. Zinc (Zn) 5. Mercury (Hg)
Strength & hardness Increase Decrease Increase Increase Decrease
Tarnish & corrosion resistance Increase Decrease Increase - Decrease
Creep Decrease Increase Decrease Decrease Increase
Setting expansion Increase Decrease Increase Contaminated water Increase
Setting time Decrease Decrease - - Increase
Intermetallic alloy (Ag3Sn) (ɤ) Done Done - - -
Reactivity with mercury High Very high - - -
Scavenger & deoxidizer - - - Manufacturing -
Improve workability & plasticity Manipulation Give plastic mass
- Silver and tin make special alloy called intermetallic alloy (Ag 3Sn) (ɤ) (increase strength) (Main composition Ag3Sn or ɤ)
- We must add tin to amalgam because facilitates amalgamation reaction due to high affinity to mercury (Hg)
- Sn & Hg is weak element but is essential for mix of amalgam because responsible for amalgamation reaction and give plastic
mass ready to be condensed in cavity
- N.B: Recently add palladium (Pd) (0.05%) & indium (In) (4%) (enhance mechanical properties & decrease T/C)

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 - Manufacturing of alloy powder of amalgam:
A- Ingot production: - First melt alloy powder element together then poured molten metals into mold to produce ingot (alloy)
- Cooling slowly until or below 480°c when % silver (73- 74%) & tin (27- 26%) then quenched in water (Rapid cooling)
- This will produce solid structure (Rod) and permits formation of intermetallic compound or alloy (Ag 3Sn) (ɤ) which will lead
to increase in strength of amalgam
- N.B: If Sn below 26% Beta solid solution alloy decrease strength and if more 30% all bad effect of Sn
C- Powder production by manufacture:
1. Lath cutting or ball milling (Irregular large or coarse). 2. Spherical and spheroidal or fine (regular shape)
- Classification of amalgam:
1. S.N: According to copper content (Most important classification):
A. Low Cu amalgam other names (Conventional – traditional – classical – lath cut) (< 6% Cu)
B. High Cu amalgam two types (Admixed – unicomposition) (> 6%)
2. According to particle shape:
A. Lath cut irregular particles. B. Spheroidal regular particles. C. Spherical regular particles. D. Admixed (Blended two types)
3. According to Zn content: A. Zinc containing amalgam (> 0.01 %) B. Zinc free amalgam (< 0.01 %)
4. According to particle size: A. Fine particles 15 – 35 µ B. Coarse particles 100 – 200 µ
- Amalgamation setting reaction:
 Wetting: mercury wets surface of γ-Ag3Sn particles.  Diffusion: mercury diffuses into alloy particles.
 Surface reaction: A surface chemical reaction occurs during which two new phases are formed (ɤ1) & (ɤ2)

1- Types of amalgam according to Cu content or percentage:

1. Low Cu amalgam: - Copper content: (< 6%) - Another names: (Conventional – traditional – classical)
- Alloy used: Ag3Sn (ɤ) intermetallic compound or alloy conventional lath cut
- S.N: Formula of reaction or amalgamation reaction or setting of reaction of low Cu amalgam:
- Ag3Sn (ɤ) + Hg Unreacted Ag 3Sn (ɤ) (27%) + Ag2Hg3 (ɤ1) + Sn7-8Hg (ɤ2) + Voids
- Or: Ag Sn + Hg Unreacted Ag Sn (27%) + Ag Hg + Sn Hg + Voids
- Or: ɤ + Hg Unreacted ɤ + ɤ 1 + ɤ2 + voids
- N.B: 27 % unreacted gamma to give amalgam strength because gamma is most strength phase of amalgam
- S.N: Microstructure (Under microscope) of low Cu amalgam: - Core: Unreacted ɤ or ɤ - Matrix: ɤ1 + ɤ2

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- N.B: ɤ2 consist of Sn Hg (Weak element) so the least desirable phase & the most weak part & corrodible phase in
amalgam [The most weak phase in amalgam is (ɤ2)] and high Hg content
- Properties of low cu amalgam: - Low strength & hardness -Low T/C resistance - Low creep resistance - High setting expansion
2. High Cu amalgam or ɤ2 free dental amalgam: - Copper content: (> 6%)
A. Admixed high Cu amalgam: - Copper content: (> 6%) up to 20%
- Alloy used: 2/3 Ag3Sn (ɤ) lath cut + 1/3 eutectic alloy spherical Ag Cu (Ag3Sn + Ag Cu)
- S.N: Formula of reaction or amalgamation reaction or setting of reaction of admixed high Cu amalgam:
- Ag3Sn (ɤ) + Ag Cu + Hg Unreacted Ag 3Sn (ɤ) + Ag2Hg3 (ɤ1) + Sn7-8Hg (ɤ2) + unreacted Ag Cu (100%)
- Or: Ag Sn + Ag Cu + Hg Unreacted Ag Sn + Ag Hg + Sn Hg + unreacted Ag Cu (100%)
- Or: ɤ + Ag Cu + Hg Unreacted ɤ + ɤ 1 + ɤ2 + unreacted Ag Cu (100%)
- N.B: Why mercury does not react with Ag Cu and react with Ag3Sn first? 50 geneh
- Ag Cu (Eutectic alloy) + Sn7-8Hg (ɤ2) Cu6Sn5 (ή) + Ag2Hg3 (ɤ1) + unreacted Ag Cu + Voids
- Or: Ag Cu + Sn Hg Cu Sn + Ag Hg + unreacted Ag Cu (Eutectic alloy) + Voids
- Or: Ag Cu + (ɤ2) ή + ɤ 1 + unreacted Ag Cu + Voids
- So ɤ2 eliminated by Ag Cu (Eutectic alloy)
- S.N: Microstructure (Under microscope) of admixed high Cu amalgam:
- Core: Unreacted ɤ or ɤ + Ag Cu + ή (Halos – helical – circles – ring). - Matrix: ɤ 1

- Properties of admixed high Cu amalgam:

- Intermediate or moderate strength and hardness &mechanical properties & creep resistance & tarnish and corrosion resistance
- Defects or drawbacks of admixed high Cu amalgam:
- Ag Cu (Eutectic alloy) high density will precipitate or sedimentation (No particles distribution) at bottom
- During proportion of Ag Cu oxidation may occur & form oxide layer on surface called (Skin oxide layer) or (Dry corrosion)
B. Unicompositional or single composition high copper amalgam: - Copper content: (> 6%) up to (13-30%)
- Alloy used: Spherical particles of alloy is [Ag3sn – Cu3sn] also called ɤ
- S.N: Formula of reaction or amalgamation reaction or setting of reaction of unicomposition high Cu amalgam:
- [Ag3Sn (ɤ) + Cu3Sn (ϵ)] + Hg Unreacted [Ag 3Sn (ɤ) + Cu3Sn (ϵ)] + Ag2Hg3 (ɤ1) + Cu6Sn5 (ή) + Voids
- [ɤ + ϵ] + Hg Unreacted [ɤ + ϵ] + ɤ 1 + ή + Voids
- Microstructure (Under microscope) of unicomposition:
- Core: Unreacted [Ag3Sn (ɤ) + Cu3Sn (ϵ)] or ɤ - Matrix: ɤ 1 + ή (In form of pins or rods or needle)

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- Properties of unicomposition high Cu amalgam: - The most highest compressive strength and hardness & mechanical
properties & creep resistance & tarnish and corrosion resistance
- G.R: Unicomposition is the most strength amalgam? Or unicomposition dental amalgam has the highest creep
resistance? - Because eta phase like needle or rod structure embedded with ɤ 1 which limits its dislocation (decrease creep) and
increase strength effectively
- N.B: Phases of amalgam:
- According to strength descending order: - Most strength phase is Gamma (ɤ) – gamma one (ɤ1) – Eutectic alloy (Ag Cu) –
Epsilon (ϵ) – Eta (ή) – ɤ2 (Most weak phase) (Descending order)
- According to tarnish and corrosion resistance descending order: - Most resist phase is Gamma (ɤ) – gamma one (ɤ1) –
Eutectic alloy (Ag Cu) – Epsilon (ϵ) – Eta (ή) – ɤ2 (Most weak phase) (Descending order)
- N.B: Pure gamma one is the best in resistance to T/C
2- According to particle shape:
1. Lathe cut:
1-↑Surface area due to irregular shape → ↑Needed Hg for wetting → Excess Hg →↑ γ 1 &↑ γ 2 in low cupper amalgam &↓ γ
- ↑ Setting exp. - ↑ Setting time - ↑ T & Cr. - ↑ Creep - ↓ Strength.
2- ↑ Friction between particles → ↑ Needs condensation pressure → more voids and ↓ Density of restoration
2. Spherical (The best one if spheroidal is not in choice):
1-↓ Surface area → ↓ Hg 2- ↓ Friction → ↓ condensation pressure → ↑ Density
3- Fast setting 4- high early strength 5- Smoother surface during carving and finishing
- Disadvantages: ↑ Setting contraction → Large marginal gap
3. Mixed type particles: lathe cut & spherical particles (utilize positive characteristics of both) (Problems of admixed)
4. Spheroidal particles: Characteristics are same to mixed type (The best one but very difficult to manufacture)
- G.R: Spherical is best one or type of amalgam particles? Or spherical particles of amalgam are best one? - Because have
low surface area so need the least amount of mercury
- G.R: Spherical particles have highest strength or highest flexural strength or highest tarnish and corrosion resistance?
- Because have low surface area so need the least amount of mercury
- G.R: Lath cut amalgam has lower strength than spherical cut amalgam? – due to need more Hg will decrease strength
3- According to particle size:
1. Fine – cut (small particle size) (15-35μ). 2. Coarse – cut (large particle size): (100-200 μ).
1. Fine size amalgam is characterized by (15-35μ):
1- High reaction rate with mercury (smaller particles has high surface energy & More rapidly developed hardness)
2- greater early strength (matrix phase that hold the mass to gather produced faster)

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3- greater strength in general (less Hg is need for the reaction)
4- Adapt better to prepared cavity. 5- Produce smoother surface during carving and finishing.
- N.B: Very fine particles less than 3μ:
1- ↑ total surface area → ↑ mercury to complete wetting of the alloy particles.
2- ↑mercury content →↓ γ ↑ g1 and γ 2 ↑ T & Cr. ↑ Creep. ↓ Strength.
2. Coarse – cut (100-200 μ)
1-Difficult in amalgamations low reactivity of the coarse particles.
2-inferior properties as they react with more Hg. 3-Produce a rough surface → increase corrosion
- Properties of dental amalgam in general:
1. S.N: Dimensional changes in amalgam during setting:
A. Immediate dimensional changes: - Happen between 5 min to 24 hours after beginning of trituration
- It should be ± 20µm/cm and this allowed by ADA
- During reaction (Contraction). - After precipitation of phases (Expansion) - The net result is contraction (8 µm/cm)
- N.B: Low Cu produce expansion because high Hg but high Cu produce contraction because low Hg
B. S.N: Delayed dimensional changes or delayed expansion or secondary expansion in amalgam: - Problem appears after 2 -
3 days due to moisture contamination with zinc (Zinc containing amalgam) (> 0.01%) (Happen during condensation of
amalgam) (400 µm for every Cm and maximum allowed is 20 µm) lead to:
1- Porous amalgam (Incorporation of droplet lead to inferior mechanical properties)
2. Produces severe pain to patient due to evolution or formation of hydrogen gas which form air bubbles inside restoration
- The formula of reaction of delayed expansion: - Zn + H2O ZnO+ H2 (Air bubbles – severe pain)
- G.R: Zinc containing amalgam is contraindicated at or with moisture contamination or child or pediatric clinic or
stressed patient or psychiatric patient or psychosis patient or mangalion patient or class V? Or moisture contamination
should be avoided with Zn-containing amalgam? - To avoid secondary or delayed expansion
- Zn + H2O ZnO+ H2 (Air bubbles – severe pain)
- How to avoid delayed expansion?
1. Complete or perfect isolation which can be done with rubber dam 2. If I cannot isolate use zinc free amalgam
- Site of air bubbles:
A- If air bubbles on occlusal surface will lead to (Protrusion or extrude – marginal overhang –Small fracture – marginal
ditching – food accumulation - discoloration – recurrent caries – corrosion – gingival inflammation) called (Blister or blistering)
B- If air bubbles on pulpal floor will lead to severe pain or sensation
2. Strength of amalgam:
- Amalgam is brittle material (High compressive and low tensile) - We can increase strength of amalgam by:
1. Convergence of walls enhance crack healing
2. Roundation of line angles or any high spots to avoid any tension and stress distrubtion 3. Used with rigid base like ZPC
4. Instruct patient do not eat or early bite for first 1 hours because one-hour compressive strength is more important than the final
strength (Amalgam compressive strength should at least 80% or Mn/m 2 after one hour)
3- Thermal properties:

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- G.R. Dental amalgam should preceded by insulating base in deep cavities? - To avoid or protect pulp from thermal shock.
- N.B: Young’s modulus of High Cu amalgam is higher than Low Cu amalgam.
- G.R: Dental amalgam should be preceded by rigid base like zinc phosphate cement (ZPC) even in medium cavity? - To
resist or decrease bending and tensile strength at the base of amalgam
- G.R. Dental amalgam should be preceded by insulating rigid base like ZPC in deep cavities? - To avoid or protect pulp
from thermal shock and decrease bending & tensile strength
4. Tarnish and corrosion of dental amalgam:
- Corrosion: Is the destruction of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction.
- G.R: All types of dental amalgam undergo tarnish and corrosion? Or amalgam corrosion can be minimized but cannot
be inhibited in amalgam? - Because its heterogonous structure (Multiple phase)
- Corrosion leads to: Increased porosity – marginal breakdown (Ditching) or reduce marginal integrity – Loss of strength
– release of metallic products in oral cavity (Metallic taste)
- Corrosion can be increased by: - Increase Hg, Sn and ɤ2
- Corrosion can be minimized by: - Decrease Hg, Sn and ɤ2
- Select of high Cu alloy (First unicomposition then admixed)
- Low Hg proportioning - Remove any excess mercury during manipulation
- Final restoration should be polished and be smooth and have lustrous or luster appearance
- G.R: Any amalgam restoration or any metallic restoration should be smooth and polished or luster in oral cavity? Or
avoid deep carving in amalgam restoration? - To avoid tarnish and corrosion
- Most corrodible phase is ɤ2 or The most phase liable to corrosion is ɤ2
- Least corrodible phase is ɤ
- G.R: Margin of dental amalgam improves by time? Or amalgam is self-sealing material or restoration? Or amalgam has
marginal self-seal property? Or marginal seal or gap or leakage of dental amalgam improves by time? - Due to formation or
production of corrosion products and deposition of it on the margins (Closing margins) (Benefit of corrosion)
- G.R: Tarnish and corrosion is double edge weapon or advantage and disadvantage? - Due to formation of corrosion
products closing margin but also lead to toxicity and decrease strength which lead to fracture
- N.B. The marginal gap should be less than 50μ (microns). Otherwise, recurrent caries will occur around the restoration.
5. Creep and flow:
- Flow: is a time dependent plastic deformation before complete setting of the material.
- Creep: is a time dependent plastic deformation after complete setting of the material below proportional limit
- G.R: Although amalgam is brittle material it undergoes plastic deformation? Or All types of dental amalgam undergo
creep? Or Creep can be minimized but cannot be inhibited in amalgam? Or Creep can never be avoided even in most
recent types of dental amalgam? - Because it is viscoelastic material
- Mercury containing phase (γ2 - γ1) represent viscous portion and mercury free phase (ɤ + ή) represent elastic portion
- Effects or clinical signs or clinical sequences or symptoms and signs of creep on amalgam:
1. Over hanged margin or restorations 2. Flatting of contact areas
3. Marginal ditching or breakdown - V-shape - food stagnation - Recurrent caries - pulp exposure - periodontal pocket (Gingivitis)

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- N.B: Creep can be minimized by:
- Using high Cu amalgam free from ɤ2 phase (Use unicomposition or admixed)
- Adequate proportioning of Hg during manipulation and try to remove excess mercury
- Decrease Hg, Sn and ɤ2 - N.B: Maximum creep allowed is 3% after seven days
6. Bonding:
- Mechanical bond with tooth structure (Mechanical interlocking or Macro-mechanical interlocking)
7- Mercury toxicity:
- Generally amalgam fillings cause little damage to patients.
- Most serious hazard is from long-term exposure of dentist and assistants to mercury vapor.
- Mercury vapor absorption occurs through lungs (about 80%)
- Two of the primary organs may affected the central nervous system and kidneys.
- Use of pre-capsulated amalgam limits possibility of its inhalation.
8- Biological aspect of dental amalgam:
1- Mercury toxicity. 2- Thermal irritation 3- Corrosion
:Trituration (Mixing of amalgam) (Vigorous mixing) -9
:Aim of trituration -
Overcome the high surface tension of Hg (Main role) -
:Duration of trituration -
Following manufacture instruction leads to optimal mix or normal mix (Mix is shiny – single mass) -
Reducing 2 or 3 second will lead to under-trituration (Mix is dry – crumbly – friable) -
Increasing 2 or 3 second will lead to over-trituration (Mix is sticky – very shiny – soupy) -
:Proper proportioning should be maintained .10
.Excess Hg: →↑ γ 1 &↑ γ 2 &↓ γ - ↑ Setting exp.- ↑ Setting time - ↑ T & Cr.- ↑ Creep - ↓ Strength -
- Less Hg: → ↓ Wetting of Hg to powder → Friable mix -↑ Voids - ↑ T & Cr.
11- Types or techniques of trituration (Alloy/Hg ratio):
1. Wet technique or mix: - Mode of supply: Powder/liquid ratio
- Alloy/Hg ratio is 5/7 or 5/8 excess mercury to make manual mix easier (Excess Hg is removed from mix by squeezing it by
cloth or gauze before condensation)
- Other names: Jorgensen's technique – manual technique – mortar and pestle – hand mixing technique
2. Dry technique or mix: - Mode of supply: capsules pre-proportioning - Alloy/Hg ratio is 5/5 or 7/7 or 1/1
- Other names: Minimal technique – mechanical technique – amalgamator – Eam's technique - auto mix
- Mechanical mixing is preferred:
1. Uniform and reproducible mix. 2. Shorter time. 3. Low Hg/Alloy ratio. 4. Less risk of exposure to Hg vapor
- N.B: Rubbed between the finger (mulling) produces a more homogeneous and plastic smooth mix.
12. Condensation of amalgam
- Packing of amalgam into the prepared cavity using condenser.
- Aims:

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1. ↑ Adaptation of amalgam to cavity wall. 2. ↓Hg content of the condensed mass 3. ↓Porosity→ ↑ Density → ↑ strength.
- N.B: The amount of mercury in final restoration determine in this stage

- N.B: Delayed condensation leads to:(amalgam partially set before being transferred to the prepared cavity):
1. Breaking down of formed matrix → ↓ Strength. 2. ↑ Hg content (partially set mass will be containing excess mercury.
3. ↓ Adaptation. (reduction of plasticity of the amalgam). 4. ↑ Porosity 5. ↑ Creep.
6. ↓ Corrosion resistance. 7. bonding between increment become poor
- N.B: Amalgam should not be used after 3 minute of trituration
13. Carving
- Amalgam carved to give proper tooth anatomy and remove excess Hg usually after 5 minute
Carving should be done in the direction from tooth to the restoration to avoid ditching
- What happen if Carving of amalgam should from restoration toward tooth? - Fracture of the cusp or the margin