Undeformed Pre-Columbian Crania from the
North Sierra of Peru’
MARY FRANCES ERICKSEN
Santiago, Chile
Although Indian skeletal material from
Peru is very plentiful in local and foreign
museums, most of the collections came
from the Coast and most are not specifi-
cally documented as to archeological hori-
zon. The crania reported on here are the
first samples to be described from the
North Sierra. Moreover they represent two
known periods of aboriginal occupancy,
and therefore provide a skeletal sequence
from a single area. Such sequences have
not been hitherto studied in Peru, or for
that matter any place in western South
America. These circumstances provide a n
unusual opportunity to add substantially
to our knowledge of the aboriginal racial
history of Peru.
MATERIALS A N D METHODS
The 30 Peruvian Indian crania forming
the basis of the present report are from
the District of San Pablo, Department of
Cajamarca, in the North Sierra. They con-
stitute a rarity, as all the cranial samples
published upon thus far have come from
the South-Central and Southern Sierra.
Eight male and six female skulls are from
the site of Los Corredores de 10s Maqui-
Maquis, 6 km northeast of the town of
San Pablo. Skeletal remains are found in
chullpas and in caves in the sides of a
deep canyon, some of the chullpas stand-
ing within the burial caverns; the material
studied here was collected from the bone
heaps in the caves. In the Reichlens’ (’49)
classification, the pottery collected in these
caves corresponds to either Cajamarca I
or 11. Six male and ten female skulls are
from the site of Rumi-Lanchi, 2 km north-
west of San Pablo. The Rumi-Lanchi
skulls came from multiple burials in rock
tombs topped by large flat stones; these
tombs are reported to have contained more
skulls than would account for the long
bones present. Pottery from the tombs
shows a strong coastal influence and is
most similar to the Reichlens’ Cajamarca
IV or later. It probably dates to the period
of Tiahuanaco and later Chimh expan-
sion. Translated into other terms, Caja-
marca 1-11 represents the Cursive style
of Kroeber and appears to be Regional De-
velopmental, perhaps 0-100 A.D., where-
as Cajamarca IV can be dated to about
1000-1200 A.D. or later. The Maqui-
Maquis and Rumi-Lanchi materials were
collected during a reconnaissance expedi-
tion sent to the San Pablo area in 1946 by
the late Julio C. TelIo, then Director of the
Museo Nacional de Antropologia y Arqueo-
logia (Mejia, ’48, p. 48).
It is important to note than San Pablo
lies on a tributary of the Rio Jequetepeque,
whose valley provides reasonably easy
communications today from the Coast to
the Cajamarca basin and thence to the
Selva. This river valley was probably as
important a means of travel in prehistoric
times as it is today. In addition the North
Peruvian Andes are much lower and less
rugged than in the South. The resulting
ease of communication between Coast,
Sierra, and Selva may be reflected in the
culture and racial history of the Caja-
marca area.
Sex determination on the skulls was
checked twice, but in the absence of post-
cranial skeletons there is doubtless some
error in sexing. Age was judged by tooth
eruption and exocranial suture closure.
By far the majority were classed as “young
adult” and only 4 of the 30 skulls showed
sufficiently advanced suture closure to be
1This is one of a series of studies carried out in
the Museo NacionaI de Antropologla y Arqueologfa
in Lima, Peru, from August 1949 to July 1952. An
extended version of this report was submitted to
Columbia University in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the M.A. degree.
209
210 MARY FRANCES ERICKSEN
considered middle-aged. One female skull
from Rumi-Lanchi shows a slight flatten-
ing of the left parietotemporal area; all
others are undeformed.
Morphological observations were made
on the basis of my own judgement of the
nature of the categories. Accordingly they
are quite arbitrary, and are only used
here to afford a comparison of the modes
of the Maqui-Maquis and Rumi-Lanchi
samples (table 2) and a more general
comparison of these modes with the ob-
servations of others. Mandibles were too
few to merit either morphological or metric
treatment.
Cranial measurements were taken as
indicated in table 1. Cranial capacities
were measured by lightly packing the
skulls with quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa)
seed and then measuring the seed in a
graduated cylinder.
Student's t was used to estimate the
significance of the differences between the
means. In cases of widely differing vari-
ances, the F, test was applied to deter-
mine the allowable degrees of freedom
(Walker and Lev, '53, pp. 155-158, 192-
193). Mean differences significant at the
5% and the 10% level are indicated in
TABLE 1
Definitions of cranial measurements
Measurement
Glabello-occipital length
Maximum breadth
Basion-bregma height
Minimum frontal breadth
Total facial breadth
Total facial height
Upper facial height
Midfacial breadth
Nasal height
Nasal breadth
Interorbital width
Subtense to interorbital width
Left orbital height
Left orbital breadth
Left dacryal orbital breadth
Biorbital breadth
Length of cranial base
Length of facial base
Subnasion-basion length
External maxillary length
External maxillary breadth
Horizontal circumference
Sagittal arc
Transverse arc
1 Abbreviations for instruments used: SIC - sliding caliper; SPC - spreading caliper; T - steel tape.
tables 3 and 4. The small numbers of
skulls in the two North Sierra samples did
not appear to justify the use of T - the
sum of the t s - as a single figure meas-
ure of biological distance. Instead this
measure is provided by the percentage of
mean differences significant at the 5%
and 10% levels.
MORPHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
Table 2 presents the modal character-
istics of the Maqui-Maquis and Rumi-
Lanchi samples where these modes in-
clude over 50% of the skulls. As a whole
the Cajamarca skulls are characterized
by high sagittal elevation, flat temporals,
flattened lambdoid region, low pinched
and rather smooth occiput, and concavo-
convex nasal profile (see plates 1 and 2).
Areas of muscle attachment are not
strongly developed, and the skulls appear
angular but rather gracile. Skull contour
from norma verticalis is in most cases a
long ellipse in both samples, the gradually
narrowing frontal matched by the elon-
gated occiput. In the Rumi-Lanchi fe-
males, the higher frequency of prominent
parietal bosses makes for ovoid contours.
Definition and instrument'
Glabella - opisthocranion (midline), SpC
Euryon - euryon, SpC
Basion - bregma, SpC
Frontotemporale - frontotemporale, SpC
Zygion - zygion, SpC
Nasion - gnathion, SIC
Nasion - alveolar point, S1C
Zygoma:-willare inferior -zygomaxillare inferior, SIC
Nasion - nasospinale, S1C
Max. diameter nasal aperture, SIC
Frontomalare orbitale - frontomalare orbitale, S1C
Subtense to nasion from frontomalare orbitale,
SlC, T
Perpendicular to breadth, S1C
Maxillofrontale - ectoconchion, SIC
Dacryon - ectoconchion, SIC
Ectoconchion - ectoconchion, SIC
Nasion - basion, SpC
Basion - prosthion, S1C
Subnasion - basion, SpC
Prosthion - alveolon, SIC
Ectomolare - ectomolare, SIC
Maximum circumference avoiding brow ridges, T
Nasion - opisthion (midline), T
Porion - bregma - porion, T
 PRE-COLUMBIAN CRANIA FROM PERU 21 1
TABLE 2
M o d a l characteristics of Cajamarca crania
~~

Maqui-maquis Rumi-lanchi
Characteristic
Males Females Males Females

Vault form ellipsoid ellipsoid ellipsoid ellipsoid

Brow ridges continuous continuous median
Glabella slight slight absent
Forehead height low medium high medium
Forehead slope s1.-med. slight slight slight
Postorbital const. pron. pron. pron. pron.
Frontal bosses slight s1.-med. s1.-med. large
Sagittal elev. large large large medium
Parietal bosses s1.-med. s1.-med. medium medium
Temporal fullness absent absent absent-sl.
Mastoid processes large medium large slight
Sphenoid depression large large large large
Occipital curve low low low low
Occ. curve degree pron. pron. pron. pron.
Occipital form pinched pinched pinched or bun pinched
Lambdoid flattening pron. pron. pron. pron.
Glenoid fossae sh.-med. shallow shallow shallow
Tympanic plates thin thin thin-med. thin
Auditory meatus round or oval round ova1 oval
Orbit shape oblong or square oblong oblong
Orbit inclination slight slight slight slight
Lat. malar proj. pron. med.-pron. pron. pron.
Ant. malar proj. pron. pron. pron. pron.
Nasion elevation no dep .-high high n o dep. high
Nasal profile concavo-convex concavo-convex concavo-convex concavo-convex
Nasal sills dull medium dull medium
Alveolar prog. medium medium s1.-med. s1.-med.
Midfacial prog. absent absent absent absent
Total prognathism slight sl .-med. slight slight
Palate shape parabola ellipse ellipse parabola or ellipse
Palate height low-med. low low low

Of the morphological characters con- Osteoporosis of the occiput and poste-

sidered typical of American Indians by
Newman ('47, p. 17), the two Cajamarca
samples share in the following: pro-
nounced postorbital constriction and sphen-
oid depression, small frontal bosses (ex-
cepting the Rumi-Lanchi females), shallow
suborbital fossae, and pronounced ante-
rior and lateral malar projection. The
high incidence of elliptical palates and
thin tympanic plates in samples from the
Central Peruvian Coast was considered
unusual for American Indians by New-
man. In the Cajamarca samples, all but
the Maqui-Maquis male sample have at
least 50% elliptical palates. Thin tym-
panic plates are also in the majority.
While alveolar prognathism is typical in
the Cajamarca samples, facial prognathism
seems to be low, and this observation is
borne out by the frankly orthognathous
mean gnathic index of the Maqui-Maquis
males.
rior portions of the parietals is common in
the Cajamarca samples. But aside from
the osteoporosis and rare injuries such as
nasal fractures and depressed vault frac-
tures, other cranial pathology is almost
wholly confined to the dental complex.
Apical abcesses are fairly frequent in the
Maqui-Maquis and Rumi-Lanchi samples,
with males showing a considerably higher
incidence than females.
METRIC DATA
The mean measurements of the Maqui-
Maquis and Rumi-Lanchi samples are
compared in tables 3 and 4 by means of
t. The only mean difference significant at
the < 10% level and consistent in both
sexes is in the cranial index. The earlier
Maqui-Maquis sample is more dolicho-
cranic by 2.9 to 3.7 index units, due in
large part to great mean head lengths. In
the females the difference in head length
212 MARY FRANCES ERICKSEN

is significant at the < 10% level, although
it is less significant in the males due to the
high variability in the Rumi-Lanchi
sample.
Except for the cranial index the Maqui-
Maquis and Rumi-Lanchi samples appear
to be very similar. The males show only
three mean differences significant at the
< 5% level, while the females show none
at all. Several other possibly significant dif-
ferences may be- masked by the high vari-
abilities common in small samples. Two
additional factors bearing upon the higher
variabilities of the later Rumi-Lanchi sam-
ple are: (1) the possibility of Coastal ad-
mixture, strongly suggested by the ceramic
styles; and ( 2 ) the chance that the greater
frequency of skulls than skeletons in the
stone tombs indicates the presence of more
than one status group.
In any case it seems likely that the two
Caj amarca samples represent a population
continuity, with modifications through
time and outside admixture on the part of
the Rumi-Lanchi sample. Whether the
shift in central tendency from dolicho-
crany to mesocrany represents the evolu-
tionary brachycephalization summarized
for the New World by Newman ('61), or
is attributable to the presence of admix-
ture with Coastal brachychycephals cannot
be settled here. It is, however, worth

TABLE 3
Measurements, indices, and statistical comparison Maqui-Maquis - Rumi-Lanchi
Males
Maqui-Maquis Rumi-Lanchi
Measurement
No. Mean S.D. No. Mean S.D. t
Head length 8 182.38 4.07 6 177.67 9.37 1.15
Head breadth 8 135.38 3.11 6 137.00 4.38 0.81
Head height 8 131.00 5.37 6 134.17 7.17 0.95
Minimum frontal br. 8 94.13 3.12 6 92.50 3.17 0.98
Total facial br. 5 137.80 6.14 3 131.33 4.93 1.54
Total facial ht. 3 116.00 4.58 1 105.00 - -
Upper facial ht. 6 68.17 0.98 5 66.20 3.70 1.16
Midfacial breadth 7 99.71 5.02 4 96.00 4.97 1.18
Nasal height 8 48.75 1.03 5 46.80 3.11 1.35
Nasal breadth 8 24.13 2.10 5 23.20 1.30 0.88
Interorbital width 8 97.00 4.93 5 95.40 1.14 0.88
Subtense to IOW 8 19.50 2.07 4 15.50 2.38 3.011
L. orbital ht. 8 34.50 2.00 6 34.17 1.60 0.33
L. orbital br. ( M ) 8 40.13 2.15 6 40.50 1.87 0.34
L. orbital br. (D) 8 39.63 2.00 6 39.17 1.72 0.45
Biorbital breadth 8 97.75 4.71 5 95.80 1.79 1.06
Nasion-basion 8 98.00 3.02 6 95.33 4.41 1.35
Basion-prosthion 6 96.67 3.50 5 95.40 4.93 0.50
Subnasion-basion 8 88.63 5.58 5 88.60 4.77 0.01
Maxillary length 6 53.67 2.16 5 52.60 3.29 0.65
Maxillary breadth 8 63.00 2.67 5 59.60 3.97 1.869
Cranial capacity (cma1 4 1357.50 100.10 6 1291.67 160.56 0.72
Circumference 8 512.50 8.40 6 508.83 16.40 0.55
Sagittal arc 8 370.62 10.50 6 368.83 19.35 0.22
Transverse arc 8 301.50 8.85 6 311.17 11.86 1.75
Cranial index 8 74.26 2.42 6 77.20 2.54 2.201
Length-height index a 71.84 2.93 6 75.54 2.32 2.541
Breadth-height index 8 96.82 4.75 6 97.91 3.60 0.47
Mean height index 8 81.65 5.13 6 85.26 2.49 1.58
Total facial index 3 84.34 7.52 1 81.40 - -
Upper facial index 3 49.90 3.46 3 50.04 3.44 0.05
Orbital index ( D ) 8 87.11 3.87 6 87.27 3.09 0.08
Nasal index 8 49.51 4.49 5 49.81 5.19 0.11
Maxillo-alveolar 6 117.75 4.94 5 113.32 3.58 1.67
Gnathic index 6 97.82 3.96 5 99.30 6.39 0.50
Cranial module 8 149.58 2.58 6 149.61 6.30 0.01
1 Significant at 5% level.
,Significant a t 10% level.
 PRE-COLUMBIAN CRANIA FROM PERU 213
TABLE 4
Measurements, indices, and statistical comparison Maqui-Maquis- Rumi-Lanchi
Females
Maqui-Maquis Rumi-Lanchi
Measurement t
No. Mean S.D. No. Mean S.D.

Head length 6 175.17 3.60 10 169.20 6.65 2.01'

Head breadth 6 130.00 4.05 10 131.80 3.61 0.92
Head height 6 126.00 5.06 10 124.70 3.33 0.62
Minimum frontal br. 6 88.67 2.50 10 87.70 3.86 0.55
Total facial br. 5 124.60 2.51 8 123.50 3.89 0.56
Upper facial height 6 62.17 2.93 9 63.44 3.13 0.79
Midfacial breadth 5 94.00 5.79 8 89.50 3.34 1.80'
Nasal height 6 44.83 2.32 10 45.80 2.39 0.79
Nasal breadth 6 23.00 1.55 10 22.50 1.27 0.70
Interorbital width 6 91.83 3.66 9 90.00 4.27 0.86
Subtense to IOW 6 16.17 1.94 9 16.22 2.05 0.05
L. orbital ht. 6 33.33 1.63 10 33.10 1.40 0.29
L. orbital br. (M) 6 38.33 2.66 10 37.20 2.25 0.91
L. orbital br. ( D ) 6 37.33 2.25 10 36.70 1.95 0.59
Biorbital breadth 6 93.33 3.67 9 90.44 3.84 1.45
Nasion-basion 6 92.33 2.80 10 91.70 3.02 0.41
Basion-prosthion 6 90.50 3.02 9 89.56 2.70 0.63
Subnasion-basion 6 84.00 3.35 9 83.00 2.24 0.70
Maxillary length 5 48.60 2.88 8 49.50 2.33 0.62
Maxillary breadth 5 58.60 4.16 7 59.43 1.90 0.47
Cranial capacity 6 1191.67 69.12 10 1146.00 77.78 1.18
Circumference 6 493.00 8.27 10 485.90 13.92 1.13
Sagittal arc 6 360.83 7.52 10 352.40 11.10 1.64
Transverse arc 6 288.33 6.24 10 291.20 7.51 0.78
Cranial index 6 74.25 3.03 10 77.98 3.62 2.11'
Length-height index 6 71.97 3.44 10 73.82 3.87 0.96
Breadth-height index 6 97.00 4.95 10 94.66 3.19 1.16
Mean height index 6 82.60 3.73 10 82.91 3.26 0.17
Upper facial index 5 50.42 2.53 8 51.74 2.44 0.94
Orbital index (D) 6 89.42 4.26 10 90.38 5.48 0.37
Nasal index 6 51.41 4.39 10 49.27 4.10 0.98
Maxillo-alveolar 5 120.72 8.00 6 119.91 6.10 0.19
Gnathic index 6 98.03 2.24 9 98.32 2.51 0.23
Cranial module 6 143.72 2.14 10 141.90 2.40 1.52
'Signiticant at 10% level

noting that over a time period perhaps no
longer than the one separating the Maqui-
Maquis and Rumi-Lanchi samples, New-
man ('61) found a mean increase in cran-
ial index significant at the < 1% level in
skulls from one Alabama site.
In exploring the broader relationships
of the Cajamarca samples, four other Peru-
vian samples profitably serve for compari-
son. These are the San Damian, Paucar-
cancha, and Miscellaneous Chicama
series used in Newman's ('43) synthesis,
and Pezo Benavente's ('46) series from
the Inca ruins of Kinsarumiyoc, near
Calca. The criteria used in selecting these
series were absence of cranial defonna-
tion, some degree of archeological docu-
mentation, and reasonable comparability
of measuring techniques. The techniques
used in measuring the San Damian sam-
ple have been published in detail (New-
man, '47, pp. 39-40), and show only minor
differences with those used in the present
study. By remeasuring 60 skulls, New-
man ('43, pp. 44-45) was able to adjust
Stewart's ('43) means to his own. Mac-
Curdy's ('23) measurements on the Pau-
carcancha sample, however, were based
upon the International Conventions of
Monaco and Geneva, and Pezo Benavente's
('46, p. 185) Calca sample was measured
according to the method prescribed by
HrdliEka ('39). Thus both MacCurdy and
Pezo Benavente probably measured gla-
bello-occipital length to the most posterior
point regardless of the midline. Pezo
Benavente also differed in using the land-
mark endobasion, may have measured or-
 TABLE 5
Measurements and indices of Peruvian series compared: male

Measurement Maqui-Maquis Rumi-Lanchi San Damian Paucarcancha Calca Misc. Chicama

-
Head length ( 8 ) 182.38 ( 6 ) 177.67 (65) 177.57 (67) 179.42 (29) 175.10 (65) 176.05
Head breadth ( 8 ) 135.38 ( 6 ) 137.00 (67) 139.72 (66) 135.45 (29) 135.35 (65) 139.65
Head height ( 8 ) 131.00 (6) 134.17 (66) 132.20 (67) 137.07 (29) 134.94 (63) 135.31
Minimum frontal br. (8) 94.13 (6) 92.50 (67) 90.75 (62) 92.31 (29) 90.48 (66) 92.08
Total facial br. ( 5 ) 137.80 ( 3 ) 131.33 (49) 135.69 (91) 133.93 (18) 135.00 (55) 135.29
Upper facial ht. (6) 68.17 (5) 66.20 (46) 71.98 (100) 67.81 (29) 66.79 (57) 67.41
Nasal height (8) 48.75 (5) 46.80 (66) 50.29 (112) 48.99 (27) 51.96 (65) 48.74
Nasal breadth (8) 24.13 (5) 23.20 (58) 24.02 (112) 24.25 (27) 24.75 (63) 24.58
Orbital height (8) 34.50 (6) 34.17 (61) 34.20 (107) 34.92 (27) 34.86 (58) 33.57 E
Orbital breadth (8) 39.63 (6) 39.17 (63) 38.17 (108) 36.83 (27) 38.51 (59) 39.08 2
Nasion-basion (8) 98.00 (6) 95.33 (66) 94.79 (117) 98.56 (29) 97.55 (63) 98.49 r
Basion-prosthion (6) 96.67 (5) 95.40 (53) 91.98 (104) 96.13 (29) 94.48 (57) 97.06
Ext. maxillary 1. (6) 53.67 (5) 52.60 (42) 52.57 (92) 52.35 (54) 53.35 E
0
Ext. maxillary br. (8) 63.00 (5) 59.60 (34) 63.44 (78) 63.98 (46) 63.95
Cranial capacity ( 4 ) 1357.50 ( 6 ) 1291.67 (64) 1388.20 (17) 1285.00
E
M
Circumference (8) 512.50 (6) 508.83 (66) 497.48 (29) 498.02
Sagittal arc ( 8 ) 370.62 (6) 368.83 (68) 365.72 (27) 367.66 :
z4
Transverse arc (8) 301.50 ( 6 ) 311.17 (29) 312.12 v)

Index
2!
~

Cranial index 74.26 77.20 (65) 78.87 75.50 (29) 77.70 80.16
Length-height 71.84 75.54 (65) 74.56 76.51 (29) 77.49 77.39
Breadth-height 96.82 97.91 (66) 94.68 101.21 (29) 99.90 97.13
Mean height 81.65 85.26 (63) 83.20 87.16l (29) 87.32 86.35
Upper facial 49.90 50.04 (43) 53.07 50.74 (18) 50.11 49.83
Orbital 87.11 87.27 (60) 89.43 95.07 (27) 90.86 86.00
Nasal 49.51 49.81 (60) 47.90 49.63 (27) 48.62 50.55
Maxillo-alveolar 117.75 113.32 (30) 120.97 122.17 120.17
Cranial module 149.58 149.61 (65) 149.91 150.30 (29) 148.81 149.51
1 From Stewart and Newman, '50, p. 33.
 TABLE 6
Measurements and indices of Peruvian series compared: female

Measurement 1Maqui-Maquis Rumi-Lanchi San Damian Paucarcancha Calca Misc. Chicama

Head length ( 6 ) 175.17 (10) 169.20 (60) 169.63 (36) 169.50 (23) 167.73 (58) 167.35
Head breadth ( 6 ) 130.00 (10) 131.80 (60) 134.80 (36) 130.42 (23) 130.60 (58) 136.24
Head height ( 6 ) 126.00 (10) 124.70 (57) 124.58 (36) 128.56 (23) 128.34 (56) 129.29
Minimum frontal br. (6) 88.67 (10) 87.70 (61) 87.03 (42) 87.33 (23) 88.70 (58) 88.82
Total facial br. ( 5 ) 124.60 (8) 123.50 (53) 124.94 (58) 123.03 (18) 125.62 (50) 126.83
Upper facial ht. (6) 62.17 (9) 63.44 (44) 65.20 (55) 64.11 (22) 61.77 (50) 65.18
Nasal height (6) 44.83 (10) 45.80 (56) 46.50 (74) 45.72 (23) 48.79 (54) 47.01
Nasal breadth (6) 23.00 (10) 22.50 (56) 23.09 (72) 23.46 (23) 24.21 (53) 23.73
Orbital height (6) 33.33 (10) 33.10 (57) 33.05 (77) 34.19 (22) 34.00 (51) 33.79
Orbital breadth (6) 37.33 (10) 36.70 (58) 36.50 (77) 35.09 (22) 36.46 (52) 38.64
Nasion-basion (6) 92.33 (10) 91.70 (57) 89.62 (77) 93.52 (23) 92.57 (56) 94.13
Basion-prosthion (6) 90.50 (9) 89.56 (EO) 88.48 (66) 92.29 (23) 89.70 (49) 94.08
Ext. maxillary 1. (5) 48.60 (8) 49.50 (44) 49.73 (61) 50.15 (47) 51.53
Ext. maxillary br. (5) 58.60 (7) 59.43 (35) 60.40 (54) 59.83 (39) 59.99
Cranial capacity ( 6 ) 1191.67 (10) 1146.00 (39) 1216.54 (18) 1196.00
Circumference (6) 493.00 (10) 485.90 (35) 475.57 (23) 480.00
Sagittal arc ( 6 ) 360.83 (10) 352.40 (40) 352.00 (21) 351.30
Transverse arc ( 6 ) 288.33 (10) 291.20 (23) 299.00

Index

Cranial index 74.25 (10) 77.98 (60) 79.45 (36) 76.78 (23) 78.36 (58) 81.46
Length-height 71.97 (10) 73.82 (57) 73.53 (36) 75.94 (23) 77.24 (56) 77.13
Breadth-height 97.00 (10) 94.66 (57) 92.60 (36) 98.97 (23) 98.41 (56) 94.75
Mean height 82.60 (10) 82.91 (57) 81.96 (36) 85.89l (23) 85.51 (56) 85.46
Upper facial 50.42 (8) 51.74 (39) 52.44 (52) 51.15 (18) 49.35 (42) 50.66
Orbital index 89.42 (10) 90.38 (58) 90.62 (75) 97.53 (22) 93.92 (53) 87.68
Nasal index 51.41 (10) 49.27 (55) 50.09 (71) 51.55 (23) 50.13 (53) 50.44
Maxillo-alveolar 120.72 (6) 119.91 (34) 121.29 (53) 119.38 (38) 116.89
Cranial module 143.72 (10) 141.90 (57) 142.91 (36) 142.73 (23) 142.48 (56) 144.19
1 From Stewart and Newman, '50, p. 33.
 TABLE 7
S u m m a r y of significant differences obtained in comparison of Peruvian crania'
-
MM-RL MM-SD RGSD MM-P RL-P MM-C MM-MC RGMC
~
Measurement .~R G C _ __
or index M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F
~-
Head length mm MM MM mm MM MM MM MM MM
Head breadth SD SD SD MC MC MC
Head height P P C C MC mc MC
Minimum frontal MM MM
Total facial br. MC
Upper facial h t . SD SD SD sd mc
Nasal height SD sd SD c c c c mc
Nasal breadth P c c mc MC
Orbital height P C

Orbital breadth mm MM mm RL RL MC
Nasion-basion MM mm rl P mc MC
Basion-prosthion MM rl P MC MC
- - MC MC
Ext. maxillary 1.
Ext. maxillary br. mm SD P - - MC

Cranial index RL rl SD SD P c c MC MC MC MC
Length-height RL SD P P P c c C MC MC MC
Breadth-height MM rl P P P C C
Mean height P P P c c C MC MC MC
Upper facial sd sd rl
Orbital index P P P P c c c c
Nasal index
Maxillo-alveolar SD P P - - MC
Cranial module mm MC
Total differences 3 2 11 9 6 3 8 6 6 9 9 6 3 9 6 10 5 12
Both sexes dif. 1 7 1 5 3 6 3 6 3
Percentage both
sexes different 4.3 30.4 4.3 21.7 13.0 30.0 15.0 26.1 13.0
1 Upper case: 5% level; lower case: 10% level.
 P R E - C O L U M B I A N CRANIA FROM P E R U
bital height non-perpendicularly to the
breadth, and perhaps did not measure the
transverse arc through bregma. For these
reasons, the Cajamarca samples should
show fewer sheerly technical differences
with the San Damian and Miscellaneous
Chicama samples than with those from
Paucarcancha and Calca.
In terms of their location, the Paucar-
cancha and Calca samples are from the
South Sierra, over 700 air miles south of
Cajamarca. The San Damian sample is
from the area of the Sierra just southeast
of Lima, less than 500 air miles from
Cajamarca. The Miscellaneous Chicama
sample, on the other hand, is from the
coastal valley immediately south of the
Pacasmayo valley whose upper reaches are
near San Pablo. Accordingly the Miscel-
laneous Chicama sample represents the
closest approach to the sort of Coastal
people penetrating the Sierra around
Cajamarca.
Whereas the Miscellaneous Chicama
sample probably includes skulls referrable
to Regional Developmental to Expansion-
ist times, the Calca, San Damian, and less
certainly the Paucarcancha samples are
“late” and therefore Expansionist.
Tables 5 and 6 list the mean measure-
ments and indices of Maqui-Maquis, Rumi-
Lanchi, and the four samples used here
for comparison. Table 7 summarizes the
mean differences between these samples,
that are significant at the 5 and 10%
levels. A percentile ranking of the signifi-
cant differences consistent for both sexes
provides the basis for two principal ob-
servations :
Rumi-Lanchi - Maqui-Maquis 4.3
Rumi-Lanchi - San Damian 4.3
Rumi-Lanchi - Paucarcancha 13.0
Rumi-Lanchi - Chicama 13.0
Rumi-Lanchi - Calca 15.0
Maqui-Maquis - Paucarcancha 21.7
Maqui-Maquis - Chicama 26.1
Maqui-Maquis - Calca 30.0
Maqui-Maquis - San Damian 30.4
First and most important, the earlier
Maqui-Maquis sample shows a higher level
of differences vis-a-vis the four compara-
tive series than does the Rumi-Lanchi
sample. Since most of the skulls in the
four comparative samples are probably late
and referable therefore to the Expansionist
horizon, these metric differences are prin-
217
cipally a reflection of time. The specula-
tions that can be derived from this observa-
tion are discussed below. Secondly, the
only really close metric relationships be-
tween samples are between Maqui-Maquis
and Rumi-Lanchi, and Rumi-Lanchi and
San Damian. In both comparisons there
is only one significant difference con-
sistent i n both sexes, so the level of metric
relationship is the same. All other pairs
of comparisons show higher percentages
of significant differences.
DISCUSSION
HrdliEka (’11, ’14), who pioneered Peru-
vian skeletal studies, distinguished the
Coastal brachycephals from the more
long-headed crania of the Sierra, and
noted the occasional presence of the lat-
ter i n Coastal cemeteries. Newman (’43,
p. 39; ’48, p. 18) found that additional
data called for the establishing of two
racial varieties in the Sierra: (1) The
Central Intermontane, represented by the
Paucarcancha sample and typified as
“. . . dolicho - low mesocephalic , . ., high-
vaulted, medium-short faces, medium-
broad nasal apertures, very high orbits.
Most characteristic is a n oval vault con-
tour, a low pinched occiput, flat temporals,
low frontal, and rather low nasal root.”
( 2 ) The Western Sierra, represented by
the San Damian sample, and typically
“. . . mesocephalic . . ., medium-vaulted,
medium face, medium nasal aperture,
barely high orbits. Most characteristic is
the low pinched occiput, without the ovoid
vault contour, flat temporals, and scapho-
cephaly of the Paucarcancha group.”
Speaking of the Coastal populations alone,
Newman (’47, p. 31) suggests “. . . that
in the earlier periods, the differences be-
tween cranial series are greater, but they
become largely leveled in the Late Period
due to increased intermingling of people
from different valleys.” He did not, how-
ever, have the advantage of appraising two
cranial samples of different time periods
from the same locality, so he could not be
sure whether the differences were reflec-
tions principally of space or of time.
With the introduction of the Cajamarca
samples, changes over time within an ap-
parent population continuity are closer to
being demonstrated. The principal altera-
218 M A R Y F R A N C E S ERICKSEN
tion is toward brachycephaly, but with the
close correspondence in other metric and
morphological features as well as the
archeological evidence and the geographic
proximity, it is reasonable to assume a
population continuity. The brachycephali-
zation can be attributed either to in-
creased gene flow from the Coast in late
time or to a n in situ microevolutionary
trend if it had time to operate.
In fitting the Cajamarca samples into
Newman's ('43) Central Intermontane
and Western Sierra varieties, it is clear
from table 7 that there are appreciable
differences. Although the Cajamarca sam-
ples are small, the requirement of differ-
ences consistent to both sexes greatly re-
duces the chance of sampling errors. If,
then, the Calca sample is added to New-
man's Central Intermontane variety and
the Cajamarca samples are considered,
they tend to blur any real sharpness of
distinction between Newman's two Sierra
varieties. Although the Calca and Paucar-
cancha samples share the distinctive Cen-
tral Intermontane features such as high
vaults, high orbits, and broader faces,
Calca shows greater resemblances in other
traits to the Western Sierra variety repre-
sented by San Damian. If the suggestion
that the Paucarcancha sample is pre-Inca
(Newman, '43, p. 23) were more secure,
the differences with Calca which are the
points of resemblance with San Damian
could be attributed to time. A comparable
change through time is seen i n the Caja-
marca samples, where Maqui-Maquis is
clearly set off from the other Sierra vari-
eties but Rumi-Lanchi shows much less
differentiation from both Coast and Sierra
samples.
The Maqui-Maquis sample, then, may be
reasonably representative of the North
Sierra populations before the time of ex-
tensive communication between regional
groups. If so, in terms of their central
tendencies, these populations were dolicho-
cranic with low pinched occiputs, flattened
lambdoid and temporal regions, ellipsoid
vaults of only medium height with strong
sagittal elevation, medium-broad faces and
nasal apertures, and medium to medium-
high orbits. Characteristically they would
have concavo-convex nasal profiles with
little or no depression of the nasal root,
foreheads of medium height, and only
slight facial prognathism.
In the same way the Paucarcancha sam-
ple may represent the South Sierra popu-
lations before extensive shiftings of people.
If this is the case, then the earlier popula-
tions of both North and South Sierra were
strongly dolichocranic, but while medium
skull vaults and medium orbital heights
characterized those in the north, high
vaults and orbits were more typical in the
south. The origin of dolichocrany in the
Andes is quite obscure. Newman ('43,
p. 40; '48, p. 18) has suggested that both
longheadedness and low cranial vaults
may have had a n Amazonian origin, al-
though there is little real evidence one way
or the other. At least the low vaults in the
San Damian sample that impressed New-
man as so unusual for the Sierra are ac-
tually more wide-spread, e.g., at Maqui-
Maquis.
The final part of this hypothesis is based
upon the percentile rankings on p. 11,
where of the two Cajamarca samples the
later one from Rumi-Lanchi shows closer
metric correspondence to those from else-
where on the Coast and in the Sierra. This
strongly suggests that the Late or Expan-
sionist Period leveling of regional differ-
ences applied by Newman ('47, p. 31) to
the Central Coast also took place in the
North Sierra. If so, the Rumi-Lanchi and
Calca samples may represent the rather
more cosmopolitan and less regionally dif-
ferentiated Sierra populations arising from
the more extended movements and con-
tacts of later times.
If the principal factor involved in this
leveling process were Coastal admixture,
it could account for the shortening of the
Rumi-Lanchi skull into mesocrany, and
the greater relative vault height of the
males in that sample. However, such a n
explanation calls for two assumptions:
that the Coastal peoples were frankly
brachycephalic in their undeformed state,
and that large numbers of them interbred
with the Sierra peoples. Strong brachy-
cephaly as a consistent trait of the Coast
cannot be demonstrated (Newman, '61),
and it is problematic whether Coast-Sierra
interbreeding was of sufficient volume to
raise the mean cephalic index three to
 PRE-COLUMBIAN CRANIA FROM P E R U
four index units in the Sierra. Possibly
the interpretation of brachycephalization
a s a n evolutionary process, used by Wei-
denreich ('45) in the Old World and New-
m a n ('61) in the Americas, is a more
satisfactory one for explaining the major
part of these changes through time in the
Peruvian cranial sequences.
The leveling process i n late times need
not have wiped out all local differences.
For example, Newman ('43, p. 34) noted
that " . . . the Miscellaneous Chicama
series have a heavy scattering of relatively
narrow palates . . ." The lack of precise
documentation for the Chicama sample
precludes pin-pointing these narrow pal-
ates by time and by site. A tendency
toward narrowing of the palate, however,
is apparent in the Rumi-Lanchi males.
More North Coast samples would be re-
quired to demonstrate that this is a re-
gional trend in Expansionist times, but it
remains a distinct possibility.
Finally, the close metric correspondence
of the Rumi-Lanchi to the San Damian
sample is difficult to explain. One possi-
bility is a sort of morphological conver-
gence due to Coastal admixture in both
the Cajamarca and Huarochiri areas, al-
though Newman ('43, p. 35) did not think
that the San Damian variety was the re-
sult of Coastal admixture with people like
those at Paucarcancha. The basis for his
view was the low variability of the San
Damian sample and its possession of sev-
eral traits distinct from the Coast skulls.
Yet Hrdlitka ('14, pp. 12 - 1 3 ) noted
the presence of distinctly different long-
vaulted and a minority of more round-
vaulted skulls, usually from the same
cemeteries, in the Province of Huarochiri.
Moreover, Trevor's ('53) recent analysis
of race mixture studies renders it doubtful
that low variability per se is a reliable
indication for lack of admixture. Be that
as it may, the retention of Sierra traits
such as low pinched occiputs in the San
Damian sample is paralleled at Rumi-
Lanchi. Moreover the Rumi-Lanchi skulls
can easily be separated by visual inspec-
tion from the usual series of Coastal
crania. In any case, proper explanation
of the Western Sierra variety seen in the
San Damian sample can only come from
21 9
the study of pre-Expansionist skeletal re-
mains from that part of the Central Sierra.
CONCLUSIONS
Crania from the North Sierra of Peru
recovered from sites of known archeolog-
ical provenience are quite rare. Moreover
the accumulation of more of these in the
future is quite uncertain. Speculations
may not be amiss, therefore, on the sig-
nificance of the two small samples total-
ling 30 skulls that form the basis of the
present paper.
The earlier sample with Regional-Devel-
opmental (Cajamarca 1-11) ceramic asso-
ciations and the large series from Paucar-
cancha in the South Sierra may well
represent regional variants of the basic
dolichocranic Sierra populations before the
time of intensified contact between Peru-
vian cultures and peoples. The principal
differences between these two variants
seem to lie in their vault and orbital
heights, which are medium in the North
and high i n the South. Comparison of the
Regional - Developmental cranial sample
with an Expansionist horizon sample with
associated pottery of Cajamarca IV or
later, suggests a population continuity,
with increasing brachcrany the only sig-
nificant difference in both sexes. Possibly
the same phenomenon of continuity with
brachycephalization is represented in the
Paucarcancha and Calca cranial samples
from the South Sierra.
The regional variations and the changes
through time apparent in these Sierra sam-
ples tend to blur the distinctive features
of the Central Intermontane and Western
Sierra racial varieties perceived by New-
m a n ('43, '48). Yet the later Cajamarca
sample shows closer metric correspon-
dences, consistent for both sexes, to the
other Expansionist samples from the Sierra
and adjacent coast. This apparent level-
ing of metric differences in later times is
precisely what Newman ('47) suggested
for the Central Coast. Whether due to
increased gene flow along the Coast and
between Coast and Sierra, or to some other
evolutionary factor, this leveling of pheno-
typic differences in immediately pre-Con-
quest Peru is a biological and demographic
phenomenon of considerable significance.
220 M A R Y F R A N C E S ERICKSEN
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Grateful acknowledgment is due the per-
sonnel of the Museo Nacional de Antro-
pologia y Antropologia in Lima, especially
its former Director, Rebeca Carri6n
Cachot, Julio Espejo N., and Pedro Weiss.
To Pablo Carrera M., of the Museum staff,
I am indebted for descriptions of the San
Pablo sites. Richard W. Lewis of the U.S.
Geological Survey and Hans Spann, then
of the Instituto Geol6gico del Peru, gave
generously of their time and patience in
photographing the crania. Statistical meth-
ods used were suggested by the Statistical
Consulting Bureau of Columbia University,
whose help was greatly appreciated. My
greatest debt is to Marshall T. Newman
of the Smithsonian Institution, whose ad-
vice and revision of the manuscript were
invaluable.
LITERATURE CITED
HrdliEka, Ales 1911 Some results of recent an-
thropological exploration in Peru. Smithsonian
Misc. Coll., 56: no. 16, publ. 2005.
1914 Anthropological work in Peru i n
1913, with notes on the pathology of the an-
cient Peruvians. Ibid., 61: no. 18, publ. 2246.
1939 Practical Anthropometry. Wistar
Inst., Phila.
MacCurdy, G . G . 1923 Human skeletal remains
from the highlands of Peru. Am. J. Phys.
Anthrop., 6: no. 3.
Mejia Xesspe, M. T. 1948 Apuntes biograficos
sobre el Dr. Julio C. Tello. Rev. Mus. Nac.,
Lima, 2: no. 1.
Newman, M. T. 1943 A metric study of unde-
formed crania from Peru. Am. J. Phys. An-
throp., N.S., 1: no. 1.
1947 Indian skeletal material from the
central coast of Peru. Papers Peabody Mus.
Amer. Archeol. and Ethnol., Harvard Univ.,
27: no. 1.
1948 A summary of the racial history
of the Peruvian area. In A reappraisal of Peru-
vian archeology, ed. W. C. Bennett, pp. 16-19,
Mem. SOC.Amer. Archeol., 13: no. 4, part 2.
1961 Evolutionary changes in body size
and head form in American Indians (in press).
Pezo Benavente, Juvenal 1946 Notas para la
antropologia del Cuzco. Rev. SOC.Arqueologica
Univ. Nac. Cuzco, no. 3.
Reichlen, Henri and Paule 1949 Recherches
archeologiques dans les Andes de Cajamarca.
Journ. SOC.Americanistes, N.S., 38: Paris.
Stewart, T. D. 1943 Skeletal remains with cul-
tural associations from Chicama, Moche, and
Viru Valleys, Peru. Proc. U. S . Nat. Mus.,
93: no. 3160.
Stewart, T. D., and M. T. Newman 1950 An-
thropometry of South American Indian skeletal
remains. I n Handbook of South American In-
dians, ed. J. H. Steward, Bur. Am. Ethnology
Bull., 143, 6: pp. 19-42.
Trevor, J. C. 1953 Race crossing in man. The
-
analvsis of metrical characters. Eugenics Lab.
Mem. no. 36.
Walker, H. M., and Joseph Lev 1953 Statis-
tical inference. Henry Holt and Co., New York.
Weidenreich, F. 1945 The brachycephalization
of recent mankind. Southwest J. Anthrop., 1 :
no. 1, pp. 45-98.
PRE-COLUMBIAN CRANIA FROM PERU PLATE 1
Mary Frances Ericksen

a b

C d

a - b. Anterior a n d left lateral views of male cranium from Maqui-Maquis.

c - d. Anterior and left lateral views of female calavarium from Maqui-Maquis.

221
PRE-COLUMBIAN CRANIA FROM PERU PLATE 2
Mary Frances Ericksen

a b

C d
a - b. Anterior and left lateral views of male cranium from Rumi-Lanchi. Note shortening
in anterior view, due to faulty positioning of mandible.
c - d. Anterior and left IateraI views of female calavarium from Rumi-Lanchi.

222